an

m

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST

SECOND

THIRD

FOURTH

FIFTH

SIXTH

SEVENTH

EIGHTH

NINTH

TENTH

ELEVENTH

edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771-

ten 1777—1784.

eighteen 1788—1797.

twenty 1801 — 1810.

twenty 1815—1817.

twenty 1823 — 1824.

twenty-one 1830 — 1842.

twenty-two 1853 — 1860.

twenty-five 1875—1889.
ninth edition and eleven

supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.

published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911*

COPYRIGHT

in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention

by
THE CHANCELLOR. MASTERS AND SCHOLARS

of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

All rtfhts reserved

THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XIII

HARMONY to HURSTMONCEAUX

Cambridge, England:

at the University Press

New York, 35 West 32nd Street
IQIO

•E3

Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,

by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL

CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. E. G.* REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D. [

Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and J Harocu i • ,\

the Board of Philosophy, London University. Author of Studies in the Inner Life ] resy <* rart>-
of Jesus, &c.

A. D. HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. J Hogarth.

See the biographical article, DOBSON, H. A. I

A. E. T. W. ALFRED EDWARD THOMAS WATSON. f w ., , .

Editor of the Badminton Library and Badminton Magazine. Formerly Editor J „ R K&cmS (tn part);
of the Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News. Author of The Racing World and ] Hunting.
its Inhabitants; &c.

A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. J Hugo victor

See the biographical article, SWINBURNE, A. C. I

A. Cy. ARTHUR ERNEST COWLEY, M.A., LITT.D. f Hebrew Language;

Sub-Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College. \ Hebrew Literature.

A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. r Heath, Nicholas;

Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls I Henry VIII. of England*
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- H rfnnn p- "u
1901. Lothian Prizeman (Oxford), 1892, Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England no°Pel> B'snop;
under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. I Humphrey, Lawrence.

A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. / Hofmann, Melchior;

Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. I Hotman.

A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D. , LITT.D., LL.D. Humboldt Karl W Von

See the biographical article, SAYCE, A. H. \

A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. f ~ _

General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Hormuz (tn part).

A. J. H. ALFRED J. HIPKINS, F.S.A. (1826-1903). ,

Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of the Royal College of Music,
London. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, 1885; oM Harp (in part).
the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of Musical I
Instruments ; &c.

A. L. ANDREW LANG. f Hauntings.

See the biographical article, LANG, ANDREW. I

A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE.

See the biographical article, CLERKE, A. M.

A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.

See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED.

Herschel, Sir F. W. (in part) ;
Herschel, Sir J. F. W.

(in part).

Hevelius; Hipparchus;
Horroeks; Huggins;
Humboldt.

Harpy; Harrier; Hawfinch;
Hawk; Heron; Hoactzin;
Honeyeater; Honey Guide;

Hoopoe; Hornbill;
. Humming-Bird.
A. SI. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P. r

Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of Industrial Efficiency; J Housing.
The London Water Supply; Drink, Temperance and Legislation.

A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Henry IV.: Roman Emperor;

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. •< Hide; Hohenzollern;

[Honorius II.; Anti-Pope.

A. W. W. ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D. f _

See the biographical article, WARD, A. W. \ Hrosvitna.

C. A. M. F. CHARLES AUGUSTUS MAUDE FENNELL, M.A., LITT.D. ["

Formerly Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge. Editor of Pindar's Odes and Frag- -I Hercules.
mints ; and of the Stanford Dictionary of A nglicised Words and Phrases.

1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume.

V

VI

C. B.«
C. El.

C. F. A.
C. H. Ha.
C. J. L.

C. L. K.

C. Mo.
C. P.

C. Pf.

C. R. B.

C. S.

C. W. W.

D. B. M.
D. F. T.

D. Gi.

D. G. H.

D. H.

D. Mn.

D. S.*

E. C. B.
E. D. B.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

CHARLES BEMONT, Lirr.D. (Oxon.). jHavet;

See the biographical article, BEMONT, C. I Hozier.

SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B, M.A., LL.D., D^C.L. (

Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Hissar (in part),

Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East -4 Hungary: Language;

Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; and Consul-General Huns.

for German East Africa, 1900-1904.

CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London
(Royal Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.

Hohenlohe (in part).

Member 1 Honorius II., III., IV.

CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.

Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City,
of the American Historical Association.

SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.).

Secretary Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of King s College, J _

London. Secretary to Government of India, Home Department, 1889-1894. 1 Hmdostam
Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of Translations
of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c.

CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., F.S.A.

Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V.
Editor of Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London.

WILLIAM COSMO MONKHOUSE.

See the biographical article, MONKHOUSE, W. C.

Henry IV., V., VI.:

REV. CHARLES PRITCHARD, M.A.

See the biographical article, PRITCHARD, CHARLES.

| Hunt, W. Holman.

f Hersehel, Sir F. W.

(in part);

I Hersehel, Sir J. F. W.
L (in part).

CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES-L.

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.
of Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux.

CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lnr.

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography.
Author of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.

CARL SCHTJRZ, LL.D.

See the biographical article, SCHURZ, CARL.

SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907).

Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary
Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com-
mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General
of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of
Lord Clive; &c.

DAVID BINNING MONRO, M.A., Lrrr.D.

See the biographical article, MONRO, DAVID BINNING.

Author j Hunald.

Hayton; Henry
the Navigator.

| Hayes,

Rutherford B.

Hierapolis (in part).

Homer

DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.

Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The -I Harmony.
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. (_

SIR

DAVID GILL, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., D.Sc.

H.M. Astronomer at Cape of Good Hope, 1879-1907. Served in Geodetic Survey

of Egypt, and on the expedition to Ascension Island to determine the Solar J Heliometer.

Parallax by observations of Mars. Directed Geodetic Survey of Natal, Cape Colony i

and Rhodesia. Author of Geodetic Survey of South Africa; Catalogues of Stars for

the Equinoxes (1850, 1860, 1885, 1890, 1900); &c.

DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.

Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and
1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens,
1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

DAVID HANNAY.

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.
Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c.

Author of Short History of the Royal

REV. PUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.

Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of Constructive
Congregational Ideals; &c.

DAVID SHARP, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.Z.S.

Editor of the Zoological Record. Formerly Curator of Museum of Zoology, Univer-
sity of Cambridge. President of Entomological Society of London. Author of
" Insecta " (Cambridge Natural History); &c.

RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.Lrrr.

Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius "
in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi.

EDWIN DAMPIER BRICKWOOD.
Author of Boat-Racing ; &c.

• Heraclea (in part);
Hierapolis (in part);
Hittites; Horus.

f Heyn; Hood, Viscount;
"I Howe, Earl; Humour.

f Henderson, Alexander
(_ (in part).

f
Hexapoda (in part).

f Hieronymites;
| Hilarion, Saint.

f Horse: History;
\Horse-Racing (in part).

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vii

E. D. Bu. EDWARD DUNDAS BUTLER.

Formerly Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Foreign J * ungary: Literature
Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Author of Hungarian Poems and (in part).
Fables for English Readers ; &c.

E. E. S. ERNEST EDWARD SIKES, M.A. f

Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer, St John's College, Cambridge. Newton Student at J Hephaestus;
Athens, 1890. Editor of the Prometheus Vinctus of Aeschylus, and of The Homeric 1 Hera; Hermes.
Hymns.

E. F. S. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. C

Assistant-Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of J Hiroshige;

Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint-editor 1 Hokusai
of Bell's " Cathedral Series. I

E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. J Heroic Romances;

See the biographical article, GOSSE, EDMUND, W. Heroic Verse;

I Herrick; Holberg.

Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.Lirr. (Oxon.), LL.D. f

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte S Hormizd.
des Alterthums ; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens ; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme. {,

E. M. W. REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A. J Herodotus (;*, *»ri\

Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. I

E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, I Heart: Sttreerv
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner H wprnja
in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of
A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. [

E. Pr. EDGAR PRESTAGE. f

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature at the University of Manchester. Com- I Herculano de Carvalho e
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon | Araiyo.
Royal Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society. I

E. Re.* EMIL REICH, Doc. JURIS., F.R.HisT.S. /Huiwarv- m*rni,,r, (;*, *n,t

Author of Hungarian Literature ; History of Civilization ; &c. \ * 'Dgary ' Llterature (™ P«

E. R. B. EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. f

New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus; Jerusalem under the High 1 Hellenism.
Priests. I

F. B. FELICE BARNABEI, LITT.D.

Formerly Director of Museum of Antiquities at Rome. Author of archaeological
papers in Italian reviews and in the Athenaeum.

F. C. C. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. (Giessen). f

Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. \ Holy Water.
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magi? and Morals; &c. {

F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f Heruli.

Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. \

F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. f

Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer oirj Heart- A t
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. 1
Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. L

F. G. S. F. G. STEPHENS. f

Formerly art critic of the Athenaeum. Author of Artists at Home; George Cruik- I jjoj] Frank.

shank; Memorials of W. Mulready; French and Flemish Pictures; Sir E. Landseer;\
T. C. Hook, R.A.;&c.

F. H. B. FRANCIS HENRY BUTLER, M.A. f Honey; Hunter, John;

Worcester College, Oxford. Associate of the Royal School of Mines. \ Hunter, William.

F. LL G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. r Heliopolis;

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey! iorrnec TVi«mo<ri<:tii<:'
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial 1 flerl
German Archaeological Institute. I Horus.

F. 0. B. FREDERICK ORPEN BOWER, D.Sc., F.R.S. r

Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow. Author of Practical J Hofmeister.
Botany for Beginners.

F. Px. FRANK PUAUX. r

President of the Societe de 1'Histoire du Protestantisme francais. Author of J _ ,

Les Precurseurs francais de la tolerance ; Histoire de I' etablissement des protestants l HUguenoiS.
fran$ais en Suede; L'Eglise reformee de France; &c.

G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E. PH.D., D.Lrrr.

Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873—1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey

of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of -| Hindustani.

the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of

The Languages of India ; &c.

G. C. R. GEORGE GROOM ROBERTSON M.A. J Hobbes Thomas (in part).

See the biographical article, ROBERTSON, G. C. \

G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. f Hilliard Lawrence*

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard J '. 'U-CIH_

Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of new edition 1 ira> w

of Bryan's Dictionary of Printers and Engravers. [ Humphry, Ozias.

viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

0. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f

Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast. Author of The\ Henryson.
Days of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots; &c.

G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f Holland: History.

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. J Holland: County and

Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Associa- 1

tion of Literature. Province of.

G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. f

Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. President of the! * rniptera;
Association of Economic Biologists. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Author] Hexapoda (in part).
of Insects: their Structure and Life; &c. '

G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER.

Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas for the Forests for the H Hundred.
Selden Society. L

G. K. GUSTAV KRUGER. f „=__„,„,,

Professor of Church History in the University of Giessen. Author of Das'] llPP0'ylus-
Papsitum; &c.

G. R. REV. GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A. f Herodotus (in part).

See the biographical article, RAWLINSON, GEORGE. I

G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. f Hasan-ul-Basn£

Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old 1 Hassan ibn Thablt;
Testament Histony at Mansfield College, Oxford. [ Hisham ibn al-Kalbi.

H. LORD HOUGHTON. /Hood, Thomas.

See the biographical article, HOUGHTON, IST BARON.

H. Br. HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D. J

Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the British Academy. ] Holland.

Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making of English; &c.
H. Bt. SIR HENRY BURDETT, K.C.B., K.C.V.O. f

Founder and Editor of The Hospital. Formerly Superintendent of the Queen's J Hospital.

Hospital, Birmingham, and the Seamen's Hospital, Greenwich. Author of 1

Hospitals and Asylums of the World; &c.

H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.

Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition^ Howe' Samuel Gndley.
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition.

H. De. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. f

Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta Bollandianai ena> 5t» * ert» st>
and A eta sanctorum.

H. L. HENRI LABROSSE. f Hugh of St Cher.

Assistant Librarian at the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. iOfficer of the Academy. L

H. L. C. HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D. J

Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, Condon. Formerly Professor of "l Heat.
Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. I

H. M. V. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A. [ Henry, Stuart (Cardinal

Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici Popes; 1 York)
The Las: Stuart Queen.

H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f Henry L» IL' IIL:

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, 1 °f England. _
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. [ Henry of Huntingdon.

H. W. R.* REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. I"

Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J Hosea (in part).

Oxford, IQOI. Author of Hebrew />-""'•-'•—- -'- D-I-I..'...- >„ «„.,;,•„„ ^ „<;..„>,„; — i

(in Mansfield College Essays) ; &c.
H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED.

Correspondent of The Times at Vienna. Correspondent of The Times at Rome, *j Humbert, King.

1897-1902.-

H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. f Hormuz (in part);

See the biographical article, YuLE/-SlR H. |_ Hsiian Tsang (in part).

1. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f Hasdai ibn Shaprut;

Reader in Talmudic "and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Herzl'

Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short \ ,,.L c-mcnn n

History of Jewish literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ; &c. I H rscn' aar

J. A. C. SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G. /Hnhhpma- Hnlhcin

See the biographical article, CROWE, SIR J. A. I H

J. A. R. VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, D.D. f

Dean of Westminster. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of Christ's

College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, and Norris- J. Hippolytus, The Canons Of.
ian 'Professor of Divinity in the University. Author of Some Thoughts on the
Incarnation; &c.

J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. f

Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's J Heating.

College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of 1
Junior Engineers.

Oxford, 15)01. ^Author^of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology^

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix

J. B. T. SIR JOHN BATTY TUKE, M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), D.Sc., LL.D. f

President of the Neurological Society of the United Kingdom. Medical Director J «,„„

of New SaughtoA Hall Asylum, Edinburgh. M.P. for the Universities of Edinburgh 1 M'PP°crates.

and St Andrews, 1900-1910. (_

J. Da. REV. JAMES DAVIES, M.A. (1820-1883). f

Formerly Head Master of Ludlow Grammar School and Prebendary of Hereford J D j /
Cathedral. Translated classical authors for Bohn's " Classical Library." Author 1 Hesloa U» part).
of volumes in Collins's Ancient Classics for English Readers.

J. E. H. JULIUS EGGELING, PH.D. f

Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, University of Edinburgh. *! Hinduism.
Formerly Secretary and Librarian to Royal Asiatic Society.

J. F. F. JOHN FAITHFULL FLEET, C.I.E. f

Commissioner of Central and Southern Divisions of Bombay, 1891-1897. Author •{ Hindu Chronology.

of Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings ; &c.

J. F. H. B. SIR JOHN FRANCIS HARPIN BROADBENT, BART., M.A., M.D. r

Physician to Out-Patients, St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Hampstead n t. „

General Hospital. Assistant Physician to the London Fever Hospital. Author) e8rl> Heart Disease.

of Heart Disease and Aneurysm; &c.

J. G.* REV. JAMES Gow, M.A., LITT.D. /-

Head Master of Westminster School. Fellow of King's College, London. Formerly I •»

Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of Horace's Odes and Satires. Author 1 Horace (w part).

of A Companion to the School Classics; &c.

J. Ga. JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B. r

See the biographical article, GAIRDNER, J. \ Henry VII.: of England.

J. G. M. JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. (Edin.) f „

Emeritus Professor of Physiology at the University of Glasgow. Author of Life -| f
in Motion ; Life of Helmholtz ; &c. \ Helmholtz.

J. G. R. JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A. , PH.D. [Heine (in part);

Professor of German at the University of London. Formerly Lecturer on the English -| Hildebrand Lay of-
Language, Strassburg University. Author of History of German Literature; &c. Hoffmann *E T W

J. Hn. JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. f Hecker, F. F. K.;

Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of- Hertzberg Count Von'
Das Rheinland unter der franzosischen Herrschaft. Hormavr

J. H. A. H. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. /-

Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. \ Herod; Herodians.

J. H. F. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. r

Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. -j Herald; Hesiod (in part).

J. H. Mu. JOHN HENRY MUIRHEAD, M.A., LL.D. /•

Professor of Philosophy in the University of Birmingham. Author of Elements \ HeSe!: Hegelianism in
of Ethics; Philosophy and Life; &c. Editor of Library of Philosophy. 1 England.

3. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). r

Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage andJ Here ward.
Pedigree.

3. J. F. REV. JAMES J. Fox. (

St Thomas's College, Brookland, D.C., U.S.A. \ Hecker, I. T.

J. K. L. SIR JOHN KNOX LAUGHTON, M.A., LITT.D. r

Professor of Modern History, King's College, London, Secretary of the Navy
Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in China, 1856-1850. Honorary Tr j
Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow, King's College, London. ] Hood of
Author of Physical Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing Winds and Currents;
Studies in Naval History; Sea Fights and Adventures; &c.

J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. r

Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London J Heraclitus;

College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. 1 Hume, David (in part).

3. P.-B. JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. r

Editor of the Guardian (London). •! Hepplewhite.

J. P. Pe. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. r

Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in

the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to J Hillah; Hit.

Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the \

Euphrates.

3. S. Co. JAMES SUTHERLAND COTTON, M.A.

Editor of The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Hon. Secretary of the Egyptian Explora-
tion Fund. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Queen's College, Oxford. Author 1 Hastings, Warren.
of India in the " Citizen " Series; &c.

J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S.

Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in J Homfels.

Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby '
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. L

J. T. Be. JOHN T. BEALBY.

Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical \ Hissar (in part).
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia, and Tibet; &c. \_

x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. f

Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow J Op™,-,,,,
of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in'the 1
University of Edinburgh and Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. I

J. T. Mo. JOHN TORREY MORSE, Jr. /

Author of The Life and Letters of Oliver Wendell Holmes. \ Uo™es, Oliver Wendell.

J. T. S.* JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. f

Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. \

J. V.* JULES VIARD. f

Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public Instruction. Author T Hundred Years' War.
of La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois ; &c. I

J. V. B. JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews). fHphrPW<: PnktiA tn «,».

Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic \ '.

Age; &c. L Hennas, Shepherd of.

J. Ws. JOHN WEATHERS, F.R.H.S. f „.„

Lecturer on Horticulture to the Middlesex Countv Council. Author of Practical\

Guide to Garden Plants; French Market Gardening; &c. I Horticulture U« part).

J. W.* JAMES WARD, D.Sc., LL.D. C

Professor^of Mental Philosophy and Logic in the University of Cambridge. Fellow J „

of Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of the 1 HerDart.

New York Academy of Sciences. I

J. W. F. J. WALTER FERRIER. r

Translated George Eliot and Judaism from the German of Kaufmann. Author of -\ Heine (in tart)
Mottiscliffe.

J. W. Fo. THE HON. JOHN WATSON FOSTER, A.M., LL.D. ("

Professor of American Diplomatics, George Washington University, Washington, -j Harrison, Benjamin.
U.S.A. Formerly U.S. Secretary of State. Author of Diplomatic Memoirs; &c. I

K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. f Harp ,(i* parJ} '

Editor of The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the \ mrP-Lute; Harpsichord;
Orchestra. Holtztrompete;

L Horn; Hurdy-Gurdy.

L. H. B. LIBERTY HYDE BAILEY, LL.D. f H0rtif nitiirc- A

Director of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University Chairman of Roosevelt 1
Commission on Country Life. I CofcWMf (in part).

L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. r „

Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of I Harmotome; Hemimorphlte;
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralo- 1 Heulandite; Hornblende;
gical Magazine. ^ Humite.

L. W. LDCIEN WOLF.

Vice-President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Formerly President ~] Hirsch, Baron,
of the Society. Joint-editor of the Bibliotheca Anglo-judaica. I

M. G. MOSES CASTER, Pn.D. (Leipzig).

Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine -\ Hasdeu
Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folk lore Society of England. Vice-President
Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature; &c. [

M. Ha. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S.

Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of " Protozoa " in Cam- •] Heliozoa.
bridge Natural History; and papers for various scientific journals.

M. H. C. MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, K.C., D.C.L.

President of the Eugenics Education Society. Honorary Fellow, St John's College,

Oxford. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Formerly Member of the General Council of 1 HerSChell 1st Baron,
the Bar and of the Council of Legal Education, and Standing Counsel to the Univer-
sity of Oxford.

M. N. T. MARCUS NIEHBUR TOD, M.A. f

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. -I Helots.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.

M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI. C

Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham \ Heraclius.
University, 1905-1908.

M. T. M. MAXWELL T. MASTERS, M.D., F.R.S. (1833-1907). r

Formerly Editor of Gardeners' Chronicle; and Lectureron Botany, St George's Hos- HnrtinnHnro (• t\

pital, London. Author of Plant Life; Botany for Beginners; and numerous mono- 1 {ln part>-

graphs in botanical works.

N. D. M. NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. f Henry, Patrick;

Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. J\ Homestead and Exemption

[ Laws.

0. Ba. OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f Heraldry;

Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the J Herbert: family;
Honourable Society of the Baronetage. Howard: family

0. Br. OSCAR BRILIANT. f Hungary: Geography

\ and Statistics.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi

0. C. W. REV. OWEN CHARLES WHITEHOUSE, M.A., D.D. [

Christ's College, Cambridge. Professor of Hebrew, Biblical Exegesis and Theology, i Hebrew Religion.
and Theological Tutor, Cheshunt College, Cambridge.

P. A. PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. [ Henry of Lausanne;

Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole pratique des hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, J U,IO.K „• c*

Paris. Author of Les Ue.es morales chez les heterodoxes Latines au debut du XIII" \

stick. I Humiliate.

P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LLD.

Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- Hpmiphnr-
paratiye Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. ™
Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. Author of Outlines of \ "^realty.
Biology; &c.

P. C. Y.

PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. -f Hollo*

Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England. \ 6S>

P. H. PETER HENDERSON (1823-1800). _..-_„. f Horticulture: American

Formerly Horticulturist, Jersey City and New York. Author of Gardening for~\ r , , /•
Profit; Garden and Farm Topics. I Caltndar. (tit part).

P. H. P.-S. PHILIP HENRY PYE-SMITH, M.D., F.R.S. f

Consulting Physician to Guy's Hospital, London. Formerly Vice-Chancellor of the -j Harvey, William.
University of London. Joint-author of A Text Book of Medicine; &c. I

P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. f

Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly I TT|IM«I«II«. r- ;

of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 * alaya' «•***
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. I

R. A.* ROBERT ANCHEL f Herault de s6cneUes.

Archivist to the Department de 1 Eure. L

R. Ad. ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D. f „ _

See the biographical article, ADAMSON, R. \ Hume» David WB part).

R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. ("

St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- -! Hebron; Hor, Mt.
tion Fund.

R. A. W. ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E.

Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimi- j „ _. „ .
tation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirah Expeditionary nasa, fcl; Hejaz.
Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895; &c.

R. H. S. RICHARD HENRY STODDARD. f Hawthorne Nathaniel

See the biographical article, STODDARD, RICHARD HENRY. |_ a

R. L P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f Harvester; Hibernation.

Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \_

R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. ("

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's Hely-Hutehinson.
Gazette, London.

R. J. S. HON. ROBERT JOHN STRUTT, M.A., F.R.S. C

Professor of Physics in the Imperial College of Science and Technology, South -J Helium.
Kensington. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

R. K. D. SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. f

Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum,] HsQan Tsang (in tart).
and Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and ]
Literature of China; &c.

R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. [ Hedgehog;

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Hippopotamus'

Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer ) „

of all Lands ; The Game Animals of Africa ; &c. L Horse W» *»*) J Howler.

R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f Hopken; Horn, A. B., Count;

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the Hunparv HVc/n™ (i*
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs J. J ""g* „"
1611-172$; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 myaai, janos,
toi796;&c. I Hunyadi, Laszl6.

Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque I Hinemar
Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens ; Recueil |

R. Po. RENE POUPARDIN, D.-ES-L.

Secretary of the Ecole

Nationale, Paris. Author 01 Lie noyavme ue .rruverace suu* *cj t^urunngicns ; i^ecueit i
des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c. L

R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. f

Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past 1
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, -j House.
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.

R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.). r

Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J 'Cl;

Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville 1 Hirpini.
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. L

R. S. T. RALPH STOCKMAN TARR. / Hudson River.

Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University. L

xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

R. W. ROBERT WALLACE, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.L.S.

Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Carton

Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C.,J Horse (in tart)

Cirencester, 1882-1885. Author of Farm Live Stock of Great Britain; The Agricul-^

ture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming Industries of Cape

Colony; &c.

S. F. B. SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD, LL.D. f n

See the biographical article, BAIRD, S. F. \ M inry' JosePn-

S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, H t- fc.
Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J *
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscrip- Hoshea.
/ ions ; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi ; Critical Notes on Old Testament
History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.

T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. f Holiday.

Trinity College, Dublin. I

T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.). f

Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ I Heraelea (in part) ;
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of J Hispellum.
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute.

T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. ("

Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council I gieh Seas
of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems |
of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. I

T. B.* THOMAS BROWN. f Hosierv

Incorporated Weaving, Dyeing and Printing College, Glasgow. \

T. F. H. T. F. HENDERSON. f HAftlr__

Author of The Casket Letters and Mary Queen of Scots; Life of Robert Burns; &c. \ a 'er'

T. Gi. THOMAS GILRAY M.A. f Henderson, Alexander

Formerly Professoi of Modern History and English Literature, University College, J / .
Dundee. [ (ln Part>-

T. H. H.* COLONEL SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., HON. D.Sc. r Helmund- Herat-

Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., J
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's] *
Award; India; Tibet; &c. I Hindu Kush.

T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc. f

Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- H Hero 01 Alexandria,
bridge.

T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. r

Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, J Hayward, Abraham;
University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor H jjUKjjes Thomas
of Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson;
joint-author of Bookman History of English Literature; &c.

T. Wo. THOMAS WOODHOUSE. J" Hose-Pine

Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. \

T. W. A. THOMAS WILLIAM ALLEN, M.A. / D_mo, /• A

Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford. Joint-editor of The Homeric Hymns. \a r Un Part>-

W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. r Hautes Alpes-

Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's I Po_oavnio-

College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature 1

and in History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1889. I Herzog, Hans.

,, . rHohenlohe (in part).

W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. „ , AiiianpA Th«-

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, J * lce> l

Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. Hononus I.;

L Hungary: History (in part).

W. Ba. WILLIAM BACKER, D.Pn. f TTJII.I

Professor of Biblical Studies at the Rabbinical Seminary, Budapest. |_

W. Fr. WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1907). c „

Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of Edinburgh, and J I
Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. [ Horse (in part).

W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. r

Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law at King's College, -I Homicide.
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (2yd ed.).

W. G. H. WALTER GEORGE HEADLAM (1866-1908).

Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Editor of Herodas. Translator of the plays J Herodas.
of Aeschylus.

W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f _ , . .

See the biographical article, FLOWER, SIR W. H. \ * ''

W. H. Ha. WILLIAM HENRY HADOW, M.A., Mus.Doc. f

Principal, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Formerly Fellow and Tutor J
of Worcester College, Oxford. Member of Council, Royal College of Music. Editor ]
of Oxford History of Music. Author of Studies in Modern Music; &c. L

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Xlll

W. L. G.

W. M. R.
W. P. J.

W. R. Nl.
W. R. S.
W. R. S.-R.

W. R. W.

W. T. H.

W. W.
W. Wr.

W. Y. S.

4 Haydon, Benjamin Robert

WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A.

Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in J
Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council, Colonial |
Series; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration).

WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.

See the biographical article, ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.

WILLIAM PRICE JAMES.

University College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. High Bailiff of County Courts, -\ Henley, W. E.
Cardiff. Author of Romantic Professions ; &c.

SIR WILLIAM ROBERTSON NICOLL, LL.D.

See the biographical article, NICOLL, SIR W. R.

WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.

See the biographical article, SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.

WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A. f

Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Author of Russian -\ Hertzen.
Folk Tales ;&c.

WILLIAM ROBERT WORTHINGTON WILLIAMS, F.L.S. f

Superintendent of London County Council Botany Centre.

| Harris, Thomas Lake.
Hosea (in part).

in Botany, Birkbeck College (University of London).
Association.

Assistant Lecturer

entre. Assistant Lecturer J HnrficiiltnrA (i~ A^.rt
Member of the Geologists' 1 * ortlculture «• Part).

Homoeopathy.

WILLIAM TOD HELMUTH, M.D., LL.D. (d. 1901).

Formerly Professor of Surgery and Dean of the Homoeopathic and Medical College
and Hospital; New York. President of the Collins State Homoeopathic Hospital.
Sometime' President of the American Institute of Homoeopathy and the New York
State Homoeopathic Medical Society. Author of Treatise on Diphtheria; System
of Surgery ; &c.

WILLIAM WALLACE, LL.D.

See the biographical article, WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897).

WILLISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D.

Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congrega- ~\ Hopkins, Samuel.
tional Churches in the United States ; The Reformation ; John Calvin ; &c.

WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.

See the biographical article, SELLAR, W. Y.

Hegel (in part).

(

-I Horace (in part).

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Harrow.

Hartford.

Hartlepool.

Harvard University.

Harz Mountains.

Hat.

Havana.

Hawaii.

Hazel.

Health.

Heath.

Hebrides, The.

Heidelberg Catechism.

Heligoland.

Heliostat.

Hellebore.

Helmet.

Hemp.

Herbarium.

Herefordshire.

Hero.

Hertfordshire.

Hesse.

Hesse-Cassel.

Hesse-Darmstadt.

High Place.

Highway.

Hockey.

Holly.

Homily.

Honduras.

Hong-Kong.

Hostage.

Hottentots.

Household, Royal.

Hudson's Bay Company.

Huntingdonshire.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XIII

HARMONY (Gr. appovia, a concord of musical sounds,
apfio^av to join; apuoviKr] (sc. rexy-q) meant the science or
art of music, juowitcq being of wider significance), a combination
of parts so that the effect should be aesthetically pleasing. In
its earliest sense in English it is applied, in music, to a pleasing
combination of musical sounds, but technically it is confined
to the science of the combination of sounds of different pitch.

I. Concord and Discord. — By means of harmony modern
music has attained the dignity of an independent art. In ancient
times, as at the present day among nations that have not come
under the influence of European music, the harmonic sense was,
if not altogether absent, at all events so obscure and undeveloped
as to have no organizing power in the art. The formation by
the Greeks of a scale substantially the same as that which has
received our harmonic system shows a latent harmonic sense,
but shows it in a form which positively excludes harmony as an
artistic principle. The Greek perception of certain successions
of sounds as concordant rests on a principle identifiable with the
scientific basis of concord in simultaneous sounds. But the
Greeks did not conceive of musical simultaneity as consisting of
anything but identical sounds; and when they developed the
practice of magadizing — i.e. singing in octaves — they did so
because, while the difference between high and low voices was
a source of pleasure, a note and its octave were then, as now,
perceived to be in a certain sense identical. We will now start
from this fundamental identity of the octave, and with it trace
the genesis of other concords and discords; bearing in mind
that the history of harmony is the history of artistic instincts
and not a series of progressive scientific theories.

The unisonous quality of octaves is easily explained when we
examine the " harmonic series " of upper partials (see SOUND).
Every musical sound, if of a timbre at all rich (and hence
pre-eminently the human voice), contains some of these upper
partials. Hence, if one voice produce a note which is an upper

Ex. i.— The notes
marked * are out of

tune.

•&"

9 IO II 12

partial of another note sung at the same time by another voice,
the higher voice adds nothing new to the lower but only rein-
forces what is already there. Moreover, the upper partials of the

XIII. I

higher voice will also coincide with some of the lower. Thus,
if a note and its octave be sung together, the upper octave is
itself No. 2 in the harmonic series of the lower, No. 2 of its own
series is No. 4 of the lower, and its No. 3 is No. 6, and so on. The
impression of identity thus produced is so strong that we often
find among people unacquainted with music a firm conviction
that a man is singing in unison with a boy or an instrument when
he is really singing in the octave below. And even musical
people find a difficulty in realizing more than a certain brightness
and richness of single tone when a violinist plays octaves per-
fectly in tune and with a strong emphasis on the lower notes.
Doubling in octaves therefore never was and never will be a
process of harmonization.

Now if we take the case of one sound doubling another in the
1 2th, it will be seen that here, too, no real addition is made by
the higher sound to the lower. The 1 2th is No. 3 of the harmonic
series, No. 2 of the higher note will be No. 6 of the lower, No. 3
will be No. 9, and so on. But there is an important difference
between the I2th and the octave. However much we alter the
octave by transposition into other octaves, we never get anything
but unison or octaves. Two notes two octaves apart are just
as devoid of harmonic difference as a plain octave or unison.
But, when we apply our principle of the identity of the octave
to the 1 2th, we find that the removal of one of the notes by an
octave may produce a combination in which there is a distinct
harmonic element. If, for example, the lower note is raised by
an octave so that the higher note is a fifth from it, No. 3 of the
harmonic series of the higher note will not belong to the lower
note at all. The sth is thus a combination of which the two notes
are obviously different; and, moreover, the principle of the
identity of octaves can now operate in a contrary direction and
transfer this positive harmonic value of the sth to the 12th,
so that we regard the i2th as a 5th plus an octave, instead of
regarding the sth as a compressed 1 2th.1 At the same time, the
relation between the two is quite close enough to give the sth
much of the feeling of harmonic poverty and reduplication that
characterizes the octave; and hence when medieval musicians

1 Musical intervals are reckoned numerically upwards along the
degrees of the diatonic scales (described below). Intervals greater
than an octave are called compound, and are referred to their simple
forms, e.g. the I2th is a compound 5th.

HARMONY

doubled a melody in sths and octaves they believed themselves
to be doing no more than extending and diversifying the means
by which a melody might be sung in unison by different voices.
How they came to prefer for this purpose the 4th to the sth
seems puzzling when we consider that the 4th does not appear
as a fundamental interval in the harmonic series until that series
has passed beyond that part of it that maintains any relation
to our musical ideas. But it was of course certain that they
obtained the 4th as the inversion of the sth; and it is at least
possible that the singers of lower voices found a peculiar pleasure
in singing below higher voices in a position which they felt
harmonically as that of a top part. That is to say, a bass, in
singing a fourth below a tenor, would take pleasure in doubling
in the octave an alto singing normally a 5th above the tenor.1
This should also, perhaps, be taken in connexion with the fact
that the interval of the downward 4th is in melody the earliest
that became settled. And it is worth noticing that, in any
singing-class where polyphonic music is sung, there is a marked
tendency among the more timid members to find their way into
their part by a gentle humming which is generally a 4th below
the nearest steady singers.

The limited compass of voices soon caused modifications in
the medieval parallelisms of 4ths and sths, and the introduction
of independent ornaments into one or more of the voices increased
to an extent which drew attention to other intervals. It was
long, however, before the true criterion of concord and discord
was attained; and at first the notion of concord was purely
acoustic, that is to say, the ear was sensitive only to the difference
in roughness and smoothness between combinations in them-
selves. And even the modern researches of Helmholtz fail to
represent classical and modern harmony, in so far as the pheno-
mena of beats are quite independent of the contrapuntal nature
of concord and discord which depends upon the melodic intelligi-
bility of the motion of the parts. Beats give rise to a strong
physical sense of discord akin to the painfulness of a flickering
light (see SOUND). Accordingly, in the earliest experiments in
harmony, the ear, in the absence of other criteria, attached
much more importance to the purely acoustic roughness of
beats than our ears under the experience of modern music.
This, and the circumstance that the imperfect concords2 (the
3rds and 6ths) long remained out of tune owing to the incom-
pleteness of the Pythagorean system of harmonic ratios,
sufficiently explain the medieval treatment of these combinations
as discords differing only in degree from the harshness of 2nds
and 7ths. In the earliest attempts at really contrapuntal
writing (the astonishing i3th- and I4th- century motets, in which
voices are made to sing different melodies at once, with what
seems to modern ears a total disregard of sound and sense) we
find that the method consists in a kind of rough-hewing by which
the concords of the octave, sth and 4th are provided at most
of the strong accents, while the rest of the harmony is left to
take care of itself. As the art advanced the imperfect concords
began to be felt as different from the discords; but as their
true nature appeared it brought with it such an increased sense
of the harmonic poverty of octaves, sths and 4ths, as ended in
a complete inversion of the earliest rules of harmony.

The harmonic system of the later isth century, which cul-
minated in the " golden age " of the 16th-century polyphony, may
be described as follows: Imagine a flux of simultaneous inde-
pendent melodies, so ordered as to form an artistic texture based
not only on the variety of the melodies themselves, but also upon
gradations between points of repose and points in which the
roughness of sound is rendered interesting and beautiful by
means of the clearness with which the melodic sense in each part
indicates the convergence of all towards the next point of repose.
The typical point of repose owes its effect not only to the acoustic
smoothness of the combination, but to the fact that it actually

1 It is at least probable that this is one of the several rather
obscure reasons for the peculiar instability of the 4th in modern
harmony, which is not yet satisfactorily explained.

2 The perfect concords are the octave, unison, 5th and 4th. Other
diatonic combinations, whether concords or discords, are called
imperfect.

consists of the essential elements present in the first five notes
of the harmonic series. The major 3rd has thus in this- scheme
asserted itself as a concord, and the fundamental principle of
the identity of octaves produces the result that any combination
of a bass note with a major 3rd and » perfect sth above it, at
any distance, and with any amount of doubling,
may constitute a concord available even as the
final point of repose in the whole composition.
And by degrees the major triad, with its major
3rd, became so familiar that a chord consisting of a bare sth,
with or without an octave, was regarded rather as a skeleton
triad without the 3rd than as a concord free from elements
of imperfection. Again, the identity of the octave secured for
the combination of a note with its minor 3rd and minor 6th a
place among concords; because, whether so recognized by early
theorists or not, it was certainly felt as an inversion of the major
triad. The fact that its bass note is not the fundamental note
(and therefore has a series of upper partials not compatible with-
the higher notes) deprives it of the finality and perfection of the
major triad, to which, however, its relationhsip is too near for it
to be felt otherwise than as a concord. This sufficiently explains
why the minor 6th ranks as a concord
in music, though it is acoustically nearly Ex. 3.
as rough as the discord of the minor 7th,
and considerably rougher than that of the 7th note of the
harmonic series, which has not become accepted in our musical
system at all.

But the major triad and its inversion are not the only concords
that will be produced by our flux of melodies. From time to
time this flux will arrest attention by producing a combination
which, while it does not appeal to the ear as being a part of the
harmonic chord of nature, yet contains in itself no elements not
already present in the major triad. Theorists have in vain tried
to find in " nature " a combination of a note with its minor 3rd
and perfect sth; and so long as harmony was treated unhistori-
cally and unscientifically as an a priori theory in which every
chord must needs have a " root," the minor triad, together with
nearly every other harmonic principle of any complexity,
remained a mystery. But the minor triad, as an artistic and
not purely acoustic phenomenon, is an inevitable thing. It
has the character of a concord because of our intellectual percep-
tion that it contains the same elements as the major triad; but
its absence of connexion with the natural harmonic series deprives
it of complete finality in the simple system of 16th-century
harmony, and at the same time gives it a permanent contrast
with the major triad; a contrast which is acoustically intensified
by the fact that, though its intervals are in themselves as con-
cordant as those of the major triad, their relative position
produces decidedly rough combinations of "resultant tones."

By the time cur flux of melodies had come to include the
major and minor triads as concords, the notion of the independence
of parts had become of such paramount importance as totally
to revolutionize the medieval conception of the perfect concords.
Fifths and octaves no longer formed an oasis in a desert of
cacophony, but they assumed the character of concord so nearly
approaching to unison that a pair of consecutive sths or octaves
began to be increasingly felt as violating the independence of
the parts. And thus it came about that in pure 16th-century
counterpoint (as indeed at the present day whenever harmony
and counterpoint are employed in their purest significance)
consecutive sths and octaves are strictly forbidden. When we
compare our laws of counterpoint with those of medieval discant
(in which consecutive sths and octaves are the rule, while con-
secutive 3rds and 6ths are strictly forbidden) we are sometimes
tempted to think that the very nature of the human ear has
changed. But it is now generally recognized that the process
was throughout natural and inevitable, and the above account
aims at showing that consecutive sths are forbidden by our
harmonic system for the very reason which inculcated them in
the system of the 1 2th century.

II. Tonality. — As soon as the major and minor triad and their
first inversions were well-defined entities, it became evident that

HARMONY

the successions of these concords and their alternations with
discord involved principles at once larger and more subtle than
those of mere difference in smoothness and artificiality. Not
only was a major chord (or at least its skeleton) necessary for
the final point of repose in a composition, but it could not itself
sound final unless the concords as well as the discords before it
showed a well-defined tendency towards it. This tendency was
best realized when the penultimate concord had its fundamental
note at the distance of a 5th or a 4th above or below that of the
final chord. When the fundamental note of the penultimate
chord is a 5th above or (what is the same thing) a 4th1 below
that of the final chord, we have an " authentic " or " perfect "
cadence, and the relation between the two chords is very clear.
While the contrast between them is well marked, they have one
note in common — for the root of the penultimate chord is the
5th of the final chord; and the statement of this common note,
first as an octave or unison and then as a 5th, expresses the
.first facts of harmony with a force which the major 3rds of the
chords can only strengthen, while it also involves in the bass
that melodic interval of the 4th or the 5th which is now known

f^ j to be the germ of all melodic scales. The
|p3 relation of the final note of a scale with its
•=* upper 5th or lower 4th thus becomes a

fundamental fact of complex harmonic significance — that is to
say, of harmony modified by melody in so far as it concerns the
succession of sounds as well as their simultaneous combination.
In our modern key-system the final note of the scale is called the
tonic, and the 5th above or 4th below it is the dominant. (In
the i6th century the term " dominant " has this meaning only
in the " authentic " modes other than the Phrygian, but as
an aesthetic fact it is present in all music, though the theory
here given would not have been intelligible to any composers
before the iSth century). Another penultimate chord asserts
itself as the converse of the dominant — namely, the chord of
which the root is a 5th below or a 4th above the final. This
chord has not that relationship to the final which the dominant
chord shows, for its fundamental note is not in the harmonic
series of the final. But the fundamental note of the final chord
is in its harmonic series, and in fact stands to it as the dominant
stands to the final. Thus the progression from subdominant,
as it is called, to tonic, or final, forms a full close known as the
" plagal cadence," second only in importance to the " perfect "

f. . or " authentic cadence." In our modern
EEj§E±ESii3 key-system these three chords, the tonic,
the dominant and the subdominant, form

a firm harmonic centre in reference to which all other chords are
grouped. The tonic is the final in which everything ultimately
resolves: the dominant stands on one side of it as a chord based
on the note harmonically most closely related to the tonic,
and the subdominant stands on the other side as the converse
and opposite of the dominant, weaker than the dominant because
not directly derived from the tonic. The other triads obtainable
from the notes of the scale are all minor, and of less importance;
and their relationship to each other and to the tonic is most
definite when they are so grouped that their basses rise and fall
in 4th and sths, because they then tend to imitate the relation-
ship between tonic, dominant and subdominant.

Ex.6.

Tonic. Supertonic. Mediant. Sub- Dominant. Sub-
dominant. mediant.1

Here are the six common chords of the diatonic scale. The triad
on the yth degree or " leading-note " (B) is a discord, and is therefore
not given here.

Now, in the i6th century it was neither necessary nor desirable
that chords should be grouped exclusively in this way. The
relation between tonic, dominant and subdominant must
necessarily appear at the final close, and in a lesser degree at

The submediant is so-called because if the subdominant is taken
a 5th below the tonic, the submediant will come midway between
it and the tonic, as the_ mediant comes midway between tonic and
dominant.

subordinate points of repose; but, where no harmonies were
dwelt on as stable and independent entities except the major
and minor triads and their first inversions, a scheme in which
these were confined to the illustration of their most elementary
relationship would be intolerably monotonous. It is therefore
neither surprising nor a sign of archaism that the tonality of
modal music is from the modern point of view often very in-
definite. On the contrary, the distinction between masterpieces
and inferior works in the i6th century is nowhere more evident
than in the expressive power of modal tonality, alike where it
resembles and where it differs from modern. Nor is it too much
to say that that expressive power is based on the modern sense of
key, and that a description of modal tonality in terms of modern
key will accurately represent the harmonic art of Palestrina
and the other supreme masters, though it will have almost as
little in common with 16th-century theory and inferior 16th-
century practice as it has with modern custom. We must
conceive modal harmony and tonality as a scheme in which
voices move independently and melodiously in a scale capable
of bearing the three chords of the tonic, dominant and sub-
dominant, besides three other minor triads, but not under such
restrictions of symmetrical rhythm and melodic design as will
necessitate a confinement to schemes in which these three cardinal
chords occupy a central position. The only stipulation is that
the relationship of at least two cardinal chords shall appear at
every full close. At other points the character and drift of the
harmony is determined by quite a different principle — namely,
that, the scale being conceived as indefinitely extended, the
voices are agreed in selecting a particular section of it,the position
of which determines not only the melodic character of each part
but also the harmonic character of the whole, according to its
greater or less remoteness from the scale in which major cardinal
chords occupy a central position. Historically these modes
were derived, with various errors and changes, from the purely
melodic modes of the Greeks. Aesthetically they are systems
of modern tonality adapted to conditions in which the range of
harmony was the smallest possible, and the necessity for what
we may conveniently call a clear and solid key-perspective
incomparably slighter than that for variety within so narrow a
range. We may thus regard modal harmony as an essentially
modern scheme, presented to us in cross-sections of various
degrees of obliquity, and modified at every close so as either to
take us to a point of view in which we see the harmony sym-
metrically (as in those modes2 of which the final chord is normally
major, namely the Ionian, which is practically our major scale,
the Mixolydian and the Lydian, which last is almost invariably
turned into Ionian by the systematic flattening of its 4th degree)
or else to transform the mode itself so that its own notes are
flattened and sharpened into suitable final chords (as is necessary
in those modes of which the triad on the final is normally minor,
namely, the Dorian, Phrygian and Aeolian). In this way we
may describe Mixolydian tonality as a harmonic scheme in which
the keys of G major and C major are so combined that sometimes
we feel that we are listening to harmony in C major that is
disposed to overbalance towards the dominant, and sometimes
that we are in G major with a pronounced leaning towards the
subdominant. In the Dorian mode our sensations of tonality
are more confused. We seem to be wandering through all the
key-relationships of a minor tonic without defining anything,
until at the final close the harmonies gather strength and bring
us, perhaps with poetic surprise, to a close in D with a major
chord. In the Phrygian mode the difficulty in forming the final
close is such that classical Phrygian compositions actually end
in what we feel to be a half-close, an impression which is by the
great masters rendered perfectly artistic by the strong feeling
that all such parts of the composition as do not owe their ex-
pression to the variety and inconstancy of their harmonic drift
are on the dominant of A minor.

It cannot be too strongly insisted that the expression of modal
music is a permanent artistic fact. Its refinements maybe
crowded out by the later tonality, in which the much greater
2 See PLAIN SONG.

4

HARMONY

Ex.?.
Suspension.

No. 8.
Passing Note

variety of fixed chords needs a much more rigid harmonic
scheme to control it, but they can never be falsified. And when
Beethoven in his last " Bagatelle " raises the 6th of a minor
scale for the pleasure he takes in an unexpectedly bright major
chord; or when, in the Incarnatus of his Mass in D, he makes a
free use of the Dorian scale, he is actuated by precisely the same
harmonic and aesthetic motives as those of the wonderful
opening of Palestrina's eight-part Stabat Mater; just as in the
Lydian figured chorale in his A minor Quartet he carries out the
principle of harmonic variety, as produceable by an oblique
melodic scale, with a thoroughness from which Palestrina himself
would have shrunk. (We have noted that in 16th-century music
the Lydian mode is almost invariably lonicized.)

III. Modern Harmony and Tonality. — In the harmonic system
of Palestrina only two kinds of discord are possible, namely,
suspensions and passing-notes. The principle of the suspension

is that while parts are moving
from one concord to another
one of the parts remains
behind, so as to create a
discord at the moment when
the other parts proceed. The
suspended part then goes on
to its concordant note, which must lie on an adjacent (and
in most cases a lower) degree of the scale. Passing-notes
are produced transiently by the motion of a part up or down the
scale while other parts remain stationary. The possibilities of
these two devices can be worked out logically so as to produce
combinations of extreme harshness. And, when combined with
the rules which laid on the performers the responsibility for
modifying the strict scale of the mode in order to form satis-
factory closes and avoid melodic harshness, they some-
times gave rise to combinations which the clearest artistic
intellects of the i6th century perceived as incompatible with
the modal style. For example, in a passage written thus
J? ,u _ - ^ . _ F^t^ I I the singer of the lower

^ — 1 part would be obliged
Ex- 9. d~ to flatten his B in

[|(g|-0t <a p_^=r[^=: = \ order to avoid the

=3 Ugiy "tritone" be-
tween F and B, while the other singer would be hardly
less likely on the spur of the moment to sharpen his G
under the impression that he was making a close; and thus one
of the most complex and characteristically modern discords, that
of the augmented 6th, did trequently occur in 16th-century
performances, and was not always regarded as a blunder. But
if the technical principles of 16th-century discord left much to
the good taste of composers and singers, they nevertheless in
conjunction with that good taste severely restricted the resources
of harmony; for, whatever the variety and artificiality of the
discords admitted by them, they all had this in common, that
every discord was transient and could only arise as a phenomenon
of delay in the movement of one or more parts smoothly along
the scale (" in conjunct motion ") or of a more rapid motion up
and down the scale in which none but the rigorously concordant
first and last notes received any emphasis. No doubt there were
many licenses (such as the " changing-note ") which introduced
discords by skip, or on the strong beat without preparation, but
these were all as natural as they were illogical. They were
artistic as intelligible accidents, precisely like those which make
language idiomatic, such as " attraction of the relative " in Greek.
But when Monteverde and his fellow monodists tried experi-
ments with unprepared discords, they opened up possibilities
far too vast to be organized by them or by the next three genera-
tions. We have elsewhere compared the difference between
early and modern harmony with that between classical Greek,
which is absolutely literal and concrete in expression, and modern
English, which is saturated with metaphors and abstractions.
We may go further and say that a 16th-century discord, with its
preparation and resolution, is, on a very small scale, like a
simile, in which both the figure and its interpretation are given,
whereas modern discord is like the metaphor, in which the figure

is a substitute for and not an addition to the plain statement.
It is not surprising that the sudden opening up of the whole
possibilities of modern harmony at the end of the i6th century
at first produced a chaos of style.

Another feature of the harmonic revolution arose from the
new habit of supporting a single voice on chords played by an
instrument. This, together with the use of discords in a new
sense, drew attention to the chords as things in themselves and
not as moments of greater or less repose in a flux of independent
melodies. This was as valuable an addition to musical thought
and expression as the free use of abstract terms is in literature,
but it had precisely the same dangers, and has until recent
times vitiated harmonic theory and divorced it from the
modest observation of the practice of great masters. When,
early in the i8th century, Rameau devoted much of his best
energy to the elaboration of a theory of harmony, his field of
observation was a series of experiments begun in chaos and
resolved, not as yet in a great art, but in a system of conventions,
for the contemporary art of Bach and Handel was beyond the
scope of contemporary theory. He showed great analytical
genius and sense of tonality in his development of the notion
of the " fundamental bass," and it is rather to his credit than
otherwise that he did not emphasize the distinction between
discords on the dominant and those on other degrees of the scale.
But his system, with all subsequent improvements, refutations
and repairs only led to that bane of 19th-century theory and
source of what may be called the journalese of harmonic style,
according to which every chord (no matter how obviously
artificial and transient) must be regarded, so to speak, as a
literal fact for which a root and a scientific connexion with the
natural harmonic series must at all cost be found. Some modern
theorists have, however, gone too far in denying the existence of
harmonic roots altogether, and certainly it is neither scientific
nor artistic to regard the coincidence of the major triad with the
first five notes of the harmonic series as merely accidental. It
is not likely that the dominant 7th owes all its naturalness to a
resemblance to the flat 7th of the harmonic series, which is too
far out of tune even to pass for an augmented 6th. But the
dominant major pth certainly gains in sonorousness from its
coincidence with the gth harmonic, and many cases in music
could be found where the dominant 7th itself would gain from
being so far flattened as to add coincidence with a natural
harmonic to its musical significance as an unprepared discord
(see, for example the " native wood-notes wild " of the distant
huntsmen in the second act of Tristan und Isolde, where also the
9th and nth are involved, and, moreover, on horns, of which the
natural scale is the harmonic series itself). If the distinction
between " essential " and " unessential " discords is, in the light
of history and common sense, a difference only in degree, it is
thus none the less of great aesthetic importance. Arithmetic
and acoustics show that in proportion as musical harmony
emphasizes combinations belonging to the lower region of the
harmonic series the effect will be sonorous and natural; but
common sense, history and aesthetics also show that the inter-
action of melody, harmony and rhythm must produce a host
of combinations which acoustics alone cannot possibly explain.
These facts are amply competent to explain themselves. To
describe them in detail is beyond the scope of the present article,
but a few examples from different periods are given at the end in
musical type.

IV. The Minor Mode. — When the predecessors of Bach and
Handel had succeeded in establishing a key-system able to bear
the weight of free discord, that key-system took two forms, in
both of which the three chords of tonic, dominant and sub-
dominant occupied cardinal points. In the one form the tonic
chord was natural, that is to say, major. In the other form
the tonic chord was artificial, that is to say, minor. In the minor
mode so firm is the position of the tonic and dominant (the
dominant chord always being major)that it is no longer necessary,
as in the i6th century, to conclude with a major chord, although
it long remained a frequent practice, rather because of the
inherent beauty and surprise of the effect than because of any

HARMONY

mere survival of ancient customs, at least where great masters
are concerned. (This final major chord is known as the Tierce
de Picardie.) The effect of the minor mode is thus normally
plaintive because it centres round the artificial concord instead
of the natural; and, though the keynote bears this minor
artificial triad, the ear nevertheless has an expectation (which
may be intensified into a powerful emotional effect) that the
final conclusion of the harmonic scheme may brighten out into
the more sonorous harmonic system of major chords. Let us
once more recall those ecclesiastical modes of which the 3rd
degree is normally minor. We have seen how they may be
regarded as the more oblique of the various cross-sections of the
16th-century harmonic scheme. Now, the modern minor mode
is too firmly rooted in its minor tonic chord for the 16th-century
feeling of an oblique harmonic scheme to be of more than
secondary importance, though that feeling survives, as the
discussion of key-relationships will show us. But it is constantly
thrust into the background by the new possibility that the minor
tonic chord with its attendant minor harmonies may give place
to the major system round the same tonic, and by the certainty
that if any change is made at the conclusion of the work it will
be upon the same tonic and not have reference to some other
harmonic centre. In other words, a major and minor key on
the same tonic are felt as identical in everything but expression
(a point in which the Tonic Sol Fa system, as hitherto practised,
with its identification of the minor key with its " relative "
instead of its tonic major, shows a most unfortunate confusion
of thought). The characteristics of the major and minor modes
may of course be modified by many artistic considerations, and
it would be as absurd to develop this account into a scheme of
pigeon-holed passions as to do the same for the equally obvious
and closely parallel fact that in drama a constant source of
pathos is the placing of our sympathies in an oblique relation
to the natural sequence of events or to the more universal issues
of the subject.

V. Key-Relationships. — On the modern sense of the identity
of the tonic in major and minor rests the whole distinctive
character of modern harmony, and the whole key-system of the
classical composers. The masters of the i6th century naturally
found it necessary to make full closes much more frequently
than would be desirable if the only possible close was that on the
final of the mode. They therefore formed closes on other notes,
but they formed them on these exactly as on a final. Thus, a
close on the second degree of the Ionian mode was identical with
a Dorian final close. The notes, other than the final, on which
closes could be made were called modulations. And what
between the three " regular modulations " (known as the
dominant, mediant, and participant) and the " conceded modula-
tions," of which two were generally admitted in each mode
simply in the interests of variety, a composer was at liberty to
form a full close on any note which did not involve too many
extraneous sharps or flats for its correct accomplishment. But
there was a great difference between modal and modern con-
ceptions of modulation. We have said that the close on the
second degree of the Ionian mode was Dorian, but such a modula-
tion was not regarded as a visit paid to the Dorian mode, but
merely as the formation of a momentary point of repose on the
second degree of the Ionian mode. When therefore it is said
that the modulations of 16th-century music are " purposeless
and shifting," the criticism implies a purpose in change of key
which is wholly irrelevant. The modal composers' purpose lay
in purely local relationships of harmony, in various degrees of
refinement which are often crowded out of the larger and more
coarse-grained scheme of modern harmony, but which modern
harmony is perfectly capable of employing in precisely the same
sense whenever it has leisure.

Modulation, in the modern sense of the term, is a different
thing. The modern sense of tonality is so firm, and modern
designs so large, that it is desirable that different portions of a
composition should be arranged round different harmonic
centres or keys, and moreover that the relation between these
keys and the primary key should be ielt, and the whole design

should at last return to the primary key, to remain there with
such emphasis and proportion as shall leave upon the mind the
impression that the whole is in the primary key and that the
foreign keys have been as artistically grouped around it as its
own local harmonies. The true principles on which keys are
related proved so elastic in the hands of Beethoven that their
results utterly outstripped the earlier theory which adhered
desperately to the limitations of the i6th century; and so
vast is the range of key which Beethoven is able to organize
in a convincing scheme of relationship, that even modern
theory, dazzled by the true harmonic possibilities, is apt to
come to the conclusion, more lame and impotent than any
ancient pedantry, that all keys are equally related. A vague
conception, dubbed " the unity of the chromatic scale," is thus
made to explain away the whole beauty and power of Wagner's
no less than Beethoven's harmonic system. We have not space
to dispute the matter here, and it must suffice to state dog-
matically and statistically the classical facts of key-relationship,
including those which Beethoven established as normal possi-
bilities on the suggestion of Haydn, in whose works they appear
as special effects.

a. Direct Relationships. — The first principle on which two keys
are considered to be related is a strengthening of that which
determined the so-called modulations of the 16th-century modes.
Two keys are directly related when the tonic chord of the one
is among the common chords of the other. Thus, D minor is
related to C major because the tonic chord of D minor is the
common chord on the supertonic of C (see Ex. 6). In the same
way the four other related keys to C major are E minor the
mediant, F major the subdominant, G major the dominant
and A minor the submediant.

This last key-relationship is sometimes called the " relative "
minor, partly because it is usually expressed by the same key-
signature as the tonic, but probably more justifiably because it
is the point of view from which to reckon the key-relationships
of the minor tonic. If we take the minor scale in its " harmonic "
form (i.e. the form deducible from its chords of minor tonic,
minor subdominant and major dominant, without regard to
the exigencies of melody in concession to which the " melodic "
minor scale raises the 6th in ascent and flattens the 7th in
descent), we shall find it impossible to build a common chord
upon its mediant (Ex. 10). But we have
seen that A minor is related to C major; EX. 10.
therefore it is absurd to suppose that C
major is not related to A minor. Clearly then we must deduce
some of the relationships of a minor tonic as the converse of
those of a major tonic. Thus we may read Ex. 6 backwards and
reason as follows: A minor is the submediant of C major;
therefore C major is the mediant or relative major of A minor.
D minor is the supertonic of C major; therefore C major is
related to D minor and may be called its flat 7th. Taking A
minor as our standard key, G major is then the flat 7th to A minor.
The remaining major keys (C major to E minor = F major to
A minor) may be traced directly as well as conversely; and
the subdominant, being minor, does not involve an appeal to
the major scale at all. But with the dominant we find the curious
fact that while the dominant chord of a minor key is major it
is impossible to regard the major dominant key as directly
related to the minor tonic, since it does not contain the minor
tonic chord at all; e.g. the only chord of A in E major is A major.
But the dominant minor key contains the tonic chord of the
primary minor key clearly enough as subdominant, and therefore
when we modulate from a minor tonic to a minor dominant
we feel that we have a direct key-relationship and have not lost
touch with our tonic. Thus in the minor mode modulation to
the dominant key is, though frequent and necessary, a much
more uphill process than in the major mode, because the naturally
major dominant chord has first to be contradicted. On the other
hand, a contrast between minor tonic and major dominant key
is very difficult to work on a large scale (as, for example, in the
complementary key for second subjects of sonata movements)
because, while the major dominant key behaves as if not directly

HARMONY

related to the minor tonic, it also gives a curious sensation of
being merely on the dominant instead of in it; and thus we find
that in the few classical examples of a dominant major second
subject in a minor sonata-movement the second subject either
relapses into the dominant minor, as in Beethoven's Kreulzer
Sonata and the finale of Brahms's Third Symphony, or begins in
it, as in the first movement of Brahms's Fourth Symphony.

The effect of a modulation to a related key obviously depends
upon the change of meaning in the chords common to both keys,
and also in the new chords introduced. Thus, in modulating
to the dominant we invest the brightest chord of our first key
with the finality and importance of a tonic; our original tonic
chord becomes comparatively soft in its new position as sub-
dominant; and a new dominant chord arises, surpassing in
brilliance the old dominant (now tonic) as that surpassed the
primary tonic. Again, in modulating to the subdominant the
softest chord of the primary key becomes tonic, the old tonic
is comparatively bright, and a new and softer subdominant
chord appears. We have seen the peculiarities of modulation
to the dominant from a minor tonic, and it follows from them
that modulation from a minor tonic to the subdominant involves
the beautiful effect of a momentary conversion of the primary
tonic chord to major, the poetic and often dramatically ironical
power of which is manifested at the conclusion of more than half
the finest classical slow movements in minor keys, from Bach's
Et> minor Prelude in the first book of the Forty-eight to the slow
movement of Brahms's G major String Quintet, Op. in.

The effect of the remaining key-relationships involves contrasts
between major and minor mode; but it is otherwise far less
defined, since the primary tonic chord does not occupy a cardinal
position in the second key. These key-relationships are most
important from a minor tonic, as the change from minor to
major is more vivid than the reverse change. The smoothest
changes are those to " relative " minor, " relative " major
(C to A minor; C minor to Et>); and mediant minor and sub-
mediant major (C to E minor; C minor to At>). The change
from major tonic to supertonic minor is extremely natural on a
.small scale, i.e. within the compass of a single melody, as may be
seen in countless openings of classical sonatas. But on a large
scale the identity of primary dominant with secondary sub-
dominant confuses the harmonic perspective, and accordingly
in classical music the supertonic minor appears neither in the
second subjects of first movements nor as the key for middle
movements.1 But since the key-relationships of a minor tonic
are at once more obscure harmonically and more vivid in con-
trast, we find that the converse key-relationship of the flat 7th,
though somewhat bold and archaic in effect on a small scale,
has once or twice been given organic function on a large scale
in classical movements of exceptionally fantastic character,
of which the three great examples are the ghostly slow movement
of Beethoven's D major Trio, Op. 70, No. i, the scherzo of his
Ninth Symphony, and the finale of Brahms's D minor Violin
Sonata (where, however, the C major theme soon passes per-
manently into the more orthodox dominant minor).

Thus far we have the set of key-relationships universally
recognized since the major and minor modes were established,
a relationship based entirely on the place of the primary tonic
chord in the second key. It only remains for us to protest
against the orthodox description of the five related keys as being
the " relative " minor or major and the dominant and sub-
dominant with their " relative " minors or majors; a conception
which expresses the fallacious assumption that keys which are
related to the same key are related to one another, and which
thereby implies that all keys are equally related and that classical
composers were fools. It cannot be too strongly insisted that
there is no foundation for key-relationship except through a
tonic, and that it is through the tonic that the most distant keys

1 Until Beethoven developed the resources for a wider scheme of
key-contrasts, the only keys for second subjects of sonata-movements
were the dominant (when the tonic was major) and the " relative "
major or dominant minor (when the tonic was minor). A wider
range was possible only in the irresponsible style of D. Scarlatti.

have always been connected by every composer with a wide
range of modulation, from Haydn to Brahms and (with due
allowance for the conditions of his musical drama) Wagner.

b. Indirect Relationships. — So strong is the indentity of the
tonic in major and minor mode that Haydn and Mozart had no
scruple in annexing, with certain reservations, the key-relation-
ships of either as an addition to those of the other. The smooth-
ness of Mozart's style makes him prefer to annex the key-relation-
ships of the tonic minor (e.g. C major to Ab, the submediant of
C minor), because the primary tonic note is in the second key,
although its chord is transformed. His range of thought does
not allow him to use these keys otherwise than episodically;
but he certainly does not treat them as chaotically remote by
confining them to rapid modulations in the development-
portions of his movements. They occur characteristically as
beautiful purple patches before or during his second subjects.
Haydn, with his mastery of rational paradox, takes every
opportunity, in his later works, of using all possible indirect
key-relationships in the choice of key for slow movements and
for the trios of minuets. By using them thus sectionally (i.e.
so as not to involve the organic connecting links necessary for the
complementary keys of second subjects) he gives himself a free
hand; and he rather prefers those keys which are obtained by
transforming the minor relationships of a major primary key
(e.g. C to A major instead of A minor). These relationships are
of great brilliance and also of some remoteness of effect, since
the primary tonic note, as well as its chord, disappears entirely.
Haydn also obtains extreme contrasts by changing both modes
(e.g. C minor to A major, as in the G minor Quartet, Op. 72,
No 6, where the slow movement is in E major), and indeed
there is not one key-contrast known to Beethoven and Brahms
which Haydn does not use with complete sense of its meaning,
though his art admits it only as a surprise.

Beethoven rationalized every step in the whole possible range
of key-relationship by such harmonic means as are described in
the article BEETHOVEN. Haydn's favourite key-relationships
he used for the complementary key in first movements; and
he at once discovered that the use of the major mediant as
complementary key to a major tonic implied at all events just
as much suggestion of the submediant major in the recapitula-
tion as would not keep the latter half of the movement for too
long out of the tonic. The converse is not the case, and where
Beethoven uses the submediant major as complementary key
in a major first movement he does not subsequently introduce
the still more remote and brilliant mediant in the recapitulation.
The function of the complementary key is that of contrast and
vividness, so that if the key is to be remote it is as well that it
should be brilliant rather than sombre; and accordingly the
easier key-relationships obtainable through transforming the
tonic into minor do not appear as complementary keys until
Beethoven's latest and most subtle works, as the Quartet in
Bb, Op. 130 (where we again note that the flat submediant of
the exposition is temporarily answered by the flat mediant of
the recapitulation).

c. Artificial Key-relationships. — Early in the history of the
minor mode it was discovered that the lower tetrachord could
be very effectively and naturally altered so as to resemble the
upper (thus producing the scale C Db Et[ F, G Ab Bit C). This
produces a flat supertonic (the chord of which is generally pre-
sented in its first inversion, and is known as the Neapolitan 6th.
from its characteristic use in the works of the Neapolitan school
which did so much to establish modern tonality) and its origin,
as just described, often impels it to resolve on a major tonic
chord. Consequently it exists in the minor mode as a pheno-
menon not much more artificial than the mode itself; and
although the keys it thus connects are extremely remote, and
the effect of their connexion very surprising, the connexion is
none the less real, whether from a major or a minor tonic, and
is a crucial test of a composer's sense of key-perspective. Thus
Philipp Emanuel Bach in a spirit of mere caprice puts the
charming little slow movement of his D major Symphony into
Eb and obliterates all real relationship by chaotic operatic

HARMONY

connecting links. Haydn's greatest pianoforte sonata (which,
being probably his last, is of course No. i in most editions)
is in Eb, and its slow movement is in Fl) major ( = Ft>). That
key had already appeared, with surprising effect, in the wander-
ings of the development of the first movement. No attempt is
made to indicate its connexion with Eb; and the finale begins
in Et», but its first bar is unharmonized and starts on the one
note which most contradicts Ei; and least prepares the mind for
Et». The immediate repetition of the opening phrase a step
higher on the normal supertonic strikes the note which the, open-
ing had contradicted, and thus shows its function in the main
key without in the least degree explaining away the paradoxical
effect of the key of the slow movement. Brahms's Violoncello
Sonata Op. 99, is in F; a prominent episode in the development
of the first movement is in E# minor ( = Gb), thus preparing the
mind for the slow movement, which is in F$ major ( = Gt>), with
a central episode in F minor. The scherzo is in F minor, and
begins on the dominant. Thus if we play its first chord immedi-
ately after the last chord of the slow movement we have exactly
that extreme position of flat supertonic followed by dominant
which is a favourite form of cadence in Wagner, who can even
convey its meaning by its mere bass without any harmonies
(Walkiire, Act 3, Scene 2:"Was jetzt du bist,das sage dir selbst").

Converse harmonic relationships are, as we have seen, always
weaker than their direct forms. And thus the relation of C major
to B major or minor (as shown in the central episode of the slow
movement just mentioned) is rare. Still more rare is the obtain-
ing of indirect artificial relationships, of which the episode in
the first movement just mentioned is an illustration in so far
as it enhances the effect of the slow movement, but is incon-
clusive in so far as it is episodic. For with remote key-relation-
ships everything depends upon whether they are used with what
may be called cardinal function (like complementary keys) or not.
Even a near key may occur in the course of wandering modula-
tions without producing any effect of relationship at all, and this
should always be borne in mind whenever we accumulate
statistics from classical music.

d. Contrary and Unconnected Keys. — There remain only two
pairs of keys that classical music has not brought into connexion,
a circumstance which has co-operated with the utter vagueness
of orthodox theories on the subject to confirm the conventionally
progressive critic in his conviction that all modulations are
alike. We have seen how the effect of modulation from major
tonic to minor supertonic is, on a large scale, obscured by the
identity of the primary dominant with the secondary sub-
dominant, though the one chord is major and the other minor.
Now when the supertonic becomes major this difference no
longer obviates the confusion, and modulation from C major
to D major, though extremely easy, is of so bewildering effect
that it is used by classical composers only in moments of intensely
dramatic surprise, as, for example, in the recapitulation of the
first subject of Beethoven's Eroica Symphony, and the last
variation (or coda) cf the slow movement of his Trio in B\>,
Op. 97. And in both cases the balance is restored by the
converse (and equally if not more contradictory) modulation
between major tonic and major fiat yth, though in the slow
movement of the B\> Trio the latter is represented only by its
dominant chord which is " enharmonically " resolved into quite
another key. The frequent attempts made by easy-going
innovators to treat these key-contrasts on another footing than
that of paradox, dramatic surprise or hesitation, only show a
deficient sense of tonality, which must also mean an inability
to see the intensely powerful effect of the true use of such
modulations in classical music, an effect which is entirely inde-
pendent of any ability to formulate a theory to explain it.1

1 Many theorists mistake the usual extreme emphasis on the
dominant chord of the dominant key, in preparation for second
subjects, for a modulation to the major supertonic, but this can
deceive no one with any sense of tonality. A good practical test
is to see what becomes of such passages when translated into the
minor mode. Illusory modulation to the flat yth frequently occurs
as a bold method of throwing strong emphasis on to the subdominant
at the outset of a movement, as in Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 31, No. I.

There now remains only one pair of keys that have never been
related, namely, those that (whether major or minor) are at the
distance of a tritone 4th. In the first place they are unrelated
because there is no means of putting any form of a tonic chord
of F$ into any form of the key of C, or vice versa; and in the
second place because it is impossible to tell which of two precisely
opposite keys the second key may be (e.g. we have no means of
knowing that a direct modulation from C to F$ is not from C to Gt>,
which is exactly the same distance in the opposite direction) . And
this brings us to the only remaining subjects of importance in
the science and art of harmony, namely, those of the tempered
scale, enharmonic ambiguity and just intonation. Before
proceeding we subjoin a table of all the key-relationships from
major and minor tonics, representing the degrees by capital
Roman figures when the second key is major and small figures

TABLES OF KEY-RELATIONSHIPS
A. From Major Tonic

— i —

1

1

1

Indirect through both
i and the second key

i !

Indirect, through i \
III> \{It \

Indirect through the
second key

HI Vl

i i

Doubly indirect through the
farmer indirect keys
Hi* Vik

\
\
\
\
t

Artificial, direct

\

\

IH> \

VII & vfi

Artificial, indirect*

\

S

I* \

\
\
\

Unrelated

\i

>

!V\IVt& ivff-Vk &vk

Contradictory

1 \,
£ VII> & viib

B.
i

From Minor Tonic *
Direct Relationships III iv v VI V,II

jt
1
I
i
I
Indirect, through I
iji» viS

i i i i
,lil

Indirect 'through both ! i
I and the second key IV V ,'

Indirect through the /
second key ill vi /

Dcjmbly indirect
III* VI»

\

Artificial, direct
Artificial, indirect*

*
1 X

\ Ilk

'< il* VlHt'it vii#

> ,
f
*
/
\ /

Unrelated

\ /
\IV4t & MI=|V> &v(>

Contradictory6

;

\l II viik

2 Very rare, but the slow movement of Schubert's C major String
Quintet demonstrates it magnificently.

3 All the indirect relationships from a minor tonic are distinctly
strained and, except in the violently contrasted doubly indirect
keys, obscure as being themselves minor. But the direct artificial
modulation is quite smooth, and rich rather than remote. See
Beethoven's C$ minor Quartet.

4 No classical example, though the clearer converse from a major
tonic occurs effectively.

6 Not (with the exception of II) so violent as when from major
tonic. Bach, whose range seldom exceeds direct key-relationships,
is not afraid to drift from D minor to C minor, though nothing would
induce him to go from D major to C major or minor.

8

HARMONY

when minor. Thus I represents tonic major, iv represents
subdominant minor, and so on. A flat or a sharp after the figure
indicates that the normal degree of the standard scale has been
lowered or raised a semitone, even when in any particular pair
of keys it would not be expressed by a flat or a sharp. Thus
vib would, from the tonic of Bb major, express the position of the
slow movement of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 106, which is written
in F# minor since Gb minor is beyond the practical limits of
notation.

VI. Temperament and Enharmonic Changes. — As the facts
of artistic harmony increased in complexity and range, the
purely acoustic principles which (as Helmholtz has shown)
go so far to explain 16th-century aesthetics became more and
more inadequate; and grave practical obstacles to euphonious
tuning began to assert themselves. The scientific (or natural)
ratios of the diatonic scale were not interfered with by art so
long as no discords were "fundamental"; but when discords
began to assume independence, one and the same note often
became assignable on scientific grounds to two slightly different
positions in pitch, or at all events to a position incompatible
with even tolerable effect in performance. Thus, the chord of
the diminished 7th is said to be intolerably harsh in " just
intonation," that is to say, intonation based upon the exact
ratios of a normal minor scale. In practical performance the
diminished 7th contains three minor 3rds and two imperfect
5ths (such as that which is present in the dominant 7th), while
the peculiarly dissonant interval from which the chord takes its
name is very nearly the same as a major 6th. Now it can only
be said that an intonation which makes nonsense of chords of
which every classical composer from the time of Corelli has made
excellent sense, is a very unjust intonation indeed; and to
anybody who realizes the universal relation between art and
nature it is obvious that the chord of the diminished 7th must
owe its naturalness to its close approximation to the natural
ratios of the minor scale, while it owes its artistic possibility
to the extremely minute instinctive modification by which its
dissonance becomes tolerable. As a matter of fact, although
we have shown here and in the article Music how artificial
is the origin and nature of all but the very scantiest materials
of the musical language, there is no art in which the element of
practical compromise is so minute and so hard for any but trained
scientific observation to perceive. If a painter could have a
scale of light and shade as nearly approaching nature as the
practical intonation of music approaches the acoustic facts
it really involves, a visit to a picture gallery would be a severe
strain on the strongest eyes, as Ruskin constantly points out.
Yet music is in this respect exactly on the same footing as other
arts. It constitutes no exception to the universal law that
artistic ideas must be realized, not in spite of, but by means of
practical necessities. However independent the treatment of
discords, they assert themselves in the long run as transient.
They resolve into permanent points of repose of which the
basis is natural; but the transient phenomena float through
the harmonic world adapting themselves, as best they can, to
their environment, showing as much dependence upon the
stable scheme of " just intonation " as a crowd of metaphors
and abstractions in language shows a dependence upon the
rules of the syllogism. As much and no more, but that is no
doubt a great deal. Yet the attempt to determine the point
in modern harmony where just intonation should end and the
tempered scale begin, is as vexatious as the attempt to define
in etymology the point at which the literal meaning of a word
gives places to a metaphorical meaning. And it is as unsound
scientifically as the conviction of the typical circle-squarer
that he is unravelling amysteryandmeasuringaquantityhitherto
unknown. Just intonation is a reality in so far as it emphasizes
the contrast between concord and discord; but when it forbids
artistic interaction between harmony and melody it is a chimera.
It is sometimes said that Bach, by the example of his forty-eight
preludes and fugues in all the major and minor keys, first fixed
the modern scale. This is true practically, but not aesthetically.
By writing a series of movements in every key of which the

keynote was present in the normal organ and harpsichord
manuals of his and later times, he enforced the system by which
all facts of modern musical harmony are represented on keyed
instruments by dividing the octave into twelve equal semitones,
instead of tuning a few much-used keys as accurately as possible
and sacrificing the euphony of all the rest. This system of
equal temperament, with twelve equal semitones in the octave,
obviously annihilates important distinctions, and in the most
used keys it sours the concords and blunts the discords more than
unequal temperament; but it is never harsh; and where it does
not express harmonic subtleties the ear instinctively supplies
the interpretation; as the observing faculty, indeed, always
does wherever the resources of art indicate more than they
express.

Now it frequently happens that discords or artificial chords
are not merely obscure in their intonation, whether ideally or
practically, but as produced in practice they are capable of two
sharply distinct interpretations. And it is possible for music to
take advantage of this and to approach a chord in one signifi-
cance and quit it with another. Where this happens in just
intonation (in so far as that represents a real musical conception)
such chords will, so to speak, quiver from one meaning into the
other. And even in the tempered scale the ear will interpret the
change of meaning as involving a minute difference of intonation.
The chord of the diminished 7th has in this way four different
meanings —

E*. ii.

and the chord of the augmented 6th, when accompanied by the
fifth, may become a dominant 7th or vice versa, as in the passage
already cited in the coda of the slow movement of Beethoven's
Bb Trio, Op. 97. Such modulations are called enharmonic.
We have seen that all the more complex musical phenomena
involve distinctions enharmonic in the sense of intervals smaller
than a semitone, as, for instance, whenever the progression
D E in the scale of C, which is a minor tone, is identified with the
progression of D E in the scale of D, which is a major tone
(differing from the former as f from ^). But the special musical
meaning of the word " enharmonic " is restricted to the difference
between such pairs of sharps with flats or naturals as can be
represented on a keyboard by the same note, this difference
being the most impressive to the ear in " just intonation " and
to the imagination in the tempered scale.

Not every progression of chords which is, so to speak, spelt
enharmonically is an enharmonic modulation in itself. Thus a
modulation from D flat to E major looks violently enharmonic
on paper, as in the first movement of Beethoven's Sonata,
Op. 1 10. But E major with four sharps is merely the most
convenient way of expressing F flat, a key which would need
six flats and a double flat. The reality of an enharmonic modula-
tion can be easily tested by transporting the passage a semi-
tone. Thus, the passage just cited, put a semitone lower,
becomes a perfectly diatonic modulation from C to E flat. But
no transposition of the sixteen bars before the return of the main
theme in the scherzo of Beethoven's Sonata in Ey, Op. 31,
No. 3, will get rid of the fact that the diminished 7th (G Bb Db Efl) ,
on the dominant of F minor, must have changed into G Bb Db Fb
(although Beethoven does not take the trouble to alter the
spelling) before it could resolve, as it does, upon the dominant
of Ab. But though there is thus a distinction between real and
apparent enharmonic modulations, it frequently happens that
a series of modulations perfectly diatonic in themselves
returns to the original key by a process which can only be
called an enharmonic circle. Thus the whole series of keys now
in practical use can be arranged in what is called the circle of
fifths (C G D A E B F# [ = Gbl Db Ab Bb F C, from which
series we now see the meaning of what was said in the discussion
of key-relationships as to the ambiguity of the relationships
between keys a tritone fourth apart). Now no human memory
is capable of distinguishing the difference of pitch between the

HARMONY

keys of C and B# after a wide series of modulations. The
difference would be perceptible enough in immediate juxta-
position, but after some interval of time the memory will certainly
accept two keys so near in pitch as identical, whether in "just
intonation " or not. And hence the enharmonic circle of fifths
is a conception of musical harmony by which infinity is at once
rationalized and avoided, just as some modern mathematicians
are trying to rationalize the infinity of space by a non-Euclidian
space so curved in the fourth dimension as to return upon itself.
A similar enharmonic circle progressing in major 3rds is of
frequent occurrence and of very rich effect. For example,
the keys of the movements of Brahms's C Minor Symphony
are C minor, E major, Ab major ( = G#),aridC ( = Bft). And the
same circle occurs in the opposite direction in the first movement
of his Third Symphony, where the first subject is in F, the transi-
tion passes directly to Db and thence by exactly the same step
to A (= Bbb). The exposition is repeated, which of course
means that in " just intonation " the first subject would begin
in Gbb and then pass through a transition in Ebbb to the second
subject in Cbbb. As the development contains another spurious
enharmonic modulation, and the recapitulation repeats in
another position the first spurious enharmonic modulation
of the exposition/ it would follow that Brahms's movement
began in F and ended in C sextuple-flat! So much, then, for
the application of bad metaphysics and circle-squaring
mathematics to the art of music. Neither in mathematics nor in
art is an approximation to be confused with an imperfection.
Brahms's movement begins and ends in F much more exactly
than any wooden diagonal fits a wooden square.

The following series of musical illustrations show the genesis of
typical harmonic resources of classical and modern music.

Ex. u. — Three concords (tonic, first inversion of sub-
dominant, and dominant of A minor, a possible 16th-
century cadence in the Phrygian mode).

Ex. 13. — The same chords varied by a sus-
pension (*).

Ex. 14. — Ditto, with the further addition
of a double suspension (*) and two passing
notes (ft).

1 , ' | i ,«.

r i J 1

Ex. 15. — Ditto, with a chromatic alteration
of the second chord (*) and an "essential"
discord (dominant 7th) at (t).

Ex. 16. — Ditto, with chromatic
passing notes (**) and appoggiaturas
(tt).

Ex. 17. — The last two
chor ds of Ex. 1 6 at tacked
unexpectedly, the first ap-
poggiatura (.*) prolonged (til
it seems to make a strange
foreign chord before it resolves
on the short note at $, while
the second appoggiatura (f) is
chromatic.

Ex. 18. — The same en-
harmonically transformed so
as to become a variation of
the "dominant ninth" of C
minor. The G# at * is
really Ab, and % is no longer
a note of resolution, but a
chromatic passing-note.

WAGNER.

"*^>-_ ^S ' %~' ^

Definitions.

(Intended to comprise the general conceptions set forth in the
above article.)

1. Musical sounds, or notes, are sensations produced by regular
periodical vibrations in the air, sufficiently rapid to coalesce in a
single continuous sensation, and not too rapid for the mechanism
or the human ear to respond.

2. The pitch of a note is the sensation corresponding to the degree
of rapidity of its vibrations; being low or gram where these are
slow, ana High or acute where they are rapid.

3. An interval is the difference in pitch between two notes.

4. Rhythm is the organization, in a musical scheme, of sounds in
respect of time.

5. Melody is the organization, in a musical scheme, of rhythmic
notes in respect of pitch.

6. Harmony is the organization, in a musical scheme, of simul-
taneous combinations of notes on principles whereby their acoustic
properties interact with laws of rhythm and melody.

7. The harmonic series is an infinite series of notes produced by
the subdivision of a vibrating body or column of air into aliquot
parts, such notes being generally inaudible except in the form of
the timbre which their presence in various proportions imparts to
the fundamental note produced by the whole vibrating body or
air-column.

8. A concord is a combination which, both by its acoustic smooth-
ness and by its logical origin and purpose in a musical scheme, can
form a point of repose.

9. A discord is a combination in which both its logical origin in a
musical scheme and its acoustic roughness show that it cannot
form a point of repose.

10. The perfect concords and perfect intervals are those comprised
within the first four members of the harmonic series, namely, the
octave, as between numbers I and 2 of the series (see Ex. I above) ;
the 5th, as between Nos. 2 and 3; and the 4th, as between Nos'
3 and 4.

11. All notes exactly one or more octaves apart are regarded as
harmonically identical.

12. The root of a chord is that note from which the whole or the
most important parts of the chord appear (if distributed in the right
octaves) as members of the harmonic series.

13. A chord is inverted when its lowest note is not its root.

14. The major triad is a concord containing three different notes
which (octaves being disregarded) are identical with the first, third
and fifth members of the harmonic series (the second and fourth
members being negligible as octaves).

15. The mino - '.riad is a concord containing the same intervals
as the major tried in a different order; in consequence it is artificial,
as one of its notes is not derivable from the harmonic series.

16. Unessential discords are those that are treated purely as the
phenomena of transition, delay or ornament, in an otherwise con-
cordant harmony.

17. Essential discords are those which are so treated that the mind
tends to regard them as definite chords possessing roots.

1 8. A key is an harmonic system in which there is never any
doubt as to which note or triad shall be the final note of music
in that system, nor of the relations between that note or chord
and the other notes or chords. (In this sense the church modes
are either not keys or else they are subtle mixtures of keys.)

19. This final note of a key is called its tonic.

20. The major mode is that of keys in which the tonic triad and
the two other cardinal triads are major.

21. The minor mode is that of keys in which the tonic triad
and one other cardinal triad are minor.

22. A diatonic scale is a series of the notes essential to one major
or minor key, arranged in order of pitch and repeating itself in
other octaves on reaching the limit of an octave.

23. Modulation is the passing from one key to another.

24. Chromatic notes and chords are those which do not belong to
the diatonic scale of the passage in which they occur, but which are
not so used as to cause modulation.

25. Enharmonic intervals are minute intervals which never
occur in music as directly measured quantities, though they exist
as differences between approximately equal ordinary intervals,
diatonic or chromatic. In an enharmonic modulation, two chords
differing by an enharmonic quantity are treated as identical.

26. Pedal or organ point is the sustaining of a single note in the
bass (or, in the case of an inverted pedal, in an upper part) while the
larmonies move independently. Unless the harmonies are some-
:imes foreign to the sustained note, it does not constitute a pedal. In
modern music pedals take place on either the tonic or the dominant,
other pedal-notes being rare and of complex meaning. Double
medals (of tonic and dominant, with tonic below) are not unusual.
The device is capable of very free treatment, and has produced
many very bold and rich harmonic effects in music since the earlier
works of Beethoven. It probably accounts for many so-called

essential discords."

In the form of drones the pedal is the only real harmonic device
of ancient and primitive music. The ancient Greeks sometimes

IO

HARMOTOME— HARNESS

used a reiterated instrumental note as an accompaniment above
the melody. These primitive devices, though harmonic in the true
modern sense of the word, are out of the line of harmonic develop-
ment, and did not help it in any definite way.

27. The fundamental bass of a harmonic passage is an imaginary
bass consisting of the roots of the chords.

28. A figured bass, or continue, is the bass of a composition supplied
with numerals indicating the chords to be filled in by the accompanist.
Thorough-bass (Ger. Generalbass) is the art of interpreting such
figures. (D. F. T.)

HARMOTOME, a mineral of the zeolite group, consisting of
hydrous barium and aluminium silicate, HsBaAi^SiOs^+SHjO.
Usually a small amount of potassium is present replacing part

of the barium. The system of
crystallization is monoclinic; only
complex twinned crystals are
known. A common and character-
istic form of twinned crystal, such
as is represented in the figure, con-
sists of four intercrossing indi-
viduals twinned together according
to two twin-laws; the compound
group resembles a tetragonal crystal
with prism and pyramid, but may
be distinguished from this by the
grooves along the edges of the
pseudo-prism. The faces of the
crystals are marked by character-
istic striations, as indicated in the figure. Twinned crystals of
exactly the same kind are also frequent in phillipsite (q.v.).
Crystals are usually white and translucent, with a vitreous
lustre. The hardness is 45, and the specific gravity 2-5.

The name harmotome (from dp^os, " a joint," and Ttpvuv,
" to cut ") was given by R. J. Haiiy in 1801, and has a crystallo-
graphic signification. Earlier names are cross-stone (Ger.
Kreuzstein) , ercinite, andreasbergolite and andreolite, the two
last being derived from the locality, Andreasberg in the Harz.
Morvenite (from Morven in Argyllshire) is the name given to
small transparent crystals formerly referred to phillipsite.

Like other zeolites, harmotome occurs with calcite in the
amygdaloidal cavities of volcanic rocks, for example, in the
dolerites of Dumbartonshire, and as fine crystals in the agate-
lined cavities in the melaphyre of Oberstein in Germany. It
also occurs in gneiss, and sometimes in metalliferous veins.
At Andreasberg in the Harz it is found in the lead and silver
veins; and at Strontian in Argyllshire in lead veins, associated
with brewsterite (a strontium and barium zeolite), barytes and
calcite. (L. J. S.)

HARMS, CLAUS (1778-1855), German divine, was born at
Fahrstedt in Schleswig-Holstein on the 25th of May 1778, and
in his youth worked in his father's mill. At the university of
Kiel he repudiated the prevailing rationalism and under the
influence of Schleiermacher became a fervent Evangelical
preacher, first at Lunden (1806), and then at Kiel (1816). His
trenchant style made him very popular, and he did great service
for his cause especially in 1817, when, on the 3ooth anniversary
of the Reformation, he published side by side with Luther's
theses, ninety-five of his own, attacking reason as " the pope of
our time " who " dismisses Christ from the altar and throws
God's word from the pulpit." He also had some fame as a hymn-
writer, and besides volumes of sermons published a good book on
Pastoraltheologie (1830). He resigned his pastorate on account
of blindness in 1849, and died on the ist of February 1855.

See Autobiography (2nd ed., Kiel, 1852); M. Baumgarten, Bin
Denkmalfur C. Harms (Brunswick, 1855).

HARNACK, ADOLF (1851- ), German theologian, was born
on the 7th of May 1851 at Dorpat, in Russia, where his father,
Theodosius Harnack (1817-1889), held a professorship of pastoral
theology.

Theodosius Harnack was a staunch Lutheran and a prolific
writer on theological subjects; his chief field of work was
practical theology, and his important book on that subject,
summing up his long experience and teaching, appeared at

Eriangen (1877-1878, 2 vols.). The liturgy of the Lutheran
church of Russia has, since 1898, been based on his Liturgische
Formulare (1872).

The son pursued his studies at Dorpat (1869-1872) and at
Leipzig, where he took his degree; and soon afterwards (1874)
began lecturing as a Privatdozent. These lectures, which dealt
with such special subjects as Gnosticism and the Apocalypse,
attracted considerable attention, and in 1876 he was appointed
professor extraordinarius. In the same year he began the publica-
tion, in conjunction with O. L. von Gebhardt and T. Zahn, of
an edition of the works of the Apostolic Fathers, Patrum apostoli-
corum opera, a smaller edition of which appeared in 1877.
Three years later he was called to Giessen as professor ordinarius
of church history. There he collaborated with Oscar Leopold
von Gebhardt in Texte und U nlersuchungen zur Geschichte der
altchristlichen Litleratur (1882 sqq.), an irregular periodical, con-
taining only essays in New Testament and patristic fields. In
1 88 1 he published a work on monasticism, Das Monchtum, seine
Ideale und seine Geschichte (sth ed., 1900; English translation,
1901), and became joint-editor with Emil Schurer of the
Theologische Literaturzeitung. In 1885 he published the first
volume of his epoch-making work, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte
(3rd ed. in three volumes, 1894-1898; English translation in
seven volumes, 1894-1899). In this work Harnack traces the
rise of dogma, by which he understands the authoritative
doctrinal system of the 4th century and its development down
to the Reformation. He considers that in its earliest origins
Christian faith and the methods of Greek thought were so
closely intermingled that much that is not essential to Chris-
tianity found its way into the resultant system. Therefore
Protestants are not only free, but bound, to criticize it; indeed,
for a Protestant Christian, dogma cannot be said to exist. An
abridgment of this appeared in 1889 with the title Grundriss
der Dogmengeschichte (3rd ed., 1898). In 1886 Harnack was
called to Marburg; and in 1888, in spite of violent opposition
from the conservative section of the church authorities, to
Berlin. In 1890 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences.
At Berlin, somewhat against his will, he was drawn into a
controversy on the Apostles' Creed, in which the party antagon-
isms within the Prussian Church had found expression. Harnack 's
view is that the creed contains both too much and too little to
be a satisfactory test for candidates for ordination, and he
would prefer a briefer symbol which could be rigorously exacted
from all (cf. his Das apostolische Glaubensbekenntnis. Ein
geschichtlicher Bericht nebst einem Nachworte, 1892; 27th ed.,
1896). At Berlin Harnack continued his literary labours. In
1893 he published a history of early Christian literature down
to Eusebius, Geschichte der altchrisll. Litteratur bis Eusebius
(part 2 of vol. i., 1897); and in 1900 appeared his popular
lectures, Das Wesen des Christentums (sth ed., 1901; English
translation, What is Christianity? 1901; 3rd ed., 1904). One
of his more recent historical works is Die Mission und Ausbreitung
des Christentums in den ersten drei J ahrhunderten (1902; English
translation in two volumes, 1904-1905). It has been followed
by some very interesting and important New Testament studies
(Beitrage zur Einleilung in das neue Testament, 1906 sqq.; Engl.
trans.: Luke the Physician, 1907; Tke Savings of Jesus, 1908).
Harnack, both as lecturer and writer, was one of the most
prolific and most stimulating of modern critical scholars, and
trained up in his " Seminar " a whole generation of teachers,
who carried his ideas and methods throughout the whole of
Germany and even beyond its borders. His distinctive character-
istics are his claim for absolute freedom in the study of church
history and the New Testament; his distrust of speculative
theology, whether orthodox or liberal; his interest in practical
Christianity as a religious life and not a system of theology.
Some of his addresses on social matters have been published
under the heading " Essays on the Social Gospel " (1907).

HARNESS (from O. Fr. harneis or harnois; the ultimate origin
is obscure; the Celtic origin which connects it with the Welsh
haiarn, iron, has phonetic and other difficulties; the French is
the origin of the Span, arnes, and Ger. Harnisch), probably, in

HARO— HARP

n

origin, gear, tackle, equipment in general, but early applied
particularly to the body armour of a soldier, including the
trappings of the horse; now the general term for the gear of an
animal used for draft purposes, traces, collar, bridle, girth,
breeching, &c. It is usually not applied to the saddle or bridle
of a riding animal. The word, in its original meaning of tackle
or working apparatus, is still found in weaving, for the mechanism
which shifts the warp-threads to form the " shed," and in
bell-hanging, for the apparatus by which a large bell is hung.
The New English Dictionary quotes an early use of the word for
the lines, rod and hooks of an angler (Fysshing with an Angle,

c. 145°)-

HARO, CLAMEUR DE, the ancient Norman custom of " crying
for justice," still surviving in the Channel Islands. The wronged
party must on his knees and before witnesses cry: "Haro!
Haro! Haro! a 1'aide, mon prince, on me fait tort." This
appeal has to be respected, and the alleged trespass or tort
must cease till the matter has been thrashed out in the courts.
The " cry " thus acts as an interim injunction, and no inhabitant
of the Channel Islands would think of resisting it. The custom
is undoubtedly very ancient, dating from times when there
were no courts and no justice except such as was meted out by
princes personally. The popular derivation for the name is
that which explains "Haro" as an abbreviation of "Ha!
Rollo," a direct appeal to Rollo, first duke of Normandy. It
is far more probable that haro is simply an exclamation to call
attention (O.H.G. hera, hara, "here"!). Indeed it is clear
that the " cry for justice " was in no sense an institution of
Rollo, but was a method of appeal recognized in many countries.
It is said to be identical with the " Legatro of the Bavarians
and the Thuringians," and the first mention of it in France is
to be found in the " Grand coutumier de Normandie." A
similar custom, only observed in criminal charges, was recognized
by the Saxon laws under the name of " Clamor Violentiae."
Thus there is reason to think that William the Conqueror on his
arrival in England found the " cry " fully established as far as
criminal matters were concerned. Later the " cry " was made
applicable to civil wrongs, and, when the administration of
justice became systematized, disappeared altogether in criminal
cases. It naturally tended to become obsolete as the administra-
tion of justice became systematized, but it was long retained
in north-western France in cases of disputed possession,
and was not actually repealed until the close of the i8th
century. A survival of the English form of haro is possibly to
be found in the " Ara," a cry at fairs when " settling time "
arrived.

HAROLD I. (d. 1040), surnamed Harefopt, the illegitimate
son of Canute, king of England, and ^Elfgifu of Northampton.
On the death of his father in 1035, he claimed the crown of
England in opposition to Canute's legitimate son, Hardicanute.
His claims were supported by Leofric, earl of Mercia, and the
north; those of Hardicanute by his mother, Queen Emma,
Godwine, earl of the West-Saxons and the south. Eventually
Harold was temporarily elected regent, pending a final settle-
ment on Hardicanufe's return from Denmark. Hardicanute,
however, tarried, and meanwhile Harold's party increased
rapidly. In 1037 he was definitely elected king, and banished
Emma from the kingdom. The only events of his brief reign
are ineffectual inroads of the Welsh and Scots. Hardicanute
was preparing to invade England in support of his claims when
Harold died at Oxford on the loth of March 1040.

HAROLD II. (c. 1022-1066), king of the English, the second
son of Earl Godwine, was born about 1022. While still very
young (before 1045) he was appointed to the earldom of the
East-Angles. He snared his father's outlawry and banishment
in 1051; but while Godwine went to Flanders, Harold with his
brother Leofwine took refuge in Ireland. In 1052 Harold and
Leofwine returned. Having plundered in the west of England,
they joined their father, and were with him at the assembly
which decreed the restoration of the whole family. Harold
was now restored to his earldom of the East-Angles, and on his
father's death in 1053 he succeeded him in the greater earldom

of the West-Saxons. He was now the chief man in the kingdom,
and when the older earls Leofric and Siward died his power
increased yet more, and the latter part of Edward's reign was
virtually the reign of Harold. In 1055 he drove back the Welsh,
who had burned Hereford. In 1063 came the great Welsh war,
in which Harold, with the help of his brother Tostig, crushed the
power of Gruffyd, who was killed by his own people. But in
spite of his power and his prowess, Harold was the minister of
the king rather than his personal favourite. This latter position
rather belonged to Tostig, who on the death of Siward in 1053
received the earldom of Northumberland. Here, however,
his harshness soon provoked enmity, and in 1065 the North-
umbrians revolted against him, choosing Morkere in his place.
Harold acted as mediator between the king and the insurgents,
and at length agreed to the choice of Morkere, and the banish-
ment of his brother. At the beginning of 1066 Edward died,
with his last breath recommending Harold as his successor.
He was accordingly elected at once and crowned. The men
of Northumberland at first refused to acknowledge him, but
Harold won them over. The rest of his brief reign was taken
up with preparations against the attacks which threatened
him on both sides at once. William challenged the crown,
alleging both a bequest of Edward in his favour and a personal
engagement which Harold had contracted towards him —
probably in 1064; and prepared for the invasion of England.
Meanwhile Tostig was trying all means to bring about his own
restoration. He first attacked the Isle of Wight, then Lindesey,
but was compelled to take shelter in Scotland. From May to
September the king kept the coast with a great force by sea
and land, but at last provisions failed and the land army was
dispersed. Harold then came to London, ready to 'meet which-
ever enemy came first. By this time Tostig had engaged Harold
Hardrada of Norway to invade England. Together they sailed
up the Humber, defeated Edwin and Morkere, and received the
submission of York. Harold hurried northwards; and on the
25th of September he came on the Northmen at Stamford
Bridge and won a complete victory, in which Tostig and Harold
Hardrada were slain. But two days later William landed at
Pevensey. Harold marched southward as fast as possible. He
gathered his army in London from all southern and eastern
England, but Edwin and Morkere kept back the forces of the
north. The king then marched into Sussex and engaged the
Normans on the hill of Senlac near Battle (see HASTINGS). After
a fight which lasted from morning till evening, the Normans had
the victory, and Harold and his two brothers lay dead on the
field (i4th of October 1066). .

HARP (Fr. harpe; Ger. Harfe; Ital. arpa), a member of the
class of stringed instruments of which the strings are twanged or
vibrated by the fingers. The harp is an instrument of beautiful
proportions, approximating to a triangular form, the strings
diminishing in length as they ascend in pitch. The mechanism
is concealed within the different parts of which the instrument
is composed, (i) the pedestal or pedal-box, on which rest (2) the
vertical pillar, and (3) the inclined convex body in which the
soundboard is fixed, (4) the curved neck, with (5) the comb
concealing the mechanism for stopping the strings, supported
by the pillar and the body.

(1) The pedestal or pedal-box^ forms the base of the harp and
contains seven pedals both in single and double action harps, the
difference being that in the single action the pedals are only capable
of raising the strings one semitone by means of a drop into a notch,
whereas with the double action the pedals, after a first drop, can by
a further drop into a second and lower notch shorten the string a
second semitone, whereby each string is made to serve in turn for
flat, natural and sharp. The harp is normally in the key of C flat
major, and each of the seven pedals acts upon one of the notes of
this diatonic scale throughout the compass. The choice of this
method of tuning was imposed by the construction of the harp with
double action. The pedals remain in the notches until released by
the foot, when the pedal returns to its normal position through the
action of a spiral spring, which may be seen under each of the pedals
by turning the harp up.

(2) The vertical pillar is a kind of tunnel in which are placed the
seven rods worked by the pedals, which set in motion the mechanism
situated in the neck of the instrument. Although the pillar apparently

12

HARP

rests on the pedestal, it is really supported by a brass shoulder firmly
screwed to the beam which forms the lowest part of the body, a
connexion which remains undisturbed when the pedal box and its
cover are removed.

(3) The body or sound-chest of the harp is in shape like the longi-
tudinal section of a cone. It was formerly composed of staves joined
together as in the lute and mandoline. Erard was the first to make
it in two pieces of wood, generally sycamore, with the addition of a
flat soundboard of Swiss pine. The body is strengthened on the
inside, in order to resist the tension of the strings, by means of ribs;
there are five soundholes in the back, which in the older models were
furnished with swell shutters opened at will by the swell pedal, the
fourth from the left worked by the left foot. As the increase of
sound obtained by means of the swell was infinitesimal, the device
has now been discarded. The harp is strung by knotting the end of
the string and passing it through its hole in the centre of the sound-
board, where it is kept in position by means cf a grooved peg which
grips the string.

(4) The neck consists of a curved piece of wood resting on the body
at the treble end of the instrument and joining the pillar at the bass
end. In the neck are set the tuning pins round which are wound the
strings.

(5) The comb is the name given to two brass plates or covers
which fit over both sides of the neck, concealing part of the mechan-
ism for shortening the strings and raising their pitch a semitone
when actuated by the pedals. On the front plate of the comb, to the
left of the player, is a row of brass bridges against which the strings
rest below the tuning pins, and which determine the vibrating length
of the string reckoned from the peg in the soundboard. Below the
bridges are two rows of brass disks, known as forks, connected by
steel levers; each disk is equipped with two studs for grasping the
string and shortening it. The mechanism is ingenious. When a
pedal is depressed to the first notch, the corresponding lower disk
turns a little way on a mandrel keeping the studs clear of the string.
The upper disk, set in motion by the steel levers connecting the disks,
revolves simultaneously till the string is caught by the two studs
which thus form a new bridge, shortening the vibrating length of
the string by just the length necessary to raise the pitch a semitone.
If the same pedal be depressed to the second notch, another move-
ment causes the lower disk to revolve again till the string is a second
time seized and shortened, the upper disk remaining stationary.
The hidden mechanism meanwhile has gone through a series of
movements; the pedal is really a lever set upon a spring, and when
depressed it draws down the connecting rod in the pillar which sets
in motion chains governing the mandrels of the disks.

The harp usually has forty-six strings, of gut in the middle and
upper registers, and of covered steel wire in the bass; the C strings
are red and the F strings blue. The compass thus has a range of

octaves from

The double stave is

used as for the pianoforte. The single action harp used to be tuned
to the key of Efc> major.

The modern harp with double action is the only instrument with
fixed tones, not determined by the ear or touch of the performer,
which has separate notes for naturals, sharps and flats, giving it an
enharmonic compass. On the harp the appreciable interval between
D# and El> can be played. The harp in its normal condition is tuned
to Ct> major; it rests with the performer to transpose it at will in a
few seconds into any other key by means of the pedals. Each of the
pedals influences one note of the scale throughout the compass,
beginning at the left with D, C, and B worked by the left foot.
Missing the fourth or forte pedal, and continuing towards the right
we get the E, F, G and A pedals worked by the right foot. By
lowering the D pedal into the first notch the Db becomes Dti, and
into the second notch D#, and so on for all the pedals. If, for
example, a piece be written in the key of E major, the harp is trans-
posed into that key by depressing the E, A, and B pedals to the first
notch, and those for F, G, C and D to the second or sharp notch and
so on through all the keys. Accidentals and modulations are
readily played by means of the pedals, provided the transitions be
not too rapid. The harp is the instrument upon which transposition
presents the least difficulty, for the fingering is the same for all
keys. The strings are twanged with the thumbs and the first three
fingers.

The quality of tone does not vary much in the different registers,
but it has the greatest brilliancy in keys with many flats, for the
strings are then open and not shortened by the forks. Various
effects can be obtained on the harp: (i) by harmonics, (2) by damp-
ing, (3) by guitar tones, (4) by the glissando. (i) Harmonics are
produced by resting the ball of the hand on the middle of the string
and setting it in vibration by the thumb or the first two fingers of
the same hand, whereby a mysterious and beautiful tone is obtained.
Two or three harmonics can be played together with the left hand,
and by using both hands at once as many as four are possible.
(2) Damping is effected by laying the palm against the string in the

bass and the back of the finger in the treble. (3) Guitar or pizzicato
notes are obtained by twanging the strings sharply at the lower end
near the soundboard with the nails. (4) The glissando effect is
produced, as on the pianoforte, by sliding the thumb or finger along
the strings in quick succession; this does not necessarily give the
diatonic scale, for by means of the pedals the harp can be tuned
beforehand to chords. It is possible to play on the harp all kinds of
diatonic and arpeggio passages, but no chromatic, except in very
slow tempo, on account of the time required by the mechanism of
the pedals; and chords of three or four notes in each hand, shakes,
turns, successions of double notes can be easily acquired. The same
note can also be repeated slowly or quickly, the next string being
tuned to a duplicate note, and the two strings plucked alternately
in order to give the string time to vibrate.

Pleyel's chromatic harp, patented in 1894 ar>d improved in 1903
by Gustave Lyon, manager of the firm of Pleyel, Wolff & Co., is
an instrument practically without mechanism which has already
won great favour in France and Belgium, notably in the orchestra.
It has been constructed on the familiar lines of the pianoforte.
Henry Pape, a piano manufacturer, had in 1845 conceived the idea
of a chromatic harp of, which the strings crossed in the centre as in
the piano, and a report on the construction was published at the
time; the instrument, however, was not considered successful, and
was relegated to oblivion until Mr Lyon revised the matter and
brought out a successful and practical instrument. The advantages
claimed for this harp are the abandonment of the whole pedal
mechanism, a metal framing which insures the strings keeping in
tune as long as those of a piano, and an easily acquired technique.
The chromatic harp consists of (i) a pedestal on castors, (2) a steel
pillar without internal mechanism, (3) a wide neck containing two
brass wrest-planks in which are fixed two rows of tuning pins, and
(4) a soundchest in which is firmly riveted the steel plate to which
the strings are fastened, and the soundboard pierced with eyelet
holes through which the strings are drawn to the string plate. There
is a string for every chromatic semitone of the scale of C major, the
white strings representing the white keys of the piano keyboard,
and the black strings corresponding to the black keys. The tuning
pins for the black strings are set in the left side of the neck in alternate
groups of twos and threes, and those for the white in the right side
in alternate groups of threes and fours. The strings cross half-way
between neck and soundboard, this being the point where they are
plucked; the left hand finds the black notes above, and the right
hand below the crossing. There is besides in the neck a set of twelve
tuning buttons, each one of which on being pressed gives out one
note of the chromatic scale tuned to the pitch of the diapason normal.
It is obvious that the repertoire for this harp is very extensive,
including many compositions written for the piano, which however
cannot be played with any legato effects, these being still impossible
on this chromatic harp.

History. — While the instrument is of great antiquity, it is yet
from northern Europe that the modern harp and its name are derived.
The Greeks and Romans preferred to it the lyre in its different
varieties, and a Latin writer, Venantius Fortunatus,1 describes it in
the 7th century of our era as an instrument of the barbarians —
" Romanusque lyra, plaudat tibi barbarus harpa." This is believed
to be the earliest mention of the name, which is clearly Teutonic, —
O.H.Ger. harapha, A.-S. hearpe, Old Norse harpa. The modern
Fr. harpe retains the aspirate; in the Spanish and Italian arpa it is
dropped.

The earliest delineations of the harp in Egypt give no indication
that it had not existed long before. There are, indeed, representa-
tions in Egyptian paintings of stringed instruments of a bow-form
having affinities with both primitive harp and nefer (a kind of oval
guitar) that support the idea of the invention of the harp from
the tense string of the
warrior's or hunter's
bow. This primitive-
looking instrument,
called nanga, had a boat-
shaped sound-chest with
a parchment or skin
soundboard, down the
centre of which one end
of the string was fas-
tened to a strip of wood,
whilst the other was
wound round pegs in •
the upper part of the p

bow. The nanga was <IG° '•

played horizontally, being borne upon the performer's shoulder.1
Between it and the grand vertical harps in the frescos of the time of
Rameses III., more than 3000 years old, discovered by the traveller
Bruce3 (fig. i), there are varieties that permit us to bind the whole,

1 Poemala, lib. vii. cap. 8, p. 245, Migne's Patrologiae cursus
completes (Paris, 1857-1866, vol. 88).

1 A few nangas (c. 1500 B.C.) are preserved among the Egyptian
antiquities at the British Museum, fourth Egyptian room.

* Bruce's harps are reproduced by Champollion, tome iii. p. 261.

HARP

from the simplest bow-form to the almost triangular harp, into one
family (see fig. 2).

The Egyptian harp had no front pillar, and as it was strung with
catgut the tension and pitch must necessarily have been low. The

harps above - mentioned
depicted in the tomb at
Thebes, assumed from
the players to be more
than 6 ft. high, have not
many strings, the one
having ten, the other
thirteen. What the
, accordance of these strings
I was it would be hard to
recover. We must be
content with the know-
ledge that the old
Egyptians possessed harps
in principle like our
.., own, the largest having

pedestals upon which they

bestowed a wealth of decoration, as if to show how much they
prized them.

The ancient Assyrians had harps like those of Egypt in being
without a front pillar, but differing from them in having the sound-
body uppermost, in which we find the early use of soundholes;
while the lower portion was a bar to which the strings were tied and
by means of which the tuning was apparently effected.1 What the
Hebrew harp was, whether it followed the Egyptian or the Assyrian,
we do not know. That King David played upon the harp as com-
monly depicted is rather a modern idea. Medieval artists frequently
gave King David the psaltery, a horizontal stringed instrument from
which has gradually developed the modern piano. The Hebrew
" kinnor " may have been a kind ot trigonon, a triangular stringed
instrument between a small harp and a psaltery, sounded by a
plectrum, or more probably, as advocated by Dr Stainer in his essay
on the music of the Bible, a kind of lyre.

The earliest records that we possess of the Celtic race, whether
Gaelic or Cymric, give the harp a prominent place and harpists
peculiar veneration and distinction. The names for the harp are,
however, quite different from the Teutonic. The Irish " clairseach,"
the Highland Scottish " clarsach," the Welsh, Cornish, Breton
" telyn, ' " telein," " te'Ien," show no etymological kinship to the
other European names. The first syllable in clairseach or clarsach
is derived from the Gaelic " clar," a board or table (soundboard),
while the first syllable of telyn is distinctly Old Welsh, and has a
tensile meaning; thus resonance supplies the one idea, tension
the other.

The literature of these Celtic harps may be most directly found in
Bunting's Ancient Music of Ireland (Dublin, 1840), Gunn's His-
torical Enquiry respecting the Performance on the Harp in the Highlands
of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1807), and E. Jones's Musical and Poetical
Memoirs of the Welsh Bards (London, 1784). The treatises of Walker,
Dalyell, and others may also be consulted ; but in all these authorities
due care must be taken of the bias of patriotism, and the delusive
aim to reconstruct much that we must be content to receive as only
vaguely indicated in records and old monuments. There is, however,
one early Irish monument about which there can be no mistake, the
harp upon a cross belonging to the ancient church of Ullard near
Kilkenny, the date of which cannot be later than 830; the sculpture
is rude, but the instrument is clearly shown by the drawing in
Bunting's work to have no front pillar. This remarkable structural
likeness to the old harps of Egypt and Assyria may be accidental,
but permits the plausible hypothesis of Eastern descent. The oldest
specimen of the beautiful form by which the Irish harp is now
recognized, with gracefully curved front pillar and sweep of neck
(the latter known as the harmonic curve), is the famous harp in
Trinity College, Dublin, the possession of which has been attributed
to King Brian Boiroimhe. From this mythic ownership Dr Petrie
(see essay in Bunting) has delivered it; but he can only deduce the
age from the ornamentation and heraldry, which fix its date in the
I4th century or a little later. There is a cast of it in the Victoria
and Albert Museum. The next oldest is in the Highlands of Scotland,
the Clarsach Lumanach, or Lament's Clarschoe, belonging, with
another of later date, to the old Perthshire family of Robertson of
Lude. Both are described in detail by Gunn. This Lamont harp
was taken by a lady of that family from Argyleshire about 1460,
on her marriage into the family of Lude. It had about thirty strings
tuned singly, but the scale was sometimes doubled in pairs of unisons
like lutes and other contemporary instruments. The Dalway harp
in Ireland (fig. 3) inscribed " Ego sum Regina Cithararum," and
dated 1621, appears to have had pairs of strings in the centre only.
These were of brass wire, and played with the pointed finger-nails.
The Italian contemporary " Arpa Doppia " was entirely upon the
duplex principle, but with gut strings played by the fleshy ends of
the fingers. When E. Bunting met at Belfast in 1792 as

' ,RePr?scntati°ns of these may be seen among the musical scenes
in the Nimrod Gallery at the British Museum.

many Irish harpers as could be at that late date assembled, he
found the compass of their harps to comprise

thirty notes which were tuned diatonically in the key^f G, under
certain circumstances transposable to C and rarely to D, the scales
being the major of these keys. The harp first appeared in the coat
of arms of Ireland in the reign of Henry VIII.; and some years
after in a map of 1567 preserved in a volume of state papers, we
find it truly drawn according to the outlines of the national Irish
instrument.2 References to the Highlands of Scotland are of neces-
sity included with Ireland; and in both we find another name
erroneously applied by lexicographers to the
harp, viz. " cruit." Bunting particularly
mentions the " cinnard cruit " (harp with
a high head) and the " crom cruit " (the
curved harp). In the Ossianic MSS. of the
Dean of Lismore (1512) the word " crwt "
occurs several times, and in Neill M 'Alpine's
Gaelic Dictionary (1832), which gives the
dialect of Islay, closely related to that of
Ulster, the word " cruit " is rendered
" harp." The confusion doubtless arose from
the fact that from the nth century cithara
is glossed hearpan in Anglo-Saxon MSS., a
word which, like cilharisare in medieval
Latin, referred to plucking or twanging of
strings in contradistinction to those instru-
ments vibrated by means of the bow. In FIG. 3.
Irish of the 8th and gth centuries (Zeuss) Irish (Dalway) Harp,
cithara is always glossed by " crot." The modern Welsh " crwth "
is not a harp but a " rotta " (see CROWD). An old Welsh harp,
not triple strung, exists, which bears a great resemblance to
the Irish harp in neck, soundboard and soundholes. But this
does not imply derivation of the harp of Wales from that of
Ireland or the reverse. There is really no good historical evidence,
and there may have been a common or distinct origin on which
ethnology only can throw light.3 The Welsh like the Irish harp
was often an hereditary instrument to be preserved with great
care and veneration, and used by the bards of the family, who were
alike the poet-musicians and historians. A slave was not allowed
to touch a harp, and it was exempted by the Welsh laws from seizure
for debt. The old Welsh harp appears to have been at one time
strung with horse-hair, and by the Eisteddfod laws the pupil spent
his noviciate of three years in the practice of a harp with that string-
ing. The comparatively modern Welsh triple harp (fig. 4) is always
strung with gut. It has a rising neck as before
stated, and three rows of strings, — the outer rows
tuned diatonic, the centre one chromatic for the
sharps and flats. Jones gives it 98 strings and
a compass of 5 octaves and one note, from
violoncello C. As in all Celtic harps, the left is
the treble hand, and in the triple harps there are
27 strings on that side, the right or bass hand
having 37, and the middle or chromatic row 34.

The first pattern of the modern harp is dis-
covered in German and Anglo-Saxon illuminated
MSS. as far back as the gth century.4 A diatonic
instrument, it must have been common through-
out Europe, as Orcagna, Fra Angelico, and other
famous Italian painters depict it over and over
again in their masterpieces. No accidental
semitones were possible with this instrument,
unless the strings were shortened by the player's
fingers. This lasted until the 1 7th century,
when a Tirolese maker adapted hooks6 (perhaps FIG. 4.

suggested by the fretted or bonded clavichord) WelshTripleHarp.
that, screwed into the neck, could be turned
downwards to fix the desired semitone at pleasure. At last, some-
where about 1720, Hochbrucker, a Bavarian, invented pedals that,
acting through the pedestal of the instrument, governed by mechan-
ism the stopping, and thus left the player's hands free, an indisput-
able advantage; and it became possible at once to play in no less

2 See also a woodcut in John Derrick's Image of Ireland (1581),
pi. iii. (Edinburgh ed. 1883).

3 See the fine volume Musical Instruments on the Irish and
Scottish harps by Robert Bruce Armstrong (1904), vol. i. Vol. ii.,
which deals with the Welsh harp, has unfortunately been withdrawn
from sale.

4 See for the medieval harp a careful article by Hortense Panum,
" Harfe und Lyra im alten -Nord-Europa," in Intern. Mus. Ges.
vol. vii. pt. I (Leipzig, 1905); and for references as to illuminated
MSS., early woodcuts, paintings, &c. see Hugo Leichtentritt, " Was
lehren uns die Bildwerke des 14-17 Jahrhunderts uber die Instru-
mentalmusik ihrer Zeit ? " ibid. vol. vii. p. 3 (Leipzig, 1906).

6 See Nauwerk, " Die Hakenharfe, Die Vervoilkommnung des
Mechanismus an der deutschen Harfe." in Allg. musik. Ztg. (Leipzig,
1815), p. 545 seq.

HARPENDEN— HARPIES

than eight major scales. By a sequence of improvements, in which
two Frenchmen named Cousineau took an important part, the
various defects inherent in Hochbrucker's plan became ameliorated.
The pedals were doubled, and, the tuning of the instrument being
changed from the key of Ei> to Ci>, it became possible to play in
fifteen keys, thus exceeding the power of the keyboard instruments,
over which the harp has another important advantage in the sim-
plicity of the fingering, which is the same for every key.

It is to Sebastian Erard we owe the perfecting of the pedal harp
(ng' 5)> a triumph he gained in Paris by unremitting studies begun
when he adopted a " fork " mechanism in 1786
and ended in 1810 when he had attained com-
plete success with the double action pedal
mechanism already described above. Erard's
merit was not confined to this improvement
only; he modified the structure of the comb
that conceals the mechanism, and constructed
the sound-body of the instrument upon a
modern principle more advantageous to the
tone.

Notwithstanding these improvements and the
great beauty of tone the harp possesses, the
domestic use of it in modern times has almost
disappeared. The great cost of a good harp,
and the trouble to many amateurs of tuning,
may have led to the supplanting of the harp
by the more convenient and useful pianoforte.
With this comes naturally a diminution in
FIG. 5. the number of solo-players on the instru-

Modern Erard Harp. ment. Were it not for the increasing use of
the harp in the orchestra, the colour of its
tone having attracted the masters of instrumentation, so that
the great scores of Meyerbeer and Gounod, of Berlioz, Liszt and
Wagner are not complete without it, we should perhaps know
little more of the harp than of the dulcimer, in spite of the
efforts of distinguished virtuosi whose devotion to their instrument
maintains its technique on an equality with that of any other, even
the most in public favour. The first record of the use of harps in the
orchestra occurs in the account of the Ballet comique de la royne
performed at the chateau de Moutiers on the occasion of the marriage
of Mary of Lorraine with the due de Joyeuse in 1581, when harps
formed part of the concert de musique.

See in addition to the works already referred to, Engel's Musical
Instruments in the South Kensington Museum (1874); and the
articles " Harp," in Rees's Cyclopaedia, written by Dr Burney, in
Stainer and Barrett's Dictionary of Musical Terms (1876), and in
Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. On the origins of the
instrument see Proceedings of British Association (1904) (address of
president of anthropological section). (K. S. ; A. J. H.)

HARPENDEN, an urban district in the Mid or St Albans
parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, 25 m. N.W.
by N. from London by the Midland railway, served also by a
branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 4725. It
is a favourite outlying residential district for those whose work
lies in London. The church of St Nicholas is a modern recon-
struction with the exception of the Perpendicular tower. In the
Lawes Testimonial Laboratory there is a vast collection of
samples of experimentally grown produce, annual products,
ashes and soils. Sir John Bennet Lawes (d. 1900) provided an
endowment of £100,000 for the perpetuation of the agricultural
experiments which he inaugurated here at his seat of Rothamsted
Park. The success of his association of chemistry with botany
is shown by the fact that soil has been made to bear wheat without
intermission for upwards of half a century without manure.
The country neighbouring to Harpenden is very pleasant, includ-
ing the gorse-covered Harpenden Common and the narrow
well-wooded valley of the upper Lea.

HARPER'S FERRY, a town of Jefferson county, West
Virginia, U.S.A., finely situated at the confluence of the Potomac
and Shenandoah rivers (which here pass through a beautiful
gorge in the Blue Ridge), 55 m. N.W. of Washington. Pop.
(1900) 896; (19101 766. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio
railway, which crosses the Potomac here, by the Winchester &
Potomac railway (Baltimore & Ohio) of which it is a terminus,
and by boats on the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal, which passes
along the Maryland side of the Potomac. Across the Potomac
on the north rise the Maryland Heights; across the Shenandoah,
on the West Virginia side, the Virginia or Loudoun Heights:
and behind the town to the W. the Bolivar Heights. A United
States arsenal and armoury were established at Harper's Ferry
in 1796, the site being chosen because of the good water-power;

these were seized on the i6th of October 1859 by John Brown
(q.v.), the abolitionist, and some 21 of his followers. For four
months before the raid Brown and his men lived on the Kennedy
Farm, in Washington county, Maryland, about 4 m. N.W. of
Harper's Ferry. The engine-house in which Brown was captured
was exhibited at the Columbian Exposition at Chicago and was
later rebuilt on Bolivar Heights; a marble pillar, marked
" John Brown's Fort," has been erected on its original site.
On Camp Hill is Storer College (state-aided), a normal school for
negroes, which was established under Free Baptist control in
1867, and has academic, normal, biblical, musical and industrial
departments.

The first settlement here was made about 1747 by Robert
Harper, who ran a ferry across the Potomac. The position
of Harper's Ferry at the lower end of the Shenandoah Valley
rendered it a place of strategic importance during the Civil
War. On the i8th of April 1861, the day after Virginia passed
her ordinance of secession, when a considerable force of Virginia
militia under General Kenton Harper approached the town — an
attack having been planned in Richmond two days before — the
Federal garrison of 45 men under Lieutenant Roger Jones set fire
to the arsenal and fled. Within the next few days large numbers
of Confederate volunteers assembled here; and Harper was
succeeded in command (27th April) by " Stonewall " Jackson,
who was in turn succeeded by Brigadier-General Joseph E.
Johnston on the 23rd of May. Johnston thought that the place
was unimportant, and withdrew when (i^th June) the Federal
forces under General Robert Patterson and Colonel Lew Wallace
approached, and Harper's Ferry was again occupied by a Federal
garrison. In September 1862, during General Lee's first invasion
of the North, General McClellan advised that the place be
abandoned in order that the 10,000 men defending it might be
added to his fighting force, but General Halleck would not
consent, so that when Lee needed supplies from the Shenandoah
Valley he was blocked by the garrison, then under the command
of Colonel Dixon S. Miles. On Jackson's approach they were
distributed as follows: about 7000 men on Bolivar Heights,
about 2000 on Maryland Heights, and about 1800 on the lower
ground. On the i3th of September General Lafayette McLaws
carried Maryland Heights and General John G. Walker planted
a battery on Loudoun Heights. On the I4th there was some
fighting, but early on the i $th, as Jackson was about to make
an assault on Bolivar Heights, the garrison, surrounded by a
superior force, surrendered. The total Federal loss (including
the garrisons at Winchester and Martinsburg) amounted to
44 killed (the commander was mortally wounded), 12,520
prisoners, and 13,000 small arms. For this terrible loss to the
Union army the responsibility seems to have been General
Halleck's, though the blame was officially put on Colonel Miles,
.who died immediately after the surrender. Jackson rejoined
Lee on the following day in time to take part in the battle of
Antietam, and after the battle General McClellan placed a
strong garrison (the I2th Corps) at Harper's Ferry. In June
1863 the place was again abandoned to the Confederates on their
march to Pennsylvania. After their defeat at Gettysburg, the
town again fell into the hands of the Federal troops, and it
remained in their possession until the end of the war. On the
4th of July 1864 General Franz Sigel, who was then in command
here, withdrew his troops to Maryland Heights, and from there
resisted Early's attempt to enter the town and to drive the
Federal garrison from Maryland Heights. Harper's Ferry was
seriously damaged by a flood in the Shenandoah in October
1878.

HARPIES (Gr. "Aprruitu, older form 'Aptiruicu, " swift
robbers "), in ancient mythology, the personification of the sweep-
ing storm-winds. In Homer, where they appear indifferently under
the name of apirtucu and 6vf\\ai, their function is to carry off
those whose sudden disappearance is desired by the gods. Only
one of them is there mentioned (Iliad, xvi. 150) by name, Podarge,
the mother of the coursers of Achilles by Zephyrus, the generative
wind. According to Hesiod (Thcog. 265) they are two in number,
Ae'llo and Ocypete, daughters of Thaumas and Elect ra, winged

HARPIGNIES— HARPSICHORD

goddesses with beautiful locks, swifter than winds and birds
in their flight, and their domain is the air. In later times their
number was increased (Celaeno being a frequent addition and
their leader in Virgil), and they were described as hateful and
repulsive creatures, birds with the faces of old women, the ears
of bears, crooked talons and hanging breasts; even in Aeschylus
(Eumenides, 50) they appear as ugly and misshapen monsters.
Their function of snatching away mortals to the other world
brings them into connexion with the Erinyes, with whom they
are often confounded. On the so-called Harpy monument from
Lycia, now in the British Museum, the Harpies appear carrying
off some small figures, supposed to be the daughters of Pandareus,
unless they are intended to represent departed souls. The
repulsive character of the Harpies is more especially seen in the
legend of Phineus, king of Salmydessus in Thrace (Apollodorus
i. 9, 21 ; see also Diod. Sic. iv. 43). Having been deprived of
his sight by the gods for his ill-treatment of his sons by his first
wife (or for having revealed the future to mortals), he was con-
demned to be tormented by two Harpies, who carried off what-
ever food was placed before him. On the arrival of the Argonauts,
Phineus promised to give them particulars of the course they
should pursue and of the dangers that lay before them, if they
would deliver him from his tormentors. Accordingly, when the
Harpies appeared as usual to carry off the food from Phineus's
table, they were driven off and pursued by Calais and Zetes, the
sons of Boreas, as far as the Strophades islands in the Aegean.
On promising to cease from molesting Phineus, their lives were
spared. Their place of abode is variously placed in the
Strophades, the entrance to the under-world, or a cave in Crete.
According to Cecil Smith, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiii.
(1892-1893), the Harpies are the hostile spirits of the scorching
south wind; E. Rohde (Rlieinisches Museum, i., 1895) regards
them as spirits of the storm, which at the bidding of the gods
carry off human beings alive to the under-world or some spot
beyond human ken.

See articles in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie and Daremberg
and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites. In the article GREEK ART,
fig. 14 gives a representation of the winged Harpies.

HARPIGNIES, HENRI (1819- ), French landscape painter,
born at Valenciennes in 1819, was intended by his parents for
a business career, but his determination to become an artist was
so strong that it conquered all obstacles, and he was allowed at
the age of twenty-seven to enter Achard's atelier in Paris. From
this painter he acquired a groundwork of sound constructive
draughtsmanship, which is so marked a feature of his landscape
painting. After two years under this exacting teacher he went
to Italy, whence he returned in 1850. During the next few
years he devoted himself to the painting of children in landscape
setting, and fell in with Corot and the other Barbizon masters,
whose principles and methods are to a certain extent re-
flected in his own personal art. To Corot he was united by a
bond of warm friendship, and the two artists went together to
Italy in 1860. On his return, he scored his first great success
at the Salon, in 1861, with his " Lisiere de bois sur les bords
de 1'Allier." After that year he was a regular exhibitor at the old
Salon; in 1886 he received his first medal for " Le Soir dans la
campagne de Rome," which was acquired for the Luxembourg
Gallery. Many of his best works were painted at Herisson in
the Bourbonnais, as well as in the Nivernais and the Auvergne.
Among his chief pictures are " Soir sur les bords de la Loire "
(1861), "Les Corbeaux" (1865), " Le Soir" (1866), " Le
Saut-du-Loup " (1873), " La Loire " (1882), and " Vue de
Saint-Prive " (1883). He also did some decorative work for the
Paris Opera — the " Vallee d'Egerie " panel, which he Ishowed
at the Salon of 1870.

HARP-LUTE, or DITAL HARP, one of the many attempts to
revive the popularity of the guitar and to increase its compass,
invented in 1798 by Edward Light. The harp-lute owes the first
part of its name to the characteristic mechanism for shortening
the effective length of the strings; its second name— dital harp —
emphasizes the nature of the stops, which are worked by the
thumb in contradistinction to the pedals of the harp worked

by the feet. It consists of a pear-shaped body, to which is added
a curved neck supported on a front pillar or arm springing from
the body, and therefore reminiscent of the harp. There are
12 catgut strings. The curved fingerboard, almost parallel with
the neck, is provided with frets, and has in addition a thumb-
key for each string, by means of which the accordance of the
string is mechanically raised a semitone at will. The dital or
key, on being depressed, acts upon a stop-ring or eye, which
draws the string down against the fret, and thus shortens its
effective length. The fingers then stop the strings as usual
over the remaining frets. A further improvement was patented
in 1816 as the British harp-lute. Other attempts possessing less
practical merit than the dital harp were the lyra-guitarre, which
appeared in Germany at the beginning of the igth century;
the accord-guitarre, towards the middle of the same century;
and the keyed guitar. (K. S.)

HARPOCRATES, originally an Egyptian deity, adopted by
the Greeks, and worshipped in later times both by Greeks and
Romans. In Egypt, Harpa-khruti, Horus the child, was one of
the forms of Horus, the sun-god, the child of Osiris. He was
supposed to carry on war against the powers of darkness, and
hence Herodotus (ii. 144) considers him the same as the Greek
Apollo. He was represented in statues with his finger on his
mouth, a symbol of childhood. The Greeks and Romans, not
understanding the meaning of this attitude, made him the god
of silence (Ovid, Metam. ix. 691), and as such he became a
favourite deity with the later mystic schools of philosophy.

See articles by G. Lafaye in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire
des antiquites, and by E. Meyer (s.v . " Horos ") in Roscher's Lexikon
der Mythologie.

HARPOCRATION, VALERIUS, Greek grammarian of Alex-
andria. He is possibly the Harpocration mentioned by Julius
Capitolinus (Life of Verus, 2) as the Greek tutor of Antoninus
Verus (and century A.D.); some authorities place him much
later, on the ground that he borrowed from Athenaeus. He
is the author of a Ae!-iK6v (or Ilept rlav Xe£ewj') Tuvotna. prjropuv,
which has come down to us in an incomplete form. The work
contains, in more or less alphabetical order, notes on well-known
events and persons mentioned by the orators, and explanations
of legal and commercial expressions. As nearly all the lexicons to
the Greek orators have been lost, Harpocration's work is especially
valuable. Amongst his authorities were the writers of Atthides
(histories of Attica), the grammarian Didymus, Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, and the lexicographer Dionysius, son of Tryphon.
The book also contains contributions to the history of Attic
oratory and Greek literature generally. Nothing is known of
an '\vdripSiv avva-yuyri, a sort of anthology or chrestomathy
attributed to him by Suidas. A series of articles in the margin
of a Cambridge MS. of the lexicon forms the basis of the Lexicon
rheloricum Canlabrigiense (see DOBREE, P. P.). *

The best edition is by W. Dindprf (1853); see also J. E. Sandys,
History of Classical Scholarship, i. (1906), p. 325; C. Boysen, De
Harpocrationis fontibus (Kiel, 1876).

HARPOON (from Fr. harpon, a grappling-iron, O. Fr. harpe,
a dog's claw, an iron clamp for fastening stones together; the
source of these words is the Lat. harpago, harpa, &c., formed
from Gr. aprajri, hook, apwa^tiv, to snatch, tear away, cf.
" harpy "), barbed spear, particularly one used for spearing
whales or other large fish, and either thrown by hand or fired
from a gun (see WHALE-FISHERY).

HARPSICHORD, HARPSICON, DOUBLE VIRGINALS (Fr. clavecin;
Ger. Clavicymbel, Kiel-Flilgel; Ital. arpicordo, cembalo, clavi-
cembalo, graveccmbalo; Dutch, clavisinbal) , a large keyboard
instrument (see PIANOFORTE), belonging to the same family as
the virginal and spinet, but having 2, 3, or even 4 strings to each
note, and a case of the harp or wing shape, afterwards adopted
for the grand pianoforte. J. S. Bach's harpsichord, preserved
in the museum of the Hochschule fiir Musik at Charlottenburg,
has two manuals and 4 strings to each note, one 16 ft., two
8 ft. and one 4 ft. By means of stops the performer has within
his power a number of combinations for varying the tone and
dynamic power. In all instruments of the harpsichord family

i6

HARPY— HARRAR

the strings, instead of being struck by tangents as in the clavi-
chord, or by hammers as in the pianoforte, are plucked by means
of a quill firmly embedded in the centred tongue of a jack or
upright placed on the back end of the key-lever. When the
finger depresses a key, the jack is thrown up, and in passing the
crow-quill catches the string and twangs it. It is this twanging
of the string which produces the brilliant incisive tone peculiar
to the harpsichord family. What these instruments gain in
brilliancy of tone, however, they lose in power of expression and
of accent. The impossibility of commanding any emphasis
necessarily created for the harpsichord an individual technique
which influenced the music composed for it to so great an extent
that it cannot be adequately rendered upon the pianoforte.

The harpsichord assumed a position of great importance
during the i6th and lyth centuries, more especially in the
orchestra, which was under the leadership of' the harpsichord
player. The most famous of all harpsichord makers, whose
names form a guarantee for excellence, were the Ruckers,
established at Antwerp from the last quarter of the i6th
century. (K. S.)

HARPY, a large diurnal bird of prey, so named after the
mythological monster of the classical poets (see HARPIES), — the
Thrasaetus harpyia of modern ornithologists — an inhabitant
of the warmer parts of America from Southern Mexico to Brazil.
Though known since the middle of the iyth century, its habits
have come very little under the notice of naturalists, and what
is said of them by the older writers must be received with some

-^

Harpy.

suspicion. A cursory inspection of the bird, which is not un-
frequently brought alive to Europe, its size, and its enormous
bill and talons, at once suggest the vast powers of destruction
imputed to it, and are enough to account for the stories told of
its ravages on mammals — sloths, fawns, peccaries and spider-
monkeys. It has even been asserted to attack the human race.
How much of this is fabulous there seems no means at present of
determining, but some of the statements are made by veracious
travellers — D'Orbigny and Tschudi. It is not uncommon in the
forests of the isthmus of Panama, and Salvin says (Proc. Zool.
Society, 1864, p. 368) that its flight is slow and heavy. Indeed
its owl-like visage, its short wings and soft plumage, do not in-
dicate a bird of very active habits, but the weapons of offence
with which it is armed show that it must be able to cope with
vigorous prey. Its appearance is sufficiently striking — the head
and lower parts, except a pectoral band, white, the former

adorned with an erectile crest, the upper parts dark grey banded
with black, the wings dusky, and the tail barred; but the huge
bill and powerful scutellated legs most of all impress the be-
holder. The precise affinities of the haroy cannot be said to
have been determined. By some authors it is referred to the
eagles, by others to the buzzards, and by others again to the
hawks; but possibly the first of these alliances is the most likely
to be true. (A. N.)

HARRAN, HARAN or CHARRAN (Sept. Happav or Kappa : Strabo,
Kdppcu: Pliny, Carrae or Carrhae; Arab. Harrdn), in biblical
history the place where Terah halted after leaving Ur, and ap-
parently the birthplace of Abraham, a town on the stream
Jullab, some nine hours' journey from Edessa in Syria. At this
point the road from Damascus joins the highway between
Nineveh and Carchemish, and Haran had thus considerable
military and commercial value. As a strategic position it
is mentioned in inscriptions as early as the time of Tiglath
Pileser I., about noo B.C., and subsequently by Sargon II., who
restored the privileges lost at the rebellion which led to the con-
quest referred to in 2 Kings xix. 12 C = Isa. xxxvii. 12). It was
the centre of a considerable commerce (Ezek. xxvii. 23), and one
of its specialities was the odoriferous gum derived from the
strobus (Pliny, H.N. xii. 40). It was here that Crassus in his
eastern expedition was attacked and slain by the Parthians (53
B.C.) ; and here also the emperor Caracalla was murdered at the
instigation of Macrinus (A.D. 217). Haran was the chief home of
the moon-god Sin, whose temple was rebuilt by several kings,
among them Assur-bani-pal and Nabunidus and Herodian (iv.
13, 7) mentions the town as possessing in his day a temple of the
moon. In the middle ages it is mentioned as having been the
seat of a particular heathen sect, that of the Haranite Sabeans.
It retained its importance down to the period of the Arab
ascendancy; but by Abulfeda it is mentioned as having before
his time fallen into decay. It is now wholly in ruins. The
Yahwistic writer (Gen. xxvii. 43) makes it the home of Laban
and connects it with Isaac and Jacob. But we cannot thus put
Haran in Aramnaharaim; the home of the Labanites is rather
to be looked for in the very similar word Hauran.

HARRAR (or HARAR), a city of N.E. Africa, in 8° 45' N.,
42° 36' E., capital of a province of Abyssinia and 220 m. S.S.W.
of the ports of Zaila (British) and Jibuti (French) on the Gulf of
Aden. With Jibuti it is connected by a railway (188 m. long)
and carriage-road. Harrar is built on the slopes of a hill at an
elevation of over 5000 ft. A lofty stone wall, pierced by five
gates and flanked by twenty-four towers, encloses the city,
which has a population of about 40,000. The streets are steep,
narrow, dirty and unpaved, the roadways consisting of rough
boulders. The houses are in general made of undressed stone
and mud and are flat-topped, the general aspect of the city
being Oriental and un-Abyssinian. A few houses, including the
palace of the governor and the foreign consulates, are of more
elaborate and solid construction than the majority of the build-
ings. There are several mosques and an Abyssinian church (of
the usual circular construction) built of stone. Harrar is a city
of considerable commercial importance, through it passing all
the merchandise of southern Abyssinia, Kaffa and Galla land.
The chief traders are Abyssinians, Armenians and Greeks. The
principal article of export is coffee, which is grown extensively
in the neighbouring hills and is of the finest quality. Besides
coffee there is a large trade in durra, the kat plant (used by the
Mahommedans as a drug), ghee, cattle, mules and camels, skins
and hides, ivory and gums. The import trade is largely in cotton
goods, but every kind of merchandise is included.

Harrar is believed to owe its foundation to Arab immigrants
from the Yemen in the 7th century of the Christian era. In the
region of Somaliland, now the western part of the British pro-
tectorate of that name, the Arabs established the Moslem state
of Adel or Zaila, with their capital at Zaila on the Gulf of Aden.
In the I3th century the sultans of Adel enjoyed great power. In
1521 the then sultan Abubekr transferred the seat of govern-
ment to Harrar, probably regarding Zaila as too exposed to the
attacks of the Turkish and Portuguese navies then contending

HARRATIN— HARRIGAN

for the mastery of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Abubekr's
successor was Mahommed III., Ahmed ibn Ibrahim el-Ghazi
(1507-1543), surnamed Gran (Granye), the left-handed. He
was not an Arab but, probably, of Somali origin. The son of a
noted warrior, he quickly rose to supreme power, becoming
sultan or amir in 1525. He is famous for his invasion of Abys-
sinia, of which country he was virtual master for several years.
From the beginning of the iyth century Adel suffered greatly
from the ravages of pagan Galla tribes, and Harrar sank to the
position of an amirate of little importance. It was first visited
by a European in 1854 when (Sir) Richard Burton spent ten days
there in the guise of an Arab. In 1875 Harrar was occupied by
an Egyptian force under Raouf Pasha, by whose orders the amir
was strangled. The town remained in the possession of Egypt
until 1885, when the garrison was withdrawn in consequence of
the rising of the Mahdi in the Sudan. The Egyptian garrison
and many Egyptian civilians, in all 6500 persons, left Harrar
between November 1884 and the 25th of April 1885, when a son
of the ruler who had been deposed by Egypt was installed as
amir, the arrangement being carried out under the super-
intendence of British officers. The new amir held power until
January 1887, in which month Harrar was conquered by
Menelek II., king of Shoa (afterwards emperor of Abyssinia).
The governorship of Harrar was by Menelek entrusted to Ras
Makonnen, who held the post until his death in 1906.

The Harrari proper are of a distinct stock from the neigh-
bouring peoples, and speak a special language. Harrarese
is " a Semitic graft inserted into an indigenous stock " (Sir R.
Burton, First Footsteps in East Africa). The Harrari are
Mahommedans of the Shafa'i or Persian sect, and they employ
the solar year and the Persian calendar. Besides the native
population there are in Harrar colonies of Abyssinians, Somalis
and Gallas. By the Somalis the place is called Adari, by the
Gallas Adaray.

See ABYSSINIA; SOMALILAND. Also P. Paulitschke, Harar:
Forschungsreise nach den Som&l- und Calla-Landern Ost-Afrikas
(Leipzig, 1888).

HARRATIN, black Berbers, dwelling in Tidikelt and other
Saharan oases. Many of them are blacker than the average
negro. In physique, however, they are true to the Berber type,
being of handsome appearance with European features and well-
proportioned bodies. They are the result of an early crossing
with the Sudanese negro races, though to-day they have all the
pride of the Berbers (?.».), and do not live with or intermarry
among negroes.

HARRIER, or HEN-HARRIER, name given to certain birds of
prey which were formerly very abundant in parts of the British
Islands, from their habit of harrying poultry. The first of these
names has now become used in a generic sense for all the species
ranked under the genus Circus of Lacepede, and the second con-
fined to the particular species which is the Falco cyaneus of
Linnaeus and the Circus cyaneus of modern ornithologists.

One European species, C. aeruginosus, though called in books
the marsh-harrier, is far more commonly known in England and
Ireland as the moor-buzzard. But harriers are not, like buzzards,
arboreal in their habits, and always affect open country, generally,
though not invariably, preferring marshy or fenny districts, for
snakes and frogs form a great part of their ordinary food. On
the ground their carriage is utterly unlike that of a buzzard, and
their long wings and legs render it easy to distinguish the two
groups when taken in the hand. All the species also have a more
or less well-developed ruff or frill of small thickset feathers
surrounding the lower part of the head, nearly like that seen in
owls, and accordingly many systematists consider that the genus
Circus, though undoubtedly belonging to the Falconidae, connects
that family with the Striges. No osteological affinity, however, can
be established between the harriers and any section of the owls,
and the superficial resemblance will have to be explained in some
other way. Harriers are found almost all over the world,1 and

1 The distribution of the different species is rather curious, while
the range of some is exceedingly wide, — one, C. maillardi, seems to be
limited to the island of Reunion (Bourbon).

fifteen species are recognized by Bowdler Sharpe (Cat. Birds
Brit. Museum, i. pp. 50-73). In most if not all the harriers the
sexes differ greatly in colour, so much so that for a long while the
males and females of one of the commonest and best known, the
C. cyaneus above mentioned, were thought to be distinct .species,
and were or still are called in various European languages by
different names. The error was maintained with the greater
persistency since the young males, far more abundant than the
adults, wear much the same plumage as their mother, and it was
not until after Montagu's observations were published at the

v»

vV^

Hen- Harrier (Male and Female).

beginning of the ipth century that the " ringtail," as she was
called (the Falco pygargus of Linnaeus), was generally admitted
to be the female of the " hen-harrier." But this was not Montagu's
only good service as regards this genus. He proved the hitherto
unexpected existence of a second species,2 subject to the same
diversity of plumage. This was called by him the ash-coloured
falcon, but it now generally bears his name, and is known as
Montagu's harrier, C. cineraceus. In habits it is very similar to
the hen-harrier, but it has longer wings, and its range is not so
northerly, for while the hen-harrier extends to Lapland, Mon-
tagu's is but very rare in Scotland, though in the south of
England it is the most common species. Harriers indeed in the
British Islands are rapidly becoming things of the past. Their
nests are easily found, and the birds when nesting are easily
destroyed. In the south-east of Europe, reaching also to the
Cape of Good Hope and to India, there is a fourth species, the
C. swainsoni of some writers, the C. pallidus of others. In North
America C. cyaneus is represented by a kindred form, C. hudsonius,
usually regarded as a good species, the adult male of which is
always to be recognized by its rufous markings beneath, in which
character it rather resembles C. cineraceus, but it has not the long
wings of that species. South America has in C. cinereus another
representative form, while China, India and Australia possess
more of this type. Thus there is a section in which the males
have a strongly contrasted black -and grey plumage, and finally
there is a group of larger forms allied to the European C. aeru-
ginosus, wherein a grey dress is less often attained, of which the
South African C. raniwrus and the New Zealand C. gouldi are
examples. (A. N.)

HARRIGAN, EDWARD (1845- ), American actor, was
born in New York of Irish parents on the 26th of October 1845.
He made his first appearance in San Francisco in 1867, and soon
afterwards formed a stage partnership with Tony Hart, whose
real name was Anthony Cannon. As " Harrigan and Hart," they
had a great success in the presentation of types of low life in New
York. Beginning as simple sketches, these were gradually
worked up into plays, with occasional songs, set to popular music

8 A singular mistake, which has been productive of further error,
was made by Albin, who drew his figure (Hist. Birds, ii. pi. 5) from
a specimen of one species, and coloured it from a specimen of the
other.

i8

HARRIMAN, E. H.— HARRINGTON, J.

by David Braham. The titles of these plays indicate their
character, The Mulligan Guards, Squatter Sovereignty, A Leather
Patch, The O'Regans. The partnership with Hart lasted from
1871-1884. Subsequently Harrigan played in different cities of
the United States, one of his favourite parts being George Coggs-
well in Old Lavender.

HARRIMAN, EDWARD HENRY (1848-1909), American
financier and railroad magnate, son of the Rev. Orlando
Harriman, rector of St George's Episcopal church, Hempstead,
L.I., was born at Hempstead on the 25th of February 1848. He
became a broker's clerk in New York at an early age, and in
1870 was able to buy a seat on the New York Stock Exchange
on his own account. For a good many years there was nothing
sensational in his success, but he built up a considerable business
connexion and prospered in his financial operations. Meanwhile
he carefully mastered the situation affecting American railways.
In this respect he was assisted by his friendship with Mr Stuy-
vesant Fish, who, on becoming vice-president of the Illinois
Central in 1883, brought Harriman upon the directorate, and in
1887, being then president, made Harriman vice-president;
twenty years later it was Harriman who dominated the finance
of the Illinois Central, and Fish, having become his opponent,
was dropped from the board. It was not till 1898, however, that
his career as a great railway organizer began with his formation,
by the aid of the bankers, Kuhn, Loeb & Co., of a syndicate to
acquire the Union Pacific line, which was then in the hands of a
receiver and was generally regarded as a hopeless failure. It
was soon found that a new power had arisen in the railway world.
Having brought the Union Pacific out of bankruptcy into
prosperity, and made it an efficient instead of a decaying line,
he utilized his position to draw other lines within his control,
notably the Southern Pacific in 1901. These extensions of his
power were not made without friction, and his abortive contest
in 1901 with James J. Hill for the control of the Northern
Pacific led to one of the most serious financial crises ever known
on Wall Street. But in the result he became the dominant
factor in American railway matters. At his death, on the 9th of
September 1909, his influence was estimated to extend over
60,000 m. of track, with an annual earning power of $700,000,000
or over. Astute and unscrupulous manipulation of the stock
markets, and a capacity for the hardest of bargaining and the
most determined warfare against his rivals, had their place in
this success, and Harriman's methods excited the bitterest
criticism, culminating in a stern denunciation from President
Roosevelt himself in 1907. Nevertheless, besides acquiring
colossal wealth for himself, he helped to create for the
American public a vastly improved railway service, the benefit
of which survived all controversy as to the means by which he
triumphed over the obstacles in his way.

HARRIMAN, a city of Roane county, Tennessee, U.S.A., on the
Emory river, about 35 m.W. by S.of Knoxville. Pop. (1900) 3442
(5 1 6 being negroes); (1910) 3061. Harriman is served by the Har-
riman & North Eastern, the Tennessee Central, and the Southern
railways. It is the seat of the East Tennessee Normal and
Industrial Institute, for negroes, and of the American University
of Harriman (Christian Church, coeducational; 1893), which
comprises primary, preparatory, collegiate, Bible school, civic
research, commercial, music and art departments, and in 1907-
1908 had 12 instructors and 317 students. Near the city are
large deposits of iron and an abundance of coal and timber.
Among manufactures are cotton products, farming tools, leather,
tannic acid, furniture and flour. Harriman was founded in 1890
by a land company. A clause in this company's by-laws requires
that every conveyance of real estate by the company " shall
contain a provision forbidding the use of the property or any
building thereon, for the purpose of making, storing or selling
intoxicating beverages as such." Harriman was chartered as a
city in 1891, and its charter was revised in 1899.

HARRINGTON, EARLS OF. The first earl of Harrington
was the diplomatist and politician, William Stanhope (c. 1690-
1756), a younger son of John Stanhope of Elvaston, Derbyshire,
and a brother of Charles Stanhope (1673-1760), an active

politician during the reign of George I. His ancestor, Sir John
Stanhope (d. 1638). was a half-brother of Philip Stanhope, ist
earl of Chesterfield. Educated at Eton, William Stanhope
entered the army and served in Spain, but soon he turned his
attention to more peaceful pursuits, went on a mission to Madrid
and represented his country at Turin. When peace was made
between England and Spain in 1720 Stanhope became British
ambassador to the latter country, and he retained this position
until March 1727, having built up his reputation as a diplomatist
during a difficult period. In 1729 he had some part in arranging
the treaty of Seville between England, France and Spain, and for
his services in this matter he was created Baron Harrington in
January 1730. Laterin thesame year he was appointed secretary
of state for the northern department under Sir Robert Walpole,
but, like George II., he was anxious to assist the emperor Charles
VI. in his war with France, while Walpole favoured a policy of
peace. Although the latter had his way Harrington remained
secretary until the great minister's fall in 1742, when he was
transferred to the office of president of the council and was
created earl of Harrington and Viscount Petersham. In 1744,
owing to the influence of his political allies, the Pelhams, he
returned to his former post of secretary of state, but he soon
lost the favour of the king, and this was the principal cause
why he left office in October 1746. He was lord lieutenant
of Ireland from 1747 to 1751, and he died in London on the 8th
of December 1756.

The earl's successor was his son, William (1719-1779), who
entered the army, was wounded at Fontenoy and became a
general in 1770. He was a member of parliament for about ten
years and he died on the ist of April 1779. This earl's wife
Caroline (1722-1784), daughter of Charles Fitzroy, 2nd duke of
Grafton, was a noted beauty, but was also famous for her
eccentricities. Their elder son, Charles(i753-i829),whobccame
the 3rd earl, was a distinguished soldier. He served with the
British army during the American War of Independence and
attained the rank of general in 1802. From 1805 to 1812 he was
commander-in-chief in Ireland; he was sent on diplomatic
errands to Vienna and to Berlin, and he died at Brighton on the
i jth of September 1829.

Charles Stanhope, 4th earl of Harrington (1780-1851), the
eldest son of the 3rd earl, was known as Lord Petersham
until he succeeded to the earldom in 1829. He was very well
known in society owing partly to his eccentric habits; he
dressed like the French king Henry IV., and had other personal
peculiarities. He married the actress, Maria Foote, but when
he died in March 1851 he left no sons, and his brother Leicester
Fitzgerald Charles (1784-1862) became the sth earl. This
nobleman was a soldier and a politician of advanced views, who
is best known as a worker with Lord Byron in the cause of
Greek independence. He was in Greece in 1823 and 1824, where
his relations with Byron were not altogether harmonious. He
wrote A Sketch of the History and Influence of the Press in British
India (1823); and Greece in 1823 and 1824 (English edition
1824, American edition 1825). His son Sydney Seymour Hyde,
6th earl (1845-1866), dying unmarried, was succeeded by a
cousin, Charles Wyndham Stanhope (1809-1881), as 7th earl,
and in 1881 the latter's son Charles Augustus Stanhope (b. 1844)
became Sth earl of Harrington.

Before the time of the first earl of Harrington the Stanhope family
had held the barony of Stanhope of Harrington, which was created
in 1605 in favour of Sir John Stanhope (c. 1550-1621) of Harrington,
Northamptonshire. Sir John was a younger son of Sir Michael
Stanhope (d. 1552) of Shelford, Nottinghamshire, who was a brother-
in-law of the protector Somerset. Sir Michael's support of Somerset
cost him his life, as he was beheaded on the 26th of February 1552.
Sir John was treasurer of the chamber from 1596 to 1616 and was a
member of parliament for several years. He died on the 9th of
March 1621, and when his only son Charles, 2nd baron (c. 1595-1675),
died without issue in 1675 the barony became extinct.

HARRINGTON, or HARINGTON, JAMES (1611-1677), English
political philosopher, was born in January 161 1 of an old Rutland-
shire family. He was son of Sir Sapcotes Harrington of Rand,
Lincolnshire, and great-nephew of the first Lord Harington of
Exton (d. 1615). In 1629 he entered Trinity College, Oxford, as

HARRIOT— HARRIS, J.

a gentleman commoner. One of his tutors was the famous
Chillingworth. After several years spent in travel, and as a
soldier in the Dutch army, he returned to England and lived in
retirement till 1646, when he was appointed to the suite of
Charles I., at that time being conveyed from Newcastle as
prisoner. Though republican in his ideas, Harrington won the
king's regard and esteem, and accompanied him to the Isle of
Wight. He roused, however, the suspicion of the parliament-
arians and was dismissed: it is said that he was for a short time
put in confinement because he would not swear to refuse assist-
ance to the king should he attempt to escape. After Charles's
death Harrington devoted his time to the composition of his
Oceana, a work which pleased neither party. By order of Cromwell
it was seized when passing through the press. Harrington, how-
ever managed to secure the favour of the Protector's favourite
daughter, Mrs Claypole; the work was restored to him, and
appeared in 1656, dedicated to Cromwell. The views embodied
in Oceana, particularly that bearing on vote by ballot and rota-
tion of magistrates and legislators, Harrington and others (who
in 1659 formed a club called the " Rota ") endeavoured to push
practically, but with no success. In November 1661, by order
of Charles II., Harrington was arrested, apparently without
sufficient cause, on a charge of conspiracy, and was thrown into
the Tower. Despite his repeated request no public trial could
be obtained, and when at length his sisters obtained a writ of
habeas corpus he was secretly removed to St Nicholas Island off
Plymouth. There his health gave way owing to his drinking
guaiacum on medical advice, and his mind appeared to be
affected. Careful treatment restored him to bodily vigour, but
his mind never wholly recovered. After his release he married, —
at what date does not seem to be precisely known. He died on
the nth of September 1677, and was buried next to Sir Walter
Raleigh in St Margaret's, Westminster.

Harrington's writings consist of the Oceana, and of papers,
pamphlets, aphorisms, even treatises, in defence of the Oceana.
The Oceana is a hard, prolix, and in many respects heavy exposi-
tion of an ideal constitution, " Oceana " being England, and the
lawgiver Olphaus Megaletor, Oliver Cromwell. The details are
elaborated with infinite care, even the salaries of officials being
computed, but the main ideas are two in number, each with
a practical corollary. The first is that the determining element
of power in a state is property generally, property in land in
particular; the second is that the executive power ought not
to be vested for any considerable time in the same men or class
of men. In accordance with the first of these, Harrington re-
commends an agrarian law, limiting the portion of land held to
that yielding a revenue of £3000, and consequently insisting on
particular modes of distributing landed property. As a practical
issue of the second he lays down the rule of rotation by ballot. A
third part of the executive or senate are voted out by ballot every
year (not being capable of being elected again for three years).
Harrington explains very carefully how the state and its govern-
ing parts are to be constituted by his scheme. Oceana contains
many valuable ideas, but it is irretrievably dull.

His Works were edited with biography by John Toland in 1700;
Toland's edition, with additions by Birch, appeared in 1747, and
again in 1771. Oceana was reprinted by Henry Morley in 1887.
See Dwight in Political Science Quarterly (March, 1887). Harrington
has often been confused with his cousin Sir James Harrington, a
member of the commission which tried Charles I., and afterwards
excluded from the acts of pardon.

HARRIOT.or HARRIOTT, THOMAS (1560-1621), English mathe-
matician and astronomer, was born at Oxford in 1560. After
studying at St Mary Hall, Oxford, he became tutor to Sir Walter
Raleigh, who appointed him in 1585 to the office of geographer
to the second expedition to Virginia. Harriot published an
account of this expedition in 1588, which was afterwards
reprinted in Hakluyt's Voyages. On his return to England,
after an absence of two years, he resumed his mathematical
studies, and having made the acquaintance of Henry Percy,
earl of Northumberland, distinguished for his patronage of
men of science, he received from him a yearly pension of £120.
He died at London on the 2nd of July 1621. A manuscript of

Harriot's entitled Ephemeris chrysometria is preserved in Sion
College; and his Artis analyticae praxis ad aequationes alge-
braicas resolvendas was published at London in 1631. His con-
tributions to algebra are treated in the article ALGEBRA;
Wallis's History of Algebra (1685) may also be consulted. From
some papers of Harriot's, discovered in 1784, it would appear
that he had either procured a telescope from Holland, or divined
the construction of that instrument, and that he coincided in
point of time with Galileo in discovering the spots on the sun's
disk.

See Charles Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary
(1815), and J. E. Montucla, Histoire des mathematigues (1758).

HARRIS, GEORGE, IST BARON (1746-1829), British general,
was the son of the Rev George Harris, curate of Brasted, Kent,
and was born on the i8th of March 1746. Educated at West-
minster school and at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich,
he was commissioned to the Royal Artillery in 1760, transferring
to an ensigncy in the 5th foot (Northumberland Fusiliers) in
1762. Three years la.ter he became lieutenant, and in 1771
captain. His first active service was in the American War of
Independence, in which he served at Lexington, Bunker Hill
(severely wounded) and in every engagement of Howe's army
except one up to November 1778. By this time he had obtained
his majority, and his next service was under Major-General
Medows at Santa Lucia in 1778-1779, after which his regiment
served as marines in Rodney's fleet. Later in 1779 he was for a
time a prisoner of war. Shortly before his promotion to lieu-
tenant-colonel in his regiment (1780) he married. After com-
manding the 5th in Ireland for some years, he exchanged and
went with General Medows to Bombay, and served with that
officer in India until 1792, taking part in various battles and
engagements, notably Lord Cornwallis's attack on Seringapatam.
In 1794, after a short period of home service, he was again in
India. In the same year he became major-general, and in 1796
local lieutenant-general in Madras. Up to 1800 he commanded
the troops in the presidency, and for a short time he exercised the
civil government as well. In December 1798 he was appointed
by Lord Wellesley, the governor-general, to command the field
army which was intended to attack Tipu Sahib, and in a few
months Harris reduced the Mysore country and stormed the
great stronghold of Seringapatam. His success established his
reputation as a capable and experienced commander, and its
political importance led to his being offered the reward (which
he declined) of an Irish peerage. He returned home in 1800,
became lieutenant-general in the army the following year, and
attained the rank of full general in 1812. In 1815 he was made a
peer of the United Kingdom under the title Baron Harris of
Seringapatam and Mysore, and of Belmont, Kent. In 1820 he
received the G.C.B., and in 1824 the governorship of Dumbarton
Castle. Lord Harris died at Belmont in May 1829. He had
been colonel of the 73rd Highlanders since 1800.

His descendant, the 4th Baron Harris (b. 1851), best known as
a cricketer, was under-secretary for India (1883-1886), under-
secretary for war (1886-1889) and governor of Bombay (1890-

1895).

See Rt. Hon. S. Lushington, Life of Lord Harris (London, 1840),
and the regimental histories of the 5th Northumberland Fusiliers
and 73rd Highlanders.

HARRIS, JAMES (1709-1780), English grammarian, was born
at Salisbury on the zoth of July 1709. He was educated at the
grammar school in the Close at Salisbury, and at Wadham
College, Oxford. On leaving the university he was entered at
Lincoln's Inn as a student of law, though not intended for the
bar. The death of his father in 1733 placed him in possession of
an independent fortune and of the house in Salisbury Close. He
became a county magistrate, and represented Christchurch in
parliament from 1761 till his death, and was comptroller to the
queen from 1774 to 1780. He held office under Lord Grenville,
retiring with him in 1765. The decided bent of his mind had
always been towards the Greek and Latin classics; and to the
study of these, especially of Aristotle, he applied himself with
unremitting assiduity during a period of fourteen or fifteen

20

HARRIS, J. C.— HARRIS, SIR W. S.

years. He published in 1744 three treatises — on art; on music,
painting and poetry; and on happiness. In 1751 appeared the
work by which he became best known, Hermes, a philosophical
inquiry concerning universal grammar. He also published
Philosophical Arrangements and Philosophical Inquiries. Harris
was a great lover of music, and adapted the words for a selec-
tion from Italian and German composers, published by the
cathedral organist, James Corfe. He died on the 22nd of
December 1780.

His works were collected and published in 1801, by his son, the
first earl of Malmesbury, who prefixed a brief biography.

HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER (1848-1908), American author,
was born in Eatonton, Putnam county, Georgia, on the 8th of
December 1848. He started as an apprentice to the printer's
trade in the office of the Countryman, a weekly paper published
on a plantation not far from his home. He then studied law,
and practised for a short time in Forsyth, Ga., but soon took
to journalism. He joined the staff of the Savannah Daily News
in 1871, and in 1876 that of the Atlanta Constitution, of which
he was an editor from 1890 to 1901, and in this capacity did
much to further the cause of the New South. But his most
distinctive contribution to this paper, and to American literature,
consisted of his dialect pieces dealing with negro life and folklore.
His stories are characterized by quaint humour, poetic feeling
and homely philosophy; and " Uncle Remus," the principal
character of most of them, is a remarkably vivid and real creation.
The first collection of his stories was published in 1880 as Uncle
Remus: his Songs and his Sayings. Among his later works are
Nights with Uncle Remus (1883), Mingo and Other Sketches in
Black and White (1884), Free Joe and Other Georgian Sketches
(1887), Balaam and His Master and Other Sketches and Stories
(1891), Uncle Remus and His Friends (1892), On the Plantation
(1892), which is partly autobiographic, Sister Jane (1896), The
Chronicles of Aunt Minervy Ann (1899), and The Tar- Baby and
Other Rhymes of Uncle Remus (1904). More purely juvenile are
Daddy Jake the Runaway and Other Stories (1889), Little Mr
Thimblefinger and his Queer Country (1894) and its sequel Mr
Rabbit at Home (1895), Aaron in the Wildwoods (1897), Plantation
Pageants (1899), Told by Uncle Remus (1905), and Uncle Remus
and Br'er Rabbit (1907). He was one of the compilers of the
Life of Henry W. Grady, including his Writings and Speeches
(1890) and wrote Stories of Georgia (1896), and Georgia from the
Invasion of De Soto to Recent Times (1899). He died in Atlanta
on the 3rd of July 1908.

HARRIS, JOHN (c. 1666-1719), English writer. He is best
known as the editor of the Lexicon technicum, or Dictionary
of the Arts and Sciences (1704), which ranks as the earliest of the
long line of English encyclopaedias, and as the compiler of the
Collection of Voyages and Travels which passes under his name.
He was born about 1666, probably in Shropshire, and was a
scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, from 1684 to 1688. He was
presented to the vicarage of Icklesham in Sussex, and subse-
quently to the rectory of St Thomas, Winchelsea. In 1698 he
was entrusted with the delivery of the seventh series of the
Boyle lectures — Atheistical Objections against the Being of God
and His Attributes fairly considered and fully refuted. Between
1702 and 1704 he delivered at the Marine Coffee House in
Birchin Lane the mathematical lectures founded by Sir Charles
Cox, and advertised himself as a mathematical tutor at Amen
Corner. The friendship of Sir William Cowper, afterwards lord
chancellor, secured for him the office of private chaplain, a
prebend in Rochester cathedral (1708), and the rectory of the
united parishes of St Mildred, Bread Street and St Margaret
Moses, in addition to other preferments. He showed himself
an ardent supporter of the government, and engaged in a bitter
quarrel with the Rev. Charles Humphreys, who afterwards was
chaplain to Dr Sacheverel. Harris was one of the early members
of the Royal Society, and for a time acted as vice-president.
At his death on the 7th of September 1719, he was busy
completing an elaborate History of Kent. He is said to have
died in poverty brought on by his own bad management of his
affairs.

HARRIS, THOMAS LAKE (1823-1906), American spiritual-
istic "prophet," was born at Fenny Stratford in Buckinghamshire,
England, on the isth of May 1823. His parents were Calvinistic
Baptists, and very poor. They settled at Utica, New York,
when Harris was five years old. When he was about twenty
Harris became a Universalist preacher, and then aSwedenborgian.
He became associated about 1847 with a spiritualist of indifferent
character named Davis. After Davis had been publicly exposed,
Harris established a congregation in New York. About 1850
he professed to receive inspirations, and published some long
poems. He had the gift of improvisation in a very high degree.
About 1859 he preached in London, and is described as a man
" with low, black eyebrows, black beard, and sallow countenance."
He was an effective speaker, and his poetry was admired by
many; Alfred Austin in his book The Poetry of the Period even
devoted a chapter to Harris. He founded in 1861 a community
at Wassaic, New York, and opened a bank and a mill, which
he superintended. There he was joined by about sixty converts,
including five orthodox clergymen, some Japanese people, some
American ladies of position, and especially by Laurence Oliphant
(q.ii.) with his wife and mother. The community — the Brother-
hood of the New Life— decided to settle at the village of Brocton
on the shore of Lake Erie. Harris established there a wine-
making industry. In reply to the objections of teetotallers he
said that the wine prepared by himself was filled with the
divine breath so that all noxious influences were neutralized.
Harris also built a tavern and strongly advocated the use of
tobacco. He exacted complete surrender from his disciples —
even the surrender of moral judgment. He taught that God
was bi-sexual, and apparently, though not in reality, that the
rule of society should be one of married celibacy. He professed
to teach his community a change in the mode of respiration
which was to be the visible sign of possession by Christ and the
seal of immortality. The Oliphants broke away from therestraint
about 1881, charging him with robbery and succeeding in getting
back from him many thousands of pounds by legal proceedings.
But while losing faith in Harris himself, they did not abandon
his main teaching. In Laurence Oliphant's novel Masollam
his view of Harris will be found. Briefly, he held that Harris
was originally honest, greatly gifted, and possessed of certain
psychical powers. But in the end he came to practise unbridled
licence under the loftiest pretensions, made the profession of
extreme disinterestedness a cloak to conceal his avarice, and
demanded from his followers a blind and supple obedience.
Harris in 1876 discontinued for a time public activities, but
issued to a secret circle books of verse dwelling mainly on sexual
questions. On these his mind ran from the first. In 1891 he
announced that his body had been renewed, and that he had
discovered the secret of the resuscitation of humanity. He pub-
lished a book, Lyra triumphalis, dedicated to A. C. Swinburne.
He also made a third marriage, and visited England intending
to remain there. He was called back by a fire which destroyed
large stocks of his wine, and remained in New York till 1903,
when he visited Glasgow. His followers believed that he had
attained the secret of immortal life on earth, and after his death
on the 23rd of March 1906 declared that he was only sleeping.
It was three months before it was acknowledged publicly that
he was really dead. There can be little or no doubt as to the
real character of Harris. His teaching was esoteric in form, but
is a thinly veiled attempt to alter the ordering of sexual relations.

The authoritative biography from the side of his disciples is the
Life byA. A. Cuthbert, published in Glasgow in 1908. It is full of the
jargon of Harris's sect, but contains some biographical facts as well
as many quotations. Mrs Oliphant's Life of Laurence Oliphant
(1891) has not been shaken in any important particular, and Oli-
phant's own portrait of Harris in Masollam is apparently unexag-
gerated. But Harris had much personal magnetism, unbounded
self-confidence, along with endless fluency, and to the last was
believed in by some disciples of character and influence. (W. R. Ni.)

HARRIS, SIR WILLIAM SNOW (1701-1867), English
electrician, was descended from an old family of solicitors at
Plymouth, where he was born on the ist of April 1791. He
received his early education at the Plymouth grammar-school,

HARRIS, W. T.— HARRISBURG

21

and completed a course of medical studies at the university of
Edinburgh, after which he established himself as a general
medical practitioner in Plymouth. On his marriage in 1824 he
resolved to abandon his profession on account of its duties
interfering too much with his favourite study of electricity. As
early as 1820 he had invented a new method of arranging the
lightning conductors of ships, the peculiarity of which was that
the metal was permanently fixed in the masts and extended
throughout the hull; but it was only with great difficulty, and
not till nearly thirty years afterwards, that his invention was
adopted by the government for the royal navy. In 1826 he
read a paper before the Royal Society " On the Relative Powers of
various Metallic Substances as Conductors of Electricity," which
led to his being elected a fellow of the society in 1831. Subse-
quently, in 1834, 1836 and 1839, he read before the society several
valuable papers on the elementary laws of electricity, and he
also communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh various
interesting accounts of his experiments and discoveries in the
same field of inquiry. In 1835 he received the Copley gold
medal from the Royal Society for his papers on the laws of
electricity of high tension, and in 1839 he was chosen to deliver
the Bakerian lecture. Meanwhile, although a government
commission had recommended the general adoption of his
conductors in the royal navy, and the government had granted
him an annuity of £300 "in consideration of services in the
cultivation of science," the naval authorities continued to offer
various objections to his invention; to aid in removing these
he in 1843 published his work on Thunderstorms, and also about
the same time contributed a number of papers to the Nautical
Magazine illustrative of damage by lightning. His system was
actually adopted in the Russian navy before he succeeded in
removing the prejudices against it in England, and in 1845 the
emperor of Russia, in acknowledgment of his services, presented
him with a valuable ring and vase. At length, the efficiency of
his system being acknowledged, he received in 1847 the honour
of knighthood, and subsequently a grant of £5000. After suc-
ceeding in introducing his invention into general use Harris
resumed his labours in the field of original research, but as he
failed to realize the advances that had been made by the new
school of science his application resulted in no discoveries of
much value. His manuals of Electricity, Galvanism and
Magnetism, published between 1848 and 1856, were, however,
written with great clearness, and passed through several editions.
He died at Plymouth on the 22nd of January 1867, while having
in preparation a Treatise on Frictional Electricity, which was
published posthumously in the same year, with a memoir of the
author by Charles Tomlinson.

HARRIS, WILLIAM TORREY (1835-1909), American edu-
cationist, was born in North Killingly, Connecticut, on the
xoth of September 1835. He studied at Phillips Andover
Academy, Andover, Massachusetts, and entered Yale, but left
in his junior year (1857) to accept a position as a teacher of
shorthand in the St Louis, Missouri, public schools. Advancing
through the grades of principal and assistant superintendent,
he was city superintendent of schools from 1867 until 1880. In
1858, under the stimulus of Henry C. Brockmeyer, Harris
became interested in modern German philosophy in general,
and in particular in Hegel, whose works a small group, gather-
ing about Harris and Brockmeyer, began to study in 1859.
From 1867 to 1893 Harris edited The Journal of Speculative
Philosophy (22 vols.), which was the quarterly organ of the
Philosophical Society founded in 1866. The Philosophical
Society died out before 1874, when Harris founded in St Louis
a Kant Club, which lived for fifteen years. In 1873, with Miss
Susan E. Blow, he established in St Louis the first permanent
public-school kindergarten in America. He represented the
United States Bureau of Education at the International Con-
gress of Educators at Brussels in 1880. In 1889 he represented
the United States Bureau of Education at the Paris Exposition,
and from 1889 to 1906 was United States commissioner of
education. In 1899 the university of Jena gave him the honorary
degree of Doctor of Philosophy for his work on Hegel. In 1906

the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching
conferred upon him "as the first man to whom such recognition
for meritorious service is given, the highest retiring allowance
which our rules will allow, an annual income of $3000." Besides
being a contributor to the magazines and encyclopedias on
educational and philosophical subjects, he wrote An Intro-
duction to the Study of Philosophy (1889); The Spiritual Sense
of Dante's Divina Commedia (1889); Hegel's Logic (1890);
and Psychologic Foundations of Education (1898); and edited
Appleton's International Education Series and Webster's Inter-
national Dictionary. He died on the sth of November 1909.

See Henry R. Evans, "A List of the Writings of William Torrey
Harris ' in the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1007
vol. i. (Washington, 1908).

HARRISBURG, the capital of Pennsylvania, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Dauphin county, on the E. bank of the Susque-
hanna river, about 105 m. W. by N. of Philadelphia. Pop.
(189°), 39,38s; (i9°°), 50,167, of whom 2493 were foreign-born
and 4107 were negroes; (1910 census) 64,186. It is served by
the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia & Reading, the Northern
Central and the Cumberland Valley railways; and the Pennsyl-
vania canal gives it water communication with the ocean. The
river here is a mile wide, and is ordinarily very shallow and
dotted with islets, but rises from 4 to 6 ft. after a moderate rain;
it is spanned by several bridges.

The city lies for the most part on the E. slope of a hill extend-
ing from the river bank, several feet in height, across the Penn-
sylvania canal to Paxton Creek. Front Street, along the river,
is part of a parkway connecting the park system with which the
city is encircled. Overlooking it are the finest residences, among
them the governor's mansion. State Street, 120 ft. in width,
runs at right angles with Front Street through the business
centre of the city, being interrupted by the Capitol Park (about
16 acres). The Capitol,1 dedicated in 1906, was erected to re-
place one burned in 1897; it is a fine building, with a dome
modelled after St Peter's at Rome. At the main entrance are
bronze doors, decorated in relief with scenes from the state's
history; the floor of the rotunda is of tiles made at Doylestown,
in the style of the pottery made by early Moravian settlers, and
illustrating the state's resources; the Senate Chamber and the
House Chamber have stained-glass windows by W. B. van Ingen
and mural paintings by Edwin A. Abbey, who painted a series,
" The Development of the Law," for the Supreme Court room
in the eastern wing and decorated the rotunda. The mural
decorations of the south corridor, by W. B. van Ingen, portray
the state's religious sects; those in the north corridor, by John
W. Alexander, represent the changes in the physical and material
character of the state; and there is a frieze by Miss Violet
Oakley, " The Founding of the State of Liberty Spiritual,"
in the governor's reception room. Two heroic groups of
statuary for the building were designed by George Grey Barnard.
The state library in the Capitol contains about 150,000 volumes.
In the same park is also a monument 105 ft. high erected in

1 For this building the legislature in 1901 appropriated $4,000,000,
stipulating that it should be completed before the 1st of January
1907, It was completed by that-time, the net expenditure of the
building commission being about $3,970,000. Although the legis-
lature had made no provision for furniture and decoration, the state
Board of Public Grounds and Buildings (governor, auditor-general
and treasurer) undertook to complete the furnishing and decoration
of the building within the stipulated time, and paid out for that
purpose more than $8,600,000. In May 1906 a new treasurer entered
office, who discovered that many items for furniture and decoration
were charged twice, once at a normal and again at a remarkably high
figure. In 1907 the legislature appointed a committee to investigate
the charge of fraud. The committee's decision was that the Board
of Grounds and Buildings was not authorized to let the decorating
and furnishing of the state house; that it had illegally authorized
certain expenditures; and that architect and contractors had made
fraudulent invoices and certificates. Various indictments were
found : in the first trial for conspiracy in the making and delivering
of furniture the contractor and the former auditor-general, state
treasurer and superintendent of public grounds and buildings were
convicted and in December 1908 were sentenced to two years'
imprisonment and fined $500 each; in 1910 a suit was brought for
the recovery of about $5,000,000 from those responsible.

22

HARRISMITH— HARRISON, BENJAMIN

1868 to the memory of the soldiers who fell in the Mexican War;
it has a column of Maryland marble 76 ft. high, which is sur-
mounted by an Italian marble statue of Victory, executed in
Rome. At the base of the monument are muskets used by
United States soldiers in that war and guns captured at Cerro
Gordo. In State Street is the Dauphin County Soldiers' monu-
ment, a shaft 10 ft. sq. at the base and no ft. high, with a pyra-
midal top.

For several years prior to 1902 Harrisburg suffered much from
impure water, a bad sewerage system, and poorly paved and
dirty streets. In that year, however, a League for Municipal
Improvements was formed; in February 1902 a loan of
$1,000,000 for municipal improvements was voted, landscape
gardeners and sewage engineers were consulted, and a non-
partisan mayor was elected, under whom great advances were
made in street cleaning and street paving, a new nitration plant
was completed, the river front was beautified and protected
from flood, sewage was diverted from Paxton Creek, and the
development of an extensive park system was undertaken.

Harrisburg's charitable institutions include a city hospital,
a home for the friendless, a children's industrial home, and
a state lunatic hospital (1845). The city is the seat of a Roman
Catholic bishopric. Both coal and iron ore abound in the
vicinity, and the city has numerous manufacturing establish-
ments. The value of its factory products in 1905 .was
$17,146,338 (14-3% more than in 1900), the more import-
ant being those of steel works and rolling mills ($4,528,907),
blast furnaces, steam railway repair shops, cigar and cigarette
factories ($1,258,498), foundries and machine shops ($953,617),
boot and shoe factories ($922,568), flouring and grist mills,
slaughtering and meat-packing establishments and silk mills.

Harrisburg was named in honour of John Harris, who, upon
coming into this region to trade early in the i8th century, was
attracted to the site as an easy place at which to ford the Susque-
hanna, and about 1726 settled here. He was buried in what is
now Harris Park, where he erected the first building, a small hut,
within the present limits of Harrisburg. In 1753 his son estab-
lished a ferry over the river, and the place was called Harris's
Ferry until 1785, when the younger Harris laid out the town and
named it Harrisburg. In the same year it was made the county-
seat of the newly constituted county of Dauphin, and its name was
changed to Louisburg; but when, in 1791, it was incorporated
as a borough, the present name was again adopted. In 1812,
after an effort begun twenty-five years before, it was made the
capital of the state; and in 1860 it was chartered as a city. In
the summer of 1827, through the persistent efforts of persons
most interested in the woollen manufactures of Massachusetts
and other New England states to secure legislative aid for that
industry, a convention of about 100 delegates — manufacturers,
newspaper men and politicians — was held in Harrisburg, and
the programme adopted by the convention did much to bring
about the passage of the famous high tariff act of 1828.

HARRISMITH, a town in the Orange Free State, 60 m. N.W.
by rail of Ladysmith, Natal, and 240 m. N.E. of Bloemfontein
via Bethlehem. Pop. (1904) 8300 (including troops 1921). It is
built on the banks of the Wilge, 5250 ft. above the sea and some
20 m. W. of the Drakensberg. Three miles N. is the Platberg,
a table-shaped mountain rising 2000 ft. above the town, whence
an excellent supply of water is derived. The town is well laid
out and several of the streets are lined with trees. Most of the
houses are built of white stone quarried in the neighbourhood.
The Kaffirs, who numbered in 1904 3483, live in a separate
location. Harrismith has a dry, bracing climate and enjoys a
high reputation in South Africa as a health resort. It serves
one of the best-watered and most fertile agricultural and pastoral
districts of the province, of which it is the chief eastern trading
centre. Wool and hides are the principal exports.

Harrismith was founded in 1849, the site first chosen being on
the Elands river, where the small town of Aberfeldig now is;
but the advantages of the present site soon became apparent
and the settlement was removed. The founders were Sir Harry
Smith (after whom the town is named), then governor of Cape

Colony, and Major Henry D. Warden, at that time British
resident at Bloemfontein, whose name is perpetuated in that
of the principal street. In a cave about 2 m. from the town are
well-preserved Bushman paintings.

HARRISON, BENJAMIN (1833-1901), the twenty-third
president of the United States, was born at North Bend, near
Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 2oth of August 1833. His great-
grandfather, Benjamin Harrison of Virginia (c. 1740-1791), was
a signer of the Declaration of Independence. His grandfather,
William Henry Harrison (1773-1841), was ninth president of
the United States. His father, John Scott Harrison (1804-1878),
represented his district in the national House of Representatives
in 1853-1857. Benjamin's youth was passed upon the ancestral
farm, and as opportunity afforded he attended school in the log
school-house near his home. He was prepared for college by a
private tutor, studied for two years at the Farmers' College,
near Cincinnati, and in 1852 graduated from Miami University,
at that time the leading educational institution in the State of
Ohio. From his youth he was diligent in his studies and a
great reader, and during his college life showed a marked talent
for extemporaneous speaking. He pursued the study of law,
partly in the office of Bellamy Storer (1798-1875), a leading
lawyer and judge of Cincinnati, and in 1853 he was admitted
to the bar. At the age of twenty-one he removed to Indianapolis.
He had but one acquaintance in the place, the clerk of the federal
court, who permitted him to occupy a desk in his office and
place at the door his sign as a lawyer. Waiting for professional
business, he was content to act as court crier for two dollars
and a half a day; but he soon gave indications of his talent, and
his studious habits and attention to his cases rapidly brought
him clients. Within a few years he took rank among the leading
members of the profession at a bar which included some of the
ablest lawyers of the country. His legal career was early inter-
rupted by the Civil War. His whole heart was enlisted in the
anti-slavery cause, and during the second year of the war he
accepted a commission from the governor of the state as second-
lieutenant and speedily raised a regiment. He became its
colonel, and as such continued in the Union Army until the close
of the war, and on the 23rd of January 1865 was breveted a
brigadier-general of volunteers for " ability and manifest energy
and gallantry in command of brigade." He participated with
his regiment in various engagements during General Don Carlos
Buell's campaigns in Kentucky and Tennessee in 1862 and 1863;
took part in General W. T. Sherman's march on Atlanta in 1864
and in the Nashville campaign of the same year; and was
transferred early in 1865 to Sherman's army in its march through
the Carolinas. As the commander of a brigade he served with
particular distinction in the battles of Kenesaw Mountain
(June 29~July 3, 1864), Peach Tree Creek (2oth of July 1864)
and Nashville (i5th-i6th of December 1864).

Allowing for this interval of military service, he applied
himself exclusively for twenty-four years to his legal work.
The only office he held was that of reporter of the supreme court
of Indiana for two terms (1860-1862 and 1864-1868), and this
was strictly in the line of his profession. He was a devoted
member of the Republican party, but not a politician in the
strict sense. Once he became a candidate for governor, in 1876,
but his candidature was a forlorn hope, undertaken from a sense
of duty after the regular nominee had withdrawn. He took
a deep interest in the campaign which resulted in the election
of James A. Garfield as president, and was offered by him a
place in his cabinet; but this he declined, having been elected
a member of the United States Senate, in which he took his seat
on the 4th of March 1881. He was chairman of the committee
on territories, and took an active part in urging the admission
as states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington, Idaho
and Montana, which finally came into the Union during his
presidency. He served also on the committee of military and
Indian affairs, the committee on foreign relations and others,
was prominent in the discussion of matters brought before the
Senate from these committees, advocated the enlargement of
the navy and the reform of the civil service, and opposed the

HARRISON, F.— HARRISON, J.

pension veto messages of President Cleveland. Having failed to
secure a re-election to the Senate in 1887, Harrison was nominated
by the Republican party for the presidency in 1888, and defeated
Grover Cleveland, the candidate of the Democratic party,
receiving 233 electoral votes to Cleveland's 168. Among the
measures and events distinguishing his term as president were
the following: The meeting of the Pan-American Congress at
Washington; the passage of the McKinley Tariff Bill and of the
Sherman Silver Bill of 1890; the suppressing of the Louisiana
Lottery; the enlargement of the navy; further advance in
civil service reform; the convocation by the United States of an
international monetary conference; the establishment of
commercial reciprocity with many countries of America and
Europe; the peaceful settlement of a controversy with Chile;
the negotiation of a Hawaiian Annexation Treaty, which,
however, before its ratification, his successor withdrew from the
Senate; the settlement of difficulties with Germany concerning
the Samoan Islands, and the adjustment by arbitration with
Great Britain of the Bering Sea fur-seal question. His adminis-
tration was marked by a revival of American industries and a
reduction of the public debt, and at its conclusion the country
' was left in a condition of prosperity and on friendly terms with
foreign nations. He was nominated by his party in 1892 for
re-election, but was defeated by Cleveland, this result being due,
at least in part, to the labour strikes which occurred during the
presidential campaign and arrayed the labour unions against the
tariff party.

After leaving public life he resumed the practice of the law,
and in 1898 was retained by the government of Venezuela as its
leading counsel in the arbitration of its boundary dispute with
Great Britain. In this capacity he appeared before the inter-
national tribunal of arbitration at Paris in 1899, worthily main-
taining the reputation of the American bar. After the Spanish-
American War he strongly disapproved of the colonial policy
of his party, which, however, he continued to support. He
occupied a portion of his leisure in writing a book, entitled
This Country of Ours (1897), treating of the organization and
administration of the government of the United States, and a
collection of essays by him was published posthumously, in
1901, under the title Views of an Ex-President. He died at
Indianapolis on the i3th of March 1901. Harrison's distinguish-
ing trait of character, to which his success is to be most largely
attributed, was his thoroughness. He was somewhat reserved
in manner, and this led to the charge in political circles that he
was cold and unsympathetic; but no one gathered around him
more devoted and loyal friends, and his dignified bearing in and
out of office commanded the hearty respect of his countrymen.

President Harrison was twice married; in 1853 to Miss
Caroline Lavinia Scott, by whom he had a son and a daughter,
and in 1896 to Mrs Mary Scott Lord Dimmock, by whom he had
a daughter.

A " campaign " biography was published by Lew Wallace (Phila-
delphia, 1888), and a sketch of his life may be found in Presidents
of the United States (New York, 1894), edited by James Grant
Wilson. (J. W. Fo.)

HARRISON, FREDERIC (1831- ), English jurist and
historian, was born in London on the i8th of October 1831.
Members of his family (originally Leicestershire yeomen) had
been lessees of Sutton Place, Guildford, of which he wrote an
interesting account (Annals of an Old Manor House, 1893). He
was educated at King's College school and at Wadham College,
Oxford, where, after taking a first-class in Literae Humaniores in
1853, he became fellow and tutor. He was called to the bar in
1858, and, in addition to his practice in equity cases, soon began
to distinguish himself as an effective contributor to the higher-
class reviews. Two articles in the Westminster Review, one on
the Italian question, which procured him the special thanks of
Cavour, the other on Essays and Reviews, which had the probably
undesigned effectof stimulating the attack on the book, attracted
especial notice. A few years later Mr Harrison worked at the
codification of the law with Lord Westbury, of whom he con-
tributed an interesting notice to Nash's biography of the chan-

cellor. His special interest in legislation for the working classes
led him to be placed upon the Trades Union Commission of 1867-
1869; he was secretary to the commission for the digest of the
law, 1869-1870; and was from 1877 to 1889 professor of juris-
prudence and international law under the council of legal educa-
tion. A follower of the positive philosophy, but in conflict with
Richard Congreve (q.i>.) as to details, he led the Positivists who
split off and founded Newton Hall in 1881, and he was president
of the English Positivist Committee from 1880 to 1905; he was
also edifor and part author of the Positivist New Calendar of
Great Men (1892), and wrote much on Comte and Positivism. Of
his separate publications, the most important are his lives of
Cromwell (1888), William the Silent, (1897), Ruskin (1902), and
Chatham (1905); his Meaning of History (1862; enlarged 1894)
and Byzantine History in the Early Middle Ages (1900); and
his essays on Early Victorian Literature (1896) and The Choice
of Books (1886) are remarkable alike for generous admiration
and good sense. In 1904 he published a " romantic mono-
graph " of the roth century, Theophano, and in 1906 a verse
tragedy, Nicephorus. An advanced and vehement Radical in
politics and Progressive in municipal affairs, Mr Harrison in 1886
stood unsuccessfully for parliament against Sir John Lubbock
for London University. In 1889 he was elected an alderman
of the London County Council, but resigned in 1893. In 1870
he married Ethel Berta, daughter of Mr William Harrison, by
whom he had four sons. George Gissing, the novelist, was at
one time their tutor; and in 1905 Mr Harrison wrote a preface
to Gissing's Veranilda (see also Mr Austin Harrison's article on
Gissing in the Nineteenth Century, September 1906). As a relig-
ious teacher, literary critic, historian and jurist, Mr Harrison
took a prominent part in the life of his time, and his writings,
though often violently controversial on political and social
subjects, and in their judgment and historical perspective
characterized by a modern Radical point of view, are those of an
accomplished scholar, and of one whose wide knowledge of
literature was combined with independence of thought and
admirable vigour of style. In 1907 he published The Creed of a
Layman,' Apologia pro fide mea, in explanation of his religious
position.

HARRISON, JOHN (1693-1776), English horologist, was the
son of a carpenter, and was born at Faulby, near Pontefract
in Yorkshire, in the year 1693. Thence his father and family
removed in 1700 to Barrow in Lincolnshire. Young Harrison
at first learned his father's trade, and worked at it for several
years, at the same time occasionally making a little money by
land-measuring and surveying. The bent of his mind, however,
was towards mechanical pursuits. In 1 7 1 5 he made a clock with
wooden wheels, which is in the patent museum at South
Kensington, and in 1726 he devised his ingenious " gridiron
pendulum," which maintains its length unaltered in spite of
variations of temperature (see CLOCK). Another invention of
his was a recoil clock escapement in which friction was reduced
to a minimum, and he was the first to employ the commonly
used and effective form of " going ratchet," which is a spring
arrangement for keeping the timepiece going at its usual rate
during the interval of being wound up.

In Harrison's time the British government had become fully
alive to the necessity of determining more accurately the longi-
tude at sea. For this purpose they passed an act in 1713 offering
rewards of £10,000, £15,000 and £20,000 to any who should
construct chronometers that would determine the longitude
within 60, 40 and 30 m. respectively. Harrison applied himself
vigorously to the task, and in 1735 went to the Board of Longi-
tude with a watch which he also showed to Edmund Halley,
George Graham and others. Through their influence he was
allowed to proceed in a king's ship to Lisbon to test it; and the
result was so satisfactory that he was paid £500 to carry out
further improvements. Harrison worked at the subject with the
utmost perseverance, and, after making several watches, went up
to London in 1761 with one which he considered almost perfect.
His son William was sent on a voyage to Jamaica to test it ; and,
on his return to Portsmouth in 1762, it was found to have lost

HARRISON, T.— HARRISON, T. A.

only i minute 54! seconds. This was surprisingly accurate, as it
determined the longitude within 18 m., and Harrison claimed the
full reward of £20,000; but though from time to time he received
sums on account, it was not till 1773 that he was paid in full.
In these watches compensation for changes of temperature was
applied for the first time by means of a " compensation-curb,"
designed to alter the effective length of the balance-spring in
proportion to the expansion or contraction caused by variations
of temperature. Harrison died in London on the 24th of March
1776. His want of early education was felt by him greatly
throughout life. He was unfortunately never able to express his
ideas clearly in writing, although in conversation he could give
a very precise and exact account of his many intricate mechanical
contrivances.

Among his writings were a Description concerning such Mechanism
as will afford a Nice or True Mensuration of Time (1775), and The
Principles of Mr Harrison's Timekeeper, published by order of the
Commissioners of Longitude (1767).

HARRISON, THOMAS (1606-1660), English parliamentarian,
a native of Newcastle-under-Lyme in Staffordshire, the son of a
butcher and mayor of that town, was baptized in 1606. He was
placed with an attorney of Clifford's Inn, but at the beginning of
the war in 1642 he enlisted in Essex's lifeguards, became major
in Fleetwood's regiment of horse under the earl of Manchester,
was present at Marston Moor, at Naseby, Langport and at the
taking of Winchester and Basing, as well as at the siege of Oxford.
At Basing Harrison was accused of having killed a prisoner in cold
blood. In 1646 he was returned to parliament for Wendover,
and served in Ireland in 1647 under Lord Lisle, returning to
England in May, when he took the side of the army in the dispute
with the parliament and obtained from Fairfax a regiment of
horse. In November he opposed the negotiations with the king,
whom he styled " a man of blood " to be called to account,
and he declaimed against the House of Lords. At the surprise of
Lambert's quarters at Appleby on the i8th of July 1648, in the
second civil war, he distinguished himself by his extraordinary
daring and was severely wounded. He showed a special zeal in
bringing about the trial of the king. Charles was entrusted to
his care on being brought up from Hurst Castle to London, and
believed that Harrison intended his assassination, but was at
once favourably impressed by his bearing and reassured by his
disclaiming any such design. Harrison was assiduous in his
attendance at the trial, and signed the death-warrant with the
fullest conviction that it was his duty. He took part in sup-
pressing the royalist rising in the midlands in May 1649, and in
July was appointed to the chief command in South Wales, where
he is said to have exercised his powers with exceptional severity.
On the 2oth of February 1651 he became a member of the council
of state, and during Cromwell's absence in Scotland held the
supreme military command in England. He failed in stopping
the march of the royalists into England at Knutsford on the
1 6th of August 1651, but after the battle of Worcester he ren-
dered great service in pursuing and capturing the fugitives.
Later he pressed on Cromwell the necessity of dismissing the
Long Parliament, and it was he who at Cromwell's bidding, on
the 2oth of April 1653, laid hands on Speaker Lenthall and com-
pelled him to vacate the chair. He was president of the council
of thirteen which now exercised authority, and his idea of govern-
ment appears to have been an assembly nominated by the congre-
gations, on a strictly religious basis, such as Barebone's Parlia-
ment which now assembled, of which he was a member and a
ruling spirit. Harrison belonged to the faction of Fifth Monarchy
men, whose political ideals were entirely destroyed by Cromwell's
assumption, of the protectorate. He went immediately into
violent opposition, was deprived of his commission on the 22nd of
December 1653, and on the 3rd of February 1654 was ordered to
confine himself to liis father's house in Staffordshire. Suspected
of complicity in the plots of the anabaptists, he was imprisoned
for a short time in September, and on that occasion was sent
for by Cromwell, who endeavoured in a friendly manner to per-
suade him to desist. He, however, incurred the suspicions of the
administration afresh, and on the isth of February 1655 he was

imprisoned in Carisbrooke Castle, being liberated in March 1656,
when he took up his residence at Highgate with his family. In
April 1657 he was arrested for supposed complicity in Venner's
conspiracy, and again once more in February 1658, when he was
imprisoned in the Tower. At the Restoration, Harrison, who
was excepted from the Act of Indemnity, refused to take any
steps to save his life, to give any undertaking not to conspire
against the government or to flee. " Being so clear in the thing,"
he declared, " I durst not turn my back nor step a foot out of
the way by reason I had been engaged in the service of so glorious
and great a God." He was arrested in Staffordshire in May 1660
and brought to trial on the nth of October. He made a manly
and straightforward defence, pleading the authority of parlia-
ment and adding, " May be I might be a little mistaken, but I
did it all according to the best of my understanding, desiring to
make the revealed will of God in His holy scriptures a guide to
me." At his execution, which took place at Charing Cross on the
I3th of October 1660, he behaved with great fortitude.

Richard Baxter, who was acquainted with him, describes
Harrison as " a man of excellent natural parts for affection
and oratory, but not well seen in the principles of his religion;
of a sanguine complexion, naturally of such a vivacity, hilarity
and alacrity as another man hath when he hath drunken a cup
too much, but naturally also so far from humble thoughts of
himself that it was his ruin." Cromwell also complained of his
excessive eagerness. " Harrison is an honest man and aims at
good things, yet from the impatience of his spirit will not wait
the Lord's leisure but hurries me on to that which he and all
honest men will have cause to repent." Harrison was an
eloquent and fluent expounder of the scriptures, and his " rap-
tures " on the field of victory are recorded by Baxter. He was
of the chief of those " fiery spirits " whose ardent and emotional
religion inspired their political action, and who did wonders
during the period of struggle and combat, but who later, in the
more sober and difficult sphere of constructive statesmanship,
showed themselves perfectly incapable.

Harrison married about 1648 Katherine, daughter and heiress
of Ralph Harrison of Highgate in Middlesex, by whom he had
several children, all of whom, however, appear to have died in
infancy.

See the article on Harrison by C. H. Firth in the Diet, of Nat.
Biog.; Life of Harrison by C. H. Simpkinson (1905); Notes and
Queries, 9 series, xi. 211.

HARRISON, THOMAS ALEXANDER (1853- ), American
artist, was born in Philadelphia on the i7th of January 1853.
He was a pupil of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts and
of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, whither he went in 1878, .
having previously been with a United States government survey
expedition on the Pacific coast. Chafing under the restraints of
the schools, he went into Brittany, and at Pont Aven and Con-
carneau turned his attention to marine painting and landscape.
In 1882 he sent a figure-piece to the Salon, a fisher boy on the
beach, which he called " Chateaux en Espagne." This attracted
attention, and in 1885 he received an honourable mention, the
first of many awards conferred upon him, including the Temple
gold medal (Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia,
1887), first medal, Paris Exhibition (1889), and medals in Munich,
Brussels, Ghent, Vienna and elsewhere. He became a member
of the Legion of Honour and officier of Public Instruction,
Paris; a member of the Societe Nationale des Beaux- Arts,
Paris; of the Royal Institute of Painters in Oil Colours, London;
of the Secession societies of Munich, Vienna and Berlin; of the
National Academy of Design, the Society of American Artists,
New York, and other art bodies. In the Salon of 1885 he had
a large canvas of several nude women, called " In Arcady," a
remarkable study of flesh tones in light and shade which had a
strong influence on the younger men of the day. But his reputa-
tion rests rather on his marine pictures, long waves rolling in on
the beach, and great stretches of open sea under poetic con-
ditions of light and colour.

His brother, BIRGE HARRISON (1834- ), also a painter,
particularly successful in snow scenes, was a pupil of the Ecole

HARRISON, W.— HARRISON, W. H.

des Beaux Arts, Paris, under Cabanel and Carolus Duran; his
" November " (honourable mention, 1882) was purchased by
the French government. Another brother, BUTLER HARRISON
(d. 1886), was a figure painter.

HARRISON, WILLIAM (1534-1593), English topographer and
antiquary, was born in London on the iSth of April 1534- He
was educated, according to his own account, at St Paul's school
and at Westminster under Alexander Nowell. In 1551 he was
at Cambridge, but he took his B.A. degree from Christ Church,
Oxford, in 1560. He was inducted early in 1559 to the rectory
of Radwinter, Essex, on the presentation of Sir William Brooke,
Lord Cobham, to whom he had formerly acted as chaplain; and
from 1571 to 1581 he held from another patron, Francis de la
Wood, the living of Wimbish in the same county. He became
canon of Windsor in 1586, and his death and burial are noted in
the chapter book of St George's chapel on the 24th of April 1593.

His famous and amusing Description of England was under-
taken for the queen's printer, Reginald Wolfe, who designed the
publication of " an universall cosmographie of the whole world

. . with particular histories of every knowne nation." After
Wolfe's death in 1576 this comprehensive plan was reduced to
descriptions and histories of England, Scotland and Ireland.
The historical section was to be supplied by Raphael Holinshed,
the topographical by Harrison. The work was eventually pub-
lished as The Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland . . .
by Raphael Holinshed and others, and was printed in two black-
letter folio volumes in 1577. Harrison's Description of England,
humbly described as his " foule frizeled treatise," and dedicated
to his patron Cobham, is an invaluable survey of the condition of
England under Elizabeth, in all its political, religious and social
aspects. Harrison is a minute and careful observer of men and
things, and his descriptions are enlivened with many examples
of a lively and caustic humour which makes the book excellent
reading. In spite of his Puritan prejudices, which lead him to
regret that the churches had not been cleared of their " pictures
in glass " (" by reason of the extreme cost thereof "), and to
exhaust his wit on the effeminate Italian fashions of the younger
generation, he had an eye for beauty and is loud in his praise of
such architectural gems as Henry VII. 's chapel at Westminster.
He is properly contemptuous of the snobbery that was even then
characteristic of English society; but his account of " how
gentlemen are made in England " must be read in full to be
appreciated. He is especially instructive on the condition and
services of the Church immediately after the Reformation;
notably in the fact that, though an ardent Protestant, he is quite
unconscious of any breach of continuity in the life and organiza-
tion of the Church of England.

Harrison also contributed the translation from Scots into
English of Bellenden's version of Hector Boece's Latin Descrip-
tion of Scotland. His other works include a " Chronologic,"
giving an account of events from the creation to the year 1593,
which is of some value for the period covered by the writer's
lifetime. This, with an elaborate treatise on weights and
measures, remains in MS. in the diocesan library of Londonderry.

For the later editions of the Chronicles of England . . . see
HOLINSHED. The second and third books of Harrison's Description
were edited by Dr F. J. Furnivall for the New Shakspcre Society,
with extracts from his " Chronologie " and from other contemporary
writers, as Shakspere's England (2 vols., 1877-1878).

HARRISON, WILLIAM HENRY (1773-1841), ninth president
of the United States, was born at Berkeley, Charles City county,
Virginia, on the 9th of February 1773, the third son of Benjamin
Harrison (c. 1740-1791). His father was long prominent in
Virginia politics, and became a member of the Virginia House
of Burgesses in 1764, opposing Patrick Henry's Stamp Act
resolutions in the following year; he was a member of the
Continental Congress in 1774-1777, signing the Declaration ol
Independence and serving for a time as president of the Boarc
of War; speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1777-
1782; governor of Virginia in 1781-1784; and in 1788 as a
member of the Virginia Convention he actively opposed the
ratification of the Federal Constitution by his state. William

rlenry Harrison received a classical education at Hampden-
Sidney College, where he was a student in 1787-1790, and began
a medical course in Philadelphia, but the death of his father
caused him to discontinue his studies, and in November 1791 he
entered the army as ensign in the Tenth Regiment at Fort
Washington, Cincinnati. In the following year he became a
ieutenant, and subsequently acted as aide-de-camp to General
Anthony Wayne in the campaign which ended in the battle of
Fallen Timbers on the loth of August 1 794. He was promoted to
a captaincy in 1797 and for a brief period served as commander of
Fort Washington, but resigned from the army in June 1798.
Soon afterwards he succeeded Winthrop Sargent as secretary of
the North-west Territory. In 1799 he was chosen by the Jeffer-
sonian party of this territory as the delegate of the territory in
Congress. While serving in this capacity he devised a plan for
disposing of the public lands upon favourable terms to actual
settlers, and also assisted in the division of the North-west
Territory. It was his ambition to become governor of the more
populous eastern portion, which retained the original name, but
nstead, in January 1800, President John Adams appointed him
governor of the newly created Indiana Territory, which com-
prised until 1809 a much larger area than the present state of
the same name. (See INDIANA: History.) He was not sworn
into office until the loth of January 1801, and was governor
until September 1812. Among the legislative measures of his
administration may be mentioned the attempted modification
of the slavery clause of the ordinance of 1787 by means of an
indenture law — a policy which Harrison favoured; more
effective land laws; and legislation for the more equitable
treatment of the Indians and for preventing the sale of liquor to
them. In 1803 Harrison also became a special commissioner to
treat with the Indians " on the subject of boundary or lands,"
and as such negotiated various treaties — at Fort Wayne (1803
and 1809), Vincennes (1804 and 1809) and Grouseland (1805) —
by which the southern part of the present state of Indiana and
portions of the present states of Illinois, Wisconsin and Missouri
were opened to settlement. For a few months after the division
in 1804 of the Louisiana Purchase into the Orleans Territory
and the Louisiana Territory he also acted as governor of the
Louisiana Territory — all of the Louisiana Purchase N. of the
thirty-third parallel, his jurisdiction then being the greatest
in extent ever exercised by a territorial official in the United
States.

The Indian cessions of 1809, along the Wabash river, aroused
the hostility of Tecumseh (q.v.) and his brother, familiarly known
as " The Prophet," who were attempting to combine the tribes
between the Ohio and the Great Lakes in opposition to the
encroachment of the whites. Several fruitless conferences
between the governor and the Indian chiefs, who were believed
to be encouraged by the British, resulted in Harrison's advance
with a force of militia and regulars to the Tippecanoe river,
where (near the present Lafayette, Ind.) on the 7th of November
1811 he won over the Indians a victory which established his
military reputation and was largely responsible for his sub-
sequent nomination and election to the presidency of the United
States. From one point of view the battle of Tippecanoe may
be regarded as the opening skirmish of the war of 1812. When
in the summer of 181 2 open hostilities with Great Britain began,
Harrison was appointed by Governor Charles Scott of Kentucky
major-general in the militia of that state. A few weeks later
(22nd August 1812) he was made brigadier-general in the regular
U.S. army, and soon afterwards was put in command of all the
troops in the north-west, and on the 2nd of March 1813 he was
promoted to the rank of major-general. General James Win-
chester, whom Harrison had ordered to prepare to cross Lake
Erie on the ice and surprise Fort Maiden, turned back to rescue
the threatened American settlement at Frenchtown (now
Monroe), on the Raisin river, and there on the 22nd of January
1813 was .forced to surrender to Colonel Henry A. Proctor.
Harrison's offensive operations being thus checked, he accom-
plished nothing that summer except to hold in check Proctor, who
(May 1-5) besieged him at Fort Meigs, the American advanced

HARRISON

post after the disaster of the river Raisin. After Lieutenant
O. H. Perry's naval victory on the roth of September 1813,
Harrison no longer had to remain on the defensive; he advanced
to Detroit, re-occupied the territory surrendered by General
William Hull, and on the sth of October administered a crushing
defeat to Proctor at the battle of the Thames.

In 1814 Harrison received no active assignments to service,
and on this account and because the secretary of war (John
Armstrong) issued an order to one of Harrison's subordinates
without consulting him, he resigned his commission. Armstrong
accepted the resignation without consulting President Madison,
but the president later utilized Harrison in negotiating with the
north-western Indians, the greater part of whom agreed (22nd
July 1814) to a second treaty of Greenville, by which they were
to become active allies of the United States, should hostilities
with Great Britain continue. This treaty publicly marked an
American policy of alliance with these Indians and caused the
British peace negotiators at Ghent to abandon them. In the
following year Harrison held another conference at Detroit with
these tribes in order to settle their future territorial relations
with the United States.

From 1816 to 1819 Harrison was a representative in Congress,
and as such worked in behalf of more liberal pension laws and a
better militia organization, including a system of general military
education, of improvements in the navigation of the Ohio, and of
relief for purchasers of public lands, and for the strict construc-
tion of the power of Congress over the Territories, particularly
in regard to slavery. In accordance with this view in 1819 he
voted against Tallmadge's amendment (restricting the extension
of slavery) to the enabling act for the admission of Missouri.
He also delivered forcible speeches upon the death of Kosciusko
and upon General Andrew Jackson's course in the Floridas,
favouring a partial censure of the latter.

Harrison was a member of the Ohio senate in 1810-1821, and
was an unsuccessful candidate for the National House of Repre-
sentatives in 1822, when his Missouri vote helped to cause his
defeat; he was a presidential elector in 1824, supporting Henry
Clay, and from 1825 to 1828 was a member of the United States
Senate. In 1828 after unsuccessful efforts to secure for him the
command of the army, upon the death of Major-General Jacob
Brown, and the nomination for the vice-president, on the ticket
with John Quincy Adams, his friends succeeded in getting
Harrison appointed as the first minister of the United States to
Colombia. He became, however, an early sacrifice to Jackson's
spoils system, being recalled within less than a year, but not
until he had involved himself in some awkward diplomatic com-
plications with Bolivar's autocratic government.

For some years after his return from Colombia he lived in
retirement at North Bend, Ohio. He was occasionally " men-
tioned " for governor, senator or representative, by the anti-
Jackson forces, and delivered a few addresses on agricultural or
political topics. Later he became clerk of the court of common
pleas of Hamilton county — a lucrative position that was then
most acceptable to him. Early in 1835 Harrison began to be
mentioned as a suitable presidential candidate, and later in the
year he was nominated for the presidency at large public meet-
ings in Pennsylvania, New York and Maryland. In the election
of the following year he attracted a large part of the Whig and
Anti-Masonic vote of the Middle and Western states and led
among the candidates opposing Van Buren, but received only
73 electoral votes while Van Buren received 1 70. His unexpected
strength, due largely to his clear, if non-committal, political
record, rendered him the most " available " candidate for the
Whig party for the campaign of 1840, and he was nominated by
the Whig convention at Harrisburg, Pa., in December 1839, his
most formidable opponent being Henry Clay, who, though
generally regarded as the real leader of his party, was less
" available " because as a mason he would alienate former
members of the old Anti-Masonic party, and as an advocate of a
protective tariff would repel many Southern voters. The conven-
tion adjourned without adopting any " platform " of principles,
the party shrewdly deciding to make its campaign merely on the

issue of whether the Van Buren administration should be con-
tinued in power and thus to take full advantage of the popular
discontent with the administration, to which was attributed the
responsibility for the panic of 1837 and the subsequent business
depression. Largely to attract the votes of Democratic mal-
contents the Whig convention nominated for the vice-presidency
John Tyler, who had previously been identified with the Demo-
cratic party. The campaign was marked by the extraordinary
enthusiasm exhibited by the Whigs, and by their skill in attacking
Van Buren without binding themselves to any definite policy.
Because of his fame as a frontier hero, of the circumstance that
a part of his home at North Bend, Ohio, had formerly been a log
cabin, and of the story that cider, not wine, was served on his
table, Harrison was derisively called by his opponents the " log
cabin and hard cider " candidate; the term was eagerly accepted
by the Whigs, in whose processions miniature log cabins were
carried and at whose meetings hard cider was served, and
the campaign itself has become known in history as the "log
cabin and hard cider campaign." Harrison's canvass was con-
spicuous for the immense Whig processions and mass meetings,
the numerous " stump " speeches (Harrison himself addressing
meetings at Dayton, Chillicothe, Columbus and other places),
and the use of campaign songs, of party insignia, and of campaign
cries (such as " Tippecanoe and Tyler too "); and in the election
he won by an overwhelming majority of 234 electoral votes to
60 cast for Van Buren.

President Harrison was inaugurated on the 4th of March 1841.
He chose for his cabinet Daniel Webster as secretary of state,
Thomas Ewing as secretary of the treasury, John Bell as secretary
of war, George E. Badger as secretary of the navy, Francis
Granger as postmaster-general, and John J. Crittenden as
attorney-general. He survived his inauguration only one month,
dying on the 4th of April 1841, and being succeeded by the vice-
president, John Tyler. The immediate cause of his death was
an attack of pneumonia, but the disease was aggravated by the
excitement attending his sudden change in circumstances and
the incessant demands of office seekers. After temporary
interment at Washington, his body was removed to the tomb at
North Bend, Ohio, where it now lies. A few of Harrison's public
addresses survive, the most notable being A Discourse on the
Aborigines of the Ohio. It has been said of him: " He was not a
great man, but he had lived in a great time, and he had been a
leader in great things." He was the first territorial delegate in
the Congress of the United States and was the author of the first
step in the development of the country's later homestead policy;
the first presidential candidate to be selected upon the ground
of " expediency " alone; and the first president to die in office.
In 1795 he married Anna Symmes (1775-1864), daughter of John
Cleves Symmes. Their grandson, Benjamin Harrison, was the
twenty-third president of the United States.

AUTHORITIES. — In 1824 Moses Dawson published at Cincinnati the
Historical Narrative of the Civil and Military Services of Major-
General William H. Harrison. This is a combined defence and
political pamphlet, but it is the source of all the subsequent " lives "
that have appeared. There are several " campaign " biographies,
including one by Richard Hildreth (1839) and one by Caleb Gushing
(1840); and there is a good sketch in Presidents of the United States
(New York, 1894), edited by J. G. Wilson. An excellent study of
Harrison's career in Indiana appears in vol. 4 of the Indiana Historical
Society Publications. Selections from his scanty correspondence
appear in vols. ii. and iii. of the Quarterly Publications of the Historical
and Philosophical Society of Ohio.

HARRISON, a town of Hudson county. New Jersey, U.S.A.,
on the Passaic river, opposite Newark (with which it is connected
by bridges and electric railways), and 7 m. W. of Jersey City.
Pop. (1890) 8338; (1900) 10,596, of whom 3633 were foreign-
born; (1910 census) 14,498. It is served by the Pennsylvania,
the Erie, and the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railways.
Harrison was chosen as the eastern terminal of the Pennsylvania
railroad for steam locomotive service, transportation thence
to New York being by electric power through the railway's
Hudson river tunnels. The town has an extensive river-front,
along which are many of its manufactories; among their
products are steam-pumps, steel, iron, machinery, roller bearings,

HARRODSBURG— HARROW

27

brass tubing, iron and brass castings, marine engines, hoisting
engines, metal novelties, dry batteries, electric lamps, concrete
blocks, cotton thread, wire cloth, leather, trunks, beer, barrels,
lumber, inks and cutlery. The factory product in 1905 was
valued at $8,408,924. The town is governed by a mayor and a
common council. Harrison was settled toward the close of the
1 7th century, and for many years constituted the S. portion of
the township of Lodi. In 1840, however, it was set off from
Lodi and named in honour of President William Henry Harrison,
and in 1873 it was incorporated. Harrison originally included
what is now the town of Kearny (q.v.).

HARRODSBURG, a city and the county-seat of Mercer
county, Kentucky, U.S.A., 32 m. S. of Frankfort, on the Southern
railway. Pop. (1890) 3230; (1900) 2876, of whom 1150 were
negroes; (1910 U.S. census) 3147. On account of its sulphur
springs Harrodsburg became early in the igth century a fashion-
able resort, and continues to attract a considerable number of
visitors. The city is the seat of Harrodsburg Academy, Beau-
mont College for women (1894; founded as Daughters' College
in 1856); and Wayman College (African M.E.) for negroes.
Among its manufactures are flour, whisky, dressed lumber and
ice. About 7 m. E. of Harrodsburg is Pleasant Hill, or Union
Village, a summer resort and the home, since early in the igth
century, of a Shaker community. Harrodsburg was founded on
the 1 6th of June 1774 by James Harrod (1746-1793) and a
few followers, and is the oldest permanent settlement in the
state. It was incorporated in 1875. Harrodsburg was formerly
the seat of Bacon College (see LEXINGTON, Kentucky).

HARROGATE, a municipal borough and watering-place in
the Ripon parliamentary division of the West Riding of York-
shire, England, 203 m. N. by W. from London, on the North-
Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 16,316; (1901) 28,423. It is
indebted for its rise and importance to its medicinal springs,
and is the principal inland watering-place in the north of England.
It consists of two scattered townships, Low Harrogate and High
Harrogate, which have gradually been connected by a continuous
range of handsome houses and villas. A common called the
Stray, of 200 acres, secured by act of parliament from ever being
built upon, stretches in front of the main line of houses, and on
this account Harrogate, notwithstanding its rapid increase, has
retained much of its rural charm. As regards climate a choice
is offered between the more bracing atmosphere of High Harro-
gate and the sheltered and warm climate of the low town. The
waters are chalybeate, sulphureous and saline, and some of the
springs possess all these qualities to a greater or less extent.
The principal chalybeate springs are the Tewitt well, called by
Dr Bright, who wrote the first account of it, the " English Spa,"
discovered by Captain William Slingsby of Bilton Hall near the
close of the i6th century; the Royal Chalybeate Spa, more
commonly known as John's Well, discovered in 1631 by Dr
Stanhope of York; Muspratt's chalybeate or chloride of iron
spring discovered in 1819, but first properly analysed by Dr
Sheridan Muspratt in 1865; and the Starbeck springs midway
between High Harrogate and Knaresborough. The principal
sulphur springs are the old sulphur well in the centre of Low
Harrogate, discovered about the year 1656; the Montpellier
springs, the principal well of which was discovered in 1822,
situated in the grounds of the Crown Hotel and surmounted by
a handsome building in the Chinese style, containing pump-room,
baths and reading-room; and the Harlow Car springs, situated
in a wooded glen about a mile west from Low Harrogate. Near
Harlow Car is Harlow observatory, a square tower 100 ft. in
height, standing on elevated ground and commanding a very
extensive view. A saline spring situated in Low Harrogate was
discovered in 1783. Some eighty springs in all have been dis-
covered. The principal bath establishments are the Victoria
Baths (1871) and the Royal Baths (1897). There are also a
handsome kursaal (1903), a grand opera house, numerous modern
churches, and several hospitals and benevolent institutions,
including the Royal Bath hospital. The corporation owns the
Stray, and also the Spa concert rooms and grounds, Harlow
Moor, Crescent Gardens, Royal Bath gardens and other large

open spaces, as well as Royal Baths, Victoria Baths and Starbeck
Baths. The mineral springs are vested in the corporation. The
high-lying moorland of the surrounding district is diversified
by picturesque dales; and Harrogate is not far from mony
towns and sites of great interest, such as Ripon, Knaresborough
and Fountains Abbey. The town was incorporated in 1884,
and the corporation consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24
councillors. Area, 3276 acres.

HARROW,1 an agricultural implement used for (i) levelling
ridges left by the plough and preparing a smooth surface for
the reception of seeds; (2) covering in seeds after sowing; (3)
tearing up and gathering weeds; (4) disintegrating and levelling
the soil of meadows and pastures; (5) forming a surface tilth
by pulverizing the top soil and so conserving moisture.

The harrow rivals the plough in antiquity. In its simplest
form it consists of the boughs of trees interlaced into a wooden
frame, and this form survives in the " bush-harrow." Another
old type, found in the middle ages and still in use, consists of a
wooden framework in which iron pegs or " tines " are set. This
is now generally superseded by the " zig-zag " harrow patented
by Armstrong in 1839, built of iron bars in which the tines are so
arranged that each follows its own track and" has a separate line
of action. This harrow is usually made in two or three sections

FIG. i. — Jointed Zig-zag Harrow. (Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies, Ltd.)

which fold over one another and are thus easily portable, the
arrangement at the same time giving a flexibility on uneven
ground. Additional flexibility may be imparted to the imple-
ment by jointing the stays of the frame which are in the line of
draught. The liability that the tines may snap off is the chief
weakness of this type, and improvements have consisted chiefly
in alterations in their shape and the method of fixing them to the
frame.

The other type of harrow most used is the chain harrow', con-
sisting of a number of square-link chains connected by cross links
and attached to a draught-bar, the whole being kept expanded
by stretchers and trailing weights. It is used for levelling and
spreading manure over grass-land, from which it at the same
time tears up moss and coarse herbage. Mention may also be
made of the drag-harrow, a heavy implement with long tines,
approximating closely to the cultivator, and of the Norwegian
harrow with its revolving rows of spikes.

A few variations and developments of the ordinary harrow require
notice. In the adjustable harrow (fig. 2) the teeth are secured to
bars pivoted at their ends in the side bars of the frame, and provided
with crank arms connected to a common link bar, which may be
moved horizontally by means of a lever for the purpose of adjusting

1 In Mid. Eng. harwe; the O. Eng. appears to have been hearge; the
word is cognate with the Dutch hark, Swed. harke, Ger. Harke, rake,
and with Danish ham, and Swed. harf, harrow, but the ultimate
origin is unknown; the Fr. herse is a different word, cf. HEARSE.

28

HARROWBY— HARROWING OF HELL

the angle which the teeth make with the ground, and thus convert
the machine from a pulverizer to a smooching harrow. The small
figure illustrates a spring connexion between the adjusting lever and
its locking bar, which allows the teeth to yield upon striking an
obstruction. As the briskness of the operation adds to its effective-

Siiowing tooth mechanism of harrow.

FIG. 2. — Adjustable Harrow.

ness, the harrow is often made with a seat from which the operator
can hasten the team without fatiguing himself.

Fig. 3 illustrates a spring-tooth harrow. In this harrow the in-
dependent frames are carried upon wheels, and a seat for the operator
is mounted upon standards supported by the two frames. The teeth
consist of flat steel springs of scroll form, which yield to rigid obstruc-
tions and are mounted on rock shafts in the same manner as in the
walking harrow before described. The levers enable the operator t o
raise the teeth more or less, and thus free them from rubbish and
also regulate the depth of action.

Another variation of the harrow with great pulverizing and
loosening capabilities consists of a main frame, having a pole and
whipple-trees attached ; to this frame are pivoted two supplemental
frames, each of which has mounted on it a shaft carrying a series of
concavo-convex disks. The supplemental frames may be swung by

FIG. 3. — Spring-tooth Harrow.

the adjusting levers to any angle with relation to the line of draught,
and the disks then act like that of the disk plough (see PLOUGH),
throwing the soil outward with more or less force, according to the
angle at which they are set, and thus thoroughly breaking up and
pulverizing the clods. Above the disks is a bar to which are pivoted
a series of scrapers, one for each disk, which are held to their work
with a yielding action, being thrown out of operation when desired
by the levers shown in connexion with the operating bar. Pans on
the main frame are used to carry weights to hold the disks down to
their work. The cut away disk narrow differs from the ordinary disk
harrow in that its disks are notched and so have greater penetrating
power. The curved knife-tooth harrow consists of a frame to which
a row of curved blades is attached. Other forms of the implement
are illustrated and discussed in Farm Machinery and Farm Motors
by J. B. Davidson and L. W. Chase (New York, 1908).

HARROWBY, DUDLEY RYDER, IST EARL OF (1762-1847),
the eldest son of Nathaniel Ryder, ist Baron Harrowby (1735-
1803), was born in London on the 22nd of December 1762. His
grandfather Sir Dudley Ryder (1691-1756) became a member
of parliament and solicitor-general owing to the favour of Sir
Robert Walpole in 1733; in 1737 he was appointed attorney-
general and three years later he was knighted; in 1754 he was
made lord chief justice of the king's bench and a privy councillor,
the patent creating him a peer having been just signed by the
king, but not passed, when he died on the 25th of May 1756. His
only son Nathaniel, who was member of parliament for Tiverton
for twenty years, was created Baron Harrowby in 1776. Edu-
cated at St John's College, Cambridge, Dudley Ryder became

member of parliament for Tiverton in 1784 and under-secretary
for foreign affairs in 1789. In 1791 he was appointed paymaster
of the forces and vice-president of the board of trade, but he
resigned the positions and also that of treasurer of the navy

when he succeeded to
his father's barony in
June 1803. In 1804 he
was secretary of state
for foreign affairs and
in 1805 chancellor of
the duchy of Lancaster
under his intimate
friend William Pitt; in
the latter year he was
sent on a special and
important mission to
the emperors of Austria
and Russia and the
king of Prussia, and

for the long period between 1812 and 1827 he was lord
president of the council. After Canning's death in 1827 he
refused to serve George IV. as prime minister and he
never held office again, although he continued to take part
in politics, being especially prominent during the deadlock
which preceded the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832.
Harrowby's long association with the Tories did not prevent
him from assisting to remove the disabilities of Roman Catholics
and Protestant dissenters, or from supporting the movement
for electoral reform; he was also in favour of the emancipation
of the slaves. The earl died at his Staffordshire residence,
Sandon Hall, on the 26th of December 1847, being, as Charles
Greville says, " the last of his generation and of the colleagues
of Mr Pitt, the sole survivor of those stirring times and mighty
contests."

Harrowby's eldest son, Dudley Ryder, 2nd earl (1798-1882), was
born in London on the igih of May 1798, his mother being Susan
(d. 1838), daughter of.Granville Leveson-Gower, marquess of
Stafford, a lady of exceptional attainments. As Viscount Sandon
he became member of parliament for Tiverton in 1819, in 1827
he was appointed a lord of the admiralty, and in 1830 secretary
to the India board. From 1831 to 1847 Sandon represented
Liverpool in the House of Commons. For a long time he was
out of office, but in 1855, eight years after he had become earl
of Harrowby, he was appointed chancellor of the duchy of
Lancaster by Lord Palmerston; in a few months he was trans-
ferred to the office of lord privy seal, a position which he resigned
in 1857. He was chairman of the Maynooth commission and a
member of other important royal commissions, and was among
the most stalwart and prominent defenders of the established
church. He died at Sandon on the loth of November 1882. His
successor was his eldest son, Dudley Francis Stuart Ryder (1831-
1900), vice-president of the council from 1874 to 1878, president of
the board olf trade from 1878 to 1880, and lord privy seal in 1885
and 1886. He died without sons on the 26th of March 1900, and
was succeeded by his brother, Henry Dudley Ryder (1836-1900),
whose son, John Herbert Dudley Ryder (b. 1864), became sth
earl of Harrowby.

HARROWING OF HELL, an English poem in dialogue, dating
from the end of the I3th century. It is written in the East
Midland dialect, and is generally cited as the earliest dramatic
work of any kind preserved in the language, though it was in
reality probably intended for recitation rather than performance.
It is closely allied to the kind of poem known as a debat, and the
opening words — " Alle herkneth to me nou A strif wille I tellen
ou Of Jesu and of Satan " — seem to indicate that the piece was
delivered by a single performer. The subject — the descent of
Christ into Hades to succour the souls of the just, as related in
the apocryphal gospel of Nicodemus — is introduced in a kind of
prologue; then follows the dispute between " Dominus " and
" Satan " at the gate of Hell; the gatekeeper runs away, and
the just are set free, while Adam, Eve, Habraham, David,
Johannes and Moyses do homage to the deliverer. The poem

HARROW-ON-THE-HILL— HARSDORFFER

29

ends with a short prayer: " God, for his moder loue Let ous
never thider come." Metrically, the poem is characterized by
frequent alliteration imposed upon the rhymed octosyllabic
couplet: —

Welcome, louerd, god of londe

Codes sone and godes sonde (ii. 149-150).

The piece is obviously connected with the Easter cycle of litur-
gical drama, and the subject is treated in the York and Townley
plays.

MSS. are: Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 2253; Edinburgh, Auchinteck
MS W 41 ; Oxford, Bodleian, Digby 86. It was privately printed
by J P Collier and by J. O. Halliwell, but is available in Appendix
III of A. W. Pollard's English Miracle Plays . . . (4th ed., 1904)
K Boddcker, Altengl. Dichtungen des MS. Harl. 2253 (Berlin, 1878) ;
and E. Mall, The Harrowing of Hell (Breslau, 1871). See also E. K.
Chambers, The Medieval Stage (2 vols., 1903).

HARROW-ON-THE-HILL, an urban district in the Harrow
parliamentary division of Middlesex, England, 12 m. W.N.W.
of St Paul's cathedral, London, served by the London and North
Western, Metropolitan and District railways. Pop. (1901), 10,220.
It takes its name from its position on an isolated hill rising to
a height of 345 ft. On the summit, and forming a conspicuous
landmark, is the church of St Mary, said to have been founded by
Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury, in the reign of William I.,
and Norman work appears at the base of the tower. The re-
mainder of the church is of various later dates, and there are
several ancient monuments and brasses.

Harrow is celebrated for its public school, founded in 1571 by
John Lyon, whose brass is in the church, a yeoman of the
neighbouring village of Preston who had yearly during his life
set aside 20 marks for the education of poor children of Harrow;
though a school existed before his time. Though the charter
was granted by Queen Elizabeth in 1571, and the statutes drawn
up by the founder in 1590, two years before his death, it was not
till 1611 that the first building was opened for scholars. Lyon
originally settled about two-thirds of his property on the school,
leaving the remainder for the maintenance of the highway
between London and Harrow, but in the course of time the
values of the respective endowments have changed so far that
the benefit accruing to the school is a small proportion of the
whole. About 1660 the headmaster, taking advantage of a con-
cession in Lyon's statutes, began to receive " foreigners," i.e.
boys from other parishes, who were to pay for their education.
From this time the prosperity of the school may be dated. In
1809 the parishioners of Harrow appealed to the court of chan-
cery against the manner in which the school was conducted, but
the decision, while it recognized their privileges, confirmed the
right of admission to foreigners. The government of the school
was originally vested in six persons of standing in the parish who
had the power of filling vacancies in their number by election
among themselves; but under the Public Schools Act of 1868
the governing body now consists of the surviving members of
the old board, besides six new members who are elected re-
spectively by the lord chancellor, the universities of Oxford,
Cambridge and London, the Royal Society, and the assistant
masters of the school. There are several scholarships in con-
nexion with the school to Oxford and Cambridge Universities.
Harrow was originally an exclusively classical school, but
mathematics became a compulsory study in 1837; modern
languages, made compulsory in the upper forms in 1851, were
extended to the whole school in 1855; while English history and
literature began to be especially studied about 1869. The
number of boys is about 600. The principal buildings are
modern, including the chapel (1857), the library (1863), named
after the eminent headmaster Dr Charles John Vaughan, and the
speech-room (1877), the scene of the brilliant ceremony on
" Speech Day " each summer term. The fourth form room
however, dates from 161 1, and on its panels are cut the names ol
many eminent alumni, such as Byron, Robert Peel, R. B
Sheridan and Temple (Lord Palmerston). Several of the
buildings were erected out of the Lyon Tercentenary Fund, sub-
scribed after the tercentenary celebration in 1871.

A considerable extension of Harrow as an outer residential
3uburb of London has taken place north of the hill, where is the
urban district of Wealdstone (pop. 5901), and there are also
mportant printing and photographic works.

HARRY THE MINSTREL, or BLIND HARRY (fl. 1470-1492),
author of the Scots historical poem The Actis and Deidis of the
Ulustere and Vailzeand Campioun Schir William Wallace, Knicht
?/ Ellerslie, flourished in the latter half of the i $th century. The
details of his personal history are of the scantiest. He appears
to have been a blind Lothian man, in humble circumstances, who
lad some reputation as a story-teller, and who received, on five
occasions, in 1490 and 1491, gifts from James IV. The entries of
these, in the Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer, occur among
others to harpers and singers. He is alluded to by Dunbar (q.v.)
in the fragmentary Interlude of the Droichis Part of the Play, where
a " droich," or dwarf, personates

" the nakit blynd Harry
That lang has bene in the fary
Farleis to find;"

and again in Dunbar's Lament for the Makaris. John Major
(q.v.) in his Latin History speaks of " one Henry, blind from his
birth, who, in the time of my childhood, fashioned a whole book
about William Wallace, and therein wrote down in our popular
verse — and this was a kind of composition in which he had much
skill — all that passed current among the people in his day. I,
however, can give but partial credence to these writings. This
Henry used to recite his tales before nobles, and thus received
food and clothing as his reward " (Bk. iv. ch. xv.).

The poem (preserved in a unique MS., dated 1488, in the
Advocates' library, Edinburgh) is divided into eleven books and
runs to 11,853 l'nes. Its poetic merits are few, and its historical
accuracy is easily impugned. It has the formal interest of being
one of the earliest, certainly one of the most extensive verse-
documents in Scots written in five-accent, or heroic, couplets.
It is also the earliest outstanding work which discloses that
habit of Scotticism which took such strong hold of the popular
Northern literature during the coming years of conflict with
England. In this respect it is in marked contrast with all the
patriotic verse of preceding and contemporary literature. This
attitude of the Wallace may perhaps be accepted as corroborative
evidence of the humble milieu and popular sentiment of its
author. The poem owed its subsequent widespread reputation
to its appeal to this sentiment rather than to its literary quality.
On the other hand, there are elements in the poem which show
that it is not entirely the work of a poor crowder; and these
(notably references to historical and literary authorities, and
occasional reminiscences of the literary tricks of the Scots
Chaucerian school) have inclined some to the view that the text,
as we have it, is an edited version of the minstrel's rough song-
story. It has been argued, though by no means conclusively, that
the " editor " was John Ramsay, the scribe of the Edinburgh MS.
and of the companion Edinburgh MS. of the Brus by John
Barbour (q.v.).

The poem appears, on the authority of Laing, to have been printed
at the press of Chepman & Myllar about 1508, but the fragments
which Laing saw are not extantr. The first complete edition, now
available, was printed by Lekprevik for Henry Charteris in 1570
(Brit. Museum). It was reprinted by Charteris in 1594 and IOOI,
and by Andro Hart in 1611 and 1620. At least six other editions
appealed in the I7th century. There are many later reprints,
including some of William Hamilton of Gilbertfield's modern Scots
version of 1722. The first critical edition was prepared by Dr
Jamieson and published in 1820. In 1889 the Scottish Text Society
completed their edition of the text, with prolegomena and notes by
James Moir.

See, in addition to Jamieson s and Moir s volumes (u.s.), J. 1. 1.
Brown's The Wallace and the Bruce Resludied (Bonner, Beitrdge zur
AnMstik. vi., 1900), a pica for Ramsay's authorship of the known
text- also W. A. Craigie's article in The Scottish Review (July 1903),
a comparative estimate of the Brus and Wallace, in favour of the
latter.

HARSDORFFER, GEORG PHILIPP (1607-1658), German
poet, was born at Nuremberg on the ist of November 1607. He
studied law at Altdorf and Strassburg, and subsequently travelled

HARSHA— HART, SIR R.

through Holland, England, France and Italy. His knowledge
of languages gained for him the appellation " the learned,"
though he was as little a learned man as he was a poet. As a
member of the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft he was called der
Spielende (the player). Jointly with Johann Klaj (q.v.) he
founded in 1644 at Nuremberg the order of the Pegnitzschafer,
a literary society, and among the members thereof he was known
by the name of Strephon. He died at Nuremberg on the 22nd of
September 1658. His writings in German and Latin fill fifty
volumes, and a selection of his poems, interesting mostly for
their form, is to be found in Miiller's Bibliothek deutscher Dichter
des i~tlen Jahrhunderts, vol. ix. (Leipzig, 1826).

His life was written by Widmann (Altdorf, 1707). See also
Tittmann, Die Nurnberger Dichterschule (Gottingen, 1847); Hoder-
mann, Rine vornehme Gesellschaft, nach Hirsdorffers " Gesprdch-
spielen " (Paderborn, 1890) ; T. Bischoff, " Georg Philipp Hars-
dorffer " in the Festschrift zur 2$ojahrigen Jubelfeier des Peg-
nesischen Blumenordens (Nuremberg, 1894); and Krapp, Die
asthetischen Tendenzen Harsdorffers (Berlin, 1904).

HARSHA, or HARSHA VARDHANA (fl. A.D. 606-648), an Indian
king who ruled northern India as paramount monarch for over
forty years. The events of his reign are related by Hsu'an Tsang,
the Chinese pilgrim, and by Bana, a Brahman author. He was
the son of a raja of Thanesar, who gained prominence by success-
ful wars against the Huns, and came to the throne in A.D. 606,
though he was only crowned in 612. He devoted himself to a
scheme of conquering the whole of India, and carried on wars for
thirty years with success, until (A.D. 620) he came in contact
with Pulakesin II., the greatest of the Chalukya dynasty, who
made himself lord of the south, as Harsha was lord of the north.
The Nerbudda river foimed the boundary between the two
empires. In the latter years of his reign Harsha's sway over the
whole basin of the Ganges from the Himalayas to the Nerbudda
was undisputed. After thirty-seven years of war he set himself
to emulate Asoka and became a patron of art and literature.
He was the last native monarch who held paramount power in
the north prior to the Mahommedan conquest; and was suc-
ceeded by an era of petty states.

See Bana, Sri-harsha-charita, trans. Cowell and Thomas (1897);
Ettinghausen, Harsha Vardhana (Louvain, 1906).

HARSNETT, SAMUEL (1561-1631), English divine, arch-
bishop of York, was born at Colchester in June 1561, and was
educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where he was success-
ively scholar, fellow and master (1605-1616). He was also vice-
chancellor of the university in 1606 and 1614. His ecclesiastical
career began somewhat unpromisingly, for he was censured by
Archbishop Whitgift for Romanist tendencies in a sermon which
he preached against predestination in 1584. After holding the
living of Chigwell (1597-1605) he became chaplain to Bancroft
(then bishop of London), and afterwards archdeacon of Essex
(1603-1609), rector of Stisted and bishop of Chichester (1609-
1619) and archbishop of York (1629). He died on the 25th of
May 1631. Harsnett was no favourite with the Puritan com-
munity, and Charles I. ordered his Considerations for the better
Settling of Church Government (1629) to be circulated among the
bishops. His Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures (1603)
furnished Shakespeare with the names of the spirits mentioned
by Edgar in King Lear.

HART, ALBERT BUSHNELL (1854- ), American his-
torian, was born at Clarksville, Mercer county, Pennsylvania,
on the ist of July 1854. He graduated at Harvard College in
1880, studied at Paris, Berlin and Freiburg, and received
the degree of Ph.D. at Freiburg in 1883. He was instructor in
history at Harvard in 1883-1887, assistant professor in 1887-
1897, and became professor in 1897. Among his writings are:
Introduction to the Study of Federal Government (1890), Forma-
tion of the Union (1892, in the Epochs of American History
series), Practical Essays on American Government (1893), Studies
in American Education (1895), Guide to the Study of American
History (with Edward Channing, 1897), Salmon Portland Chase
(1899, in the American Statesman series), Foundations of
American Foreign Policy (1901), Actual Government (1903),
Slavery and Abolition (1906, the volume in the American

Nation series dealing with the period 1831-1841), National
Ideals Historically Traced (1907), the z6th volume of the
American Nation series, and many historical pamphlets and
articles. In addition he edited American History told by Con-
temporaries (4 vols., 1898-1901), and Source Readers in American
History (4 vols., 1901-1903), and two co-operative histories of the
United States, the Epochs of American History series (3 small
text-books), and, on a much larger scale, the American Nation
series (27 vols., 1903-1907); he also edited the American
Citizen series.

HART, CHARLES (d. 1683), English actor, grandson of
Shakespeare's sister Joan, is first heard of as playing women's
parts at the Blackfriars' theatre as an apprentice of Richard
Robinson. In the Civil War he was a lieutenant of horse in
Prince Rupert's regiment, and after the king's defeat he played
surreptitiously at the Cockpit and at Holland House and other
noblemen's residences. After the Restoration he is known to
have been in 1660 the original Dorante in The Mistaken Beauty,
adapted from Corneille's Le Menleur. In 1663 he went to the
Theatre Royal in Killigrew's company, with which he remained
until 1682, taking leading parts in Dryden's, Jonson's and
Beaumont and Fletcher's plays. He is highly spoken of by
contemporaries in such Shakespearian parts as Othello and
Brutus. He is often mentioned by Pepys. Betterton praised
him, and would not himself play the part of Hotspur until after
Hart's retirement. He died in 1683 and was buried on the 2oth
of August. Hart is said to have been the first lover of Nell Gwyn,
and to have trained her for the stage.

HART, ERNEST ABRAHAM (1835-1898), English medical
journalist, was born in London on the 26th of June 1835, the son
of a Jewish dentist. He was educated at the City of London
school, and became a student at St George's hospital. In 1856
he became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, making
a specialty of diseases of the eye. He was appointed ophthalmic
surgeon at St Mary's hospital at the age of 28, and occupied
various other posts, introducing into ophthalmic practice some
modifications since widely adopted. His name, too, is associated
with a method of treating popliteal aneurism, which he was the
first to use in Great Britain. His real life-work, however, was
as a medical journalist, beginning with the Lancet in 1857.
He was appointed editor of the British Medical Journal in 1866.
He took a leading part in the exposures which led to the inquiry
into the state of London workhouse infirmaries, and to the reform
of the treatment of sick poor throughout England, and the
Infant Life Protection Act of 1872, aimed at the evils of baby-
farming, was largely due to his efforts. The record of his public
work covers nearly the whole field of sanitary legislation during
the last thrity years of his life. He had a hand in the amend-
ments of the Public Health and of the Medical Acts; in the
measures relating to notification of infectious disease, to vaccina-
tion, to the registration of plumbers; in the improvement of
factory legislation; in the remedy of legitimate grievances of
Army and Navy medical officers; in the removal of abuses and
deficiencies in crowded barrack schools; in denouncing the
sanitary shortcomings of the Indian government, particularly in
regard to the prevention of cholera. His work on behalf of the
British Medical Association is shown by the increase from
2000 to 19,000 in the number of members, end the growth of the
British Medical Journal from 20 to 64 pages, during his editor-
ship. From 1872 to 1897 he was chairman of the Association's
Parliamentary Bill Committee. He died on the 7th of January
1898. For his second wife he married Alice Marion Rowland,
who had herself studied medicine in London and Paris, and was
no less interested than her husband in philanthropic reform.
She was most active in her encouragement of Irish cottage
industries, and was the founder of the Donegal Industrial
Fund.

HART, SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1835- ), Anglo-Chinese
statesman, was born at Milltown, Co. Armagh, on the 2oth of
February 1835. He was educated at Taunton, Dublin and
Belfast, and graduated at Queen's College, Belfast, in 1853.
In the following year he received an appointemnt as student-

HART, W.— HARTE, BRET

interpreter in the China consular service, and after serving for
a short time at the Ningpo vice-consulate, he was transferred to
Canton, where after acting as secretary to the allied commis-
sioners governing the city, he was appointed the local inspector
of.customs. There he first gained an insight into custom-house
work. One effect of the Taiping rebellion was to close the native
custom-house at Shanghai; and as the corrupt alternatives
proposed by the Chinese were worse than useless, it was arranged
by Sir Rutherford Alcock, the British consul, with his French
and American colleagues, that they should undertake to collect
the duties on goods owned by foreigners entering and leaving
the port. Sir T. Wade was appointed to the post of collector
in the first instance, and after a short tenure of office was succeeded
by Mr H. N. Lay, who held the post until 1863, when he resigned
owing to a disagreement with the Chinese government in con-
nexion with the Lay-Osborn fleet. During his tenancy of office
the system adopted at Shanghai was applied to the other treaty
ports, so that when on Mr Lay's resignation Mr Hart was
appointed inspector-general of foreign customs, he found himself
at the head of an organization which collected a revenue of up-
wards of eight million taels per annum at fourteen treaty ports.
From the date when Mr Hart took up his duties at Peking, in
1863, he unceasingly devoted the whole of his energies to the
work of the department, with the result that the revenue grew
from upwards of eight million taels to nearly twenty-seven
million, collected at the thirty-two treaty ports, and the customs
staff, which in 1864 numbered 200, reached in 1901 a total of
5704. From the first Mr .Hart gained the entire confidence of
the members of the Chinese government, who were wise enough
to recognize his loyal and able assistance. Of all their numerous
sources of revenue, the money furnished by Mr Hart was the only
certain asset which could be offered as security for Chinese loans.
For many years, moreover, it was customary for the British
minister, as well as the ministers of other powers, to consult him
in every difficulty; and such complete confidence had Lord
Granville in his ability and loyalty, that on the retirement of
Sir T. Wade he appointed him minister plenipotentiary at Peking
(1885). Sir Robert Hart, however — who was made a K.C.M.G.
in 1882 — recognized the anomalous position in which he would
have been placed had he accepted the proposal, and declined the
proffered honour. On all disputed points, whether commercial,
religious or political, his advice was invariably sought by the
foreign ministers and the Chinese alike. Thrice only did he visit
Europe between 1863 and 1902, the result of this long comparative
isolation, and of his constant intercourse with the Peking
officials, being that he learnt to look at events through Chinese
spectacles; and his work, These froth the Land of Sinim, shows
how far this affected his outlook. The faith which he put in the
Chinese made him turn a deaf ear to the warnings which he re-
ceived of the threatening Boxer movement in 1900. To the last
he believed that the attacking force would at least have spared
his house, which contained official records of priceless value,
but he was doomed to see his faith falsified. The building was
burnt to the ground with all that it contained, including his
private diary for forty years. When the stress came, and he
retreated to the British legation, he took an active part in the
defence, and spared neither risk nor toil in his exertions. In
addition to the administration of the foreign customs service,
the establishment of a postal service in the provinces devolved
upon him, and after the signing of the protocol of 1901 he was
called upon to organize a native customs service at the treaty
ports.

The appointment of Sir Robert Hart as inspector-general
of the imperial maritime customs secured the interests of
European investors in Chinese securities, and helped to place
Chinese finance generally on a solid footing. When, therefore,
in May 1906 the Chinese government appointed a Chinese
administrator and assistant administrator of the entire customs
of China, who would control Sir Robert Hart and his staff, great
anxiety was aroused. The Chinese government had bound
itself in 1896 and 1898 that the imperial maritime customs
services should remain as then constituted during the currency

of the loan. The British government obtained no satisfactory
answer to its remonstrances, and Sir Robert Hart, finding
himself placed in a subordinate position after his long service,
retired in July 1907. He received formal leave of absence in
January 1908, when he received the title of president of the
board of customs. Both the Chinese and the British govern-
ments from time to time conferred honours upon Sir Robert
Hart. By giving him a Red Button, or button of the highest
rank, a Peacock's Feather, the order of the Double Dragon, a
patent of nobility to his ancestors for three generations, and the
title of Junior Guardian of the heir apparent, the Chinese showed
their appreciation of his manifold and great services; while
under the seal of the British government there were bestowed
upon him theordersofC.M.G. (1880), K.C.M.G. (i882),G.C.M.G.
(1889), and a baronetcy (1893). He has also been the recipient
of many foreign orders. Sir Robert Hart married in 1886
Hester, the daughter of Alexander Bredon, Esq., M.D., of
Portadown.

See his life by Julia Bredon (Sir Robert Hart, 1909).

HART, WILLIAM (1823-1894), American landscape and
cattle painter, was born in Paisley, Scotland, on the 3ist of
March 1823, and was taken to America in early youth. He was
apprenticed to a carriage painter at Albany, New York, and his
first efforts in art were in making landscape decorations for the
panels of coaches. Subsequently he returned to Scotland,
where he studied for three years. He opened a studio in New
York in 1853, and was elected an associate of the National
Academy of Design in 1857 and an academician in the following
year. He was also a member of the American Water Colour
Society, and was its president from 1870 to 1873. As one of the
group of the Hudson River School he enjoyed considerable
popularity, his pictures being in many well-known American
collections. He died at Mount Vernon, New York, on the i7th
of June 1894.

His brother, JAMES McDouGAL HART (1828-1901), born in
Kilmarnock, Scotland, was also a landscape and cattle painter.
He was a pupil of Schirmer in Dusseldorf, and became an
associate of the National Academy of Design in 1857 and a full
member in 1859. He was survived by two daughters, both
figure painters, Letitia B. Hart (b. 1867) and Mary Theresa
Hart (b.i872).

HARTE, FRANCIS BRET (1839-1902), American author, was
born at Albany, New York, on the 25th of August 1839. His
father, a professor of Greek at the Albany College, died during
his boyhood. After a common-school education he went with
his mother to California at the age of seventeen, afterwards
working in that state as a teacher, miner, printer, express-
messenger, secretary of the San Francisco mint, and editor. His
first literary venture was a series of Condensed Novels (travesties
of well-known works of fiction, somewhat in the style of
Thackeray), published weekly in The Californian, of which he
was editor, and reissued in book form in 1867. The Overland
Monthly, the earliest considerable literary magazine on the
Pacific coast, was established in 1868, with Harte as editor.
His sketches and poems, which appeared in its pages during the
next few years, attracted wide attention in the eastern states
and in Europe.

Bret Harte was an early master of the short story, and his
Californian tales were regarded as introducing a new genre into
fiction. " The Luck of Roaring Camp " (1868), " The Outcasts
of Poker Flat " (1869), the later sketch " How Santa Claus came
to Simpson's Bar," and the verses entitled " Plain Language
from Truthful James," combined humour, pathos and power
of character portrayal in a manner that indicated that the new
land of mining-gulches, gamblers, unassimilated Asiatics, and
picturesque and varied landscape had found its best delineator; so
that Harte became, in his pioneer pictures, a sort of later Fenimore
Cooper. Forty-four volumes were published by him between
1867 and 1898. After a year as professor in the university of
California, Harte lived in New York, 1871-1878; was United
States consul at Crefeld, Germany, 1878-1880; consul at
Glasgow, 1880-1885; ar"d after 1885 resided in London, engaged

HARTEBEEST— HARTFORD

in literary work. He died at Camberley, England, on the 5th
of May 1902.

A library edition of his Writings (16 vols.) was issued in 1900, and
increased to 19 vols. in 1904. See also H. W. Boynton, Bret Harte
(I9°5) in the Contemporary Men of Letters series; T. E. Pemberton,
Life of Bret Harte (1903), which contains a list of his poems, tales, &c.

HARTEBEEST, the Boer name for a large South African
antelope (also known as caama) characterized by its red colour,
long face with naked muzzle and sharply angulated lyrate
horns, which are present in both sexes. This antelope is the

Cape Hartebeest (Bubalis cama).

Bubalis cama or Alcelaphus cama of naturalists; but the name
hartebeest has been extended to include all the numerous
members of the same genus, some of which are to be found in
every part of Africa, while one or two extend into Syria. Some
of the species of the allied genus Damaliscus, such as Hunter's
antelope (D. hunter f), are also often cailed hartebeests. (See
ANTELOPE.)

HARTFORD, a city and the capital of Connecticut, U.S.A.,
the county-seat of Hartford county, and a port of entry, coter-
minous with the township of Hartford, in the west central part
of the state, on the W. bank of the Connecticut river, and about
35 m. from Long Island Sound. Pop. (1890), 53,230; (1900),
79,850, of whom 23,758 were foreign-born (including 8076 Irish,
2700 Germans, 2260 Russians, 1952 Italians, 1714 Swedes,
1634 English and 1309 English Canadians); (1910 census)
98,915. Of the total population in 1900, 43,872 were of foreign
parentage (both parents foreign-born), and of these 18,410 were
of Irish parentage. Hartford is served by two divisions of the
New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, by the Central
New England railway, by the several electric lines of the Con-
necticut Company which radiate to the surrounding towns, and
by the steamboats of the Hartford & New York Transporta-
tion Co., all of which are controlled by the N.Y., N.H. & H.
The river, which is navigable to this point, is usually closed from
the middle of December to the middle of March.

The city covers an area of 17-7 sq. m.; it is well laid out and
compactly built, and streets, parks, &c., are under a city-plan
commission authorized in 1907. It is intersected by the sluggish
Park river, which is spanned by ten bridges. A stone arch
bridge, with nine arches, built of granite at a cost of $1,700,000
and dedicated in 1908, spans the Connecticut (replacing the old
Connecticut river bridge built in 1818 and burned in 1895), and
connects Hartford with the village of East Hartford in the town-
ship of East Hartford (pop. 1900, 6406), which has important
paper-manufacturing and tobacco-growing interests. The park
system of Hartford is the largest in any city of the United States
in proportion to the city's population. In 1908 there were 21
public parks, aggregating more than 1335 acres. In the extreme

S. of the city is Goodwin Park (about 200 acres) ; in the S.E. is
Colt Park (106 acres), the gift of Mrs Elizabeth Colt, the widow
of Samuel Colt, inventor of the Colt revolver; in the S.W. is
Pope Park (about 90 acres); in the W. is Elizabeth (100 acres);
in the E., along the Connecticut river front, is Riverside (about
80 acres); and in the extreme N. is Keney Park (680 acres), the
gift of Henry Keney, and, next to the Metropolitan Reservations
near Boston, the largest park in the New England states. Near
the centre of the city are the Capitol Grounds (27 acres; until
1872 the campus of Trinity College) and Bushnell Park (41 acres),
adjoining Capitol Park. Bushnell Park, named in honour of
Horace Bushnell, contains the Corning Memorial Fountain,
erected in 1899 and designed by J. Massey Rhind, and three
bronze statues, one, by J.Q. A. Ward, of General Israel Putnam;
one, by Truman H. Bartlett, of Dr Horace Wells (1815-1848), the
discoverer of anaesthesia; and one, by E. S. Woods, of Colonel
Thomas Knowlton (1749-1776), a patriot soldier of the War of
Independence, killed at the battle of Harlem Heights. On the
Capitol Grounds is the state capitol (Richard M. Upjohn, archi-
tect), a magnificent white marble building, which was completed in
1880 at a cost of $2,534,000. Its exterior is adorned with statues
and busts of Connecticut statesmen and carvings of scenes in
the history of the state. Within the building are regimental
flags of the Civil War, a bronze statue by Olin L. Warner of
Governor William A. Buckingham, a bronze statue by Karl
Gerhardt of Nathan Hale, a bronze tablet (also by Karl Ger-
hardt) in memory of John Fitch (1743-1798), the inventor; a
portrait of Washington, purchased by the state in 1800 from the
artist, Gilbert Stuart; and a series of oil portraits of the colonial
and state governors. The elaborately carved chair of the
lieutenant-governor in the senate chamber, made of wood from
the historic Charter Oak, and the original charter of 1662 (or
its duplicate of the same date) are preserved in a special vault
in the Connecticut state library. A new state library and
supreme court building and a new state armoury and arsenal,
both of granite, have been (1910) erected upon lands recently
added to the Capitol Grounds, thus forming a group of state
buildings with the Capitol as the centre. Near the Capitol, at
the approach of the memorial bridge across the Park river, is
the Soldiers' and Sailors' memorial arch, designed by George
Keller and erected by the city in 1885 in memory of the Hartford
soldiers and sailors who served in the American Civil War.

Near the centre of the city is the old town square (now known
as the City Hall Square), laid off in 1637. Here, facing Main
Street, stands the city hall, a beautiful example of Colonial
architecture, which was designed by Charles Bulfinch, completed
in 1796, and until 1879 used as a state capitol; it has subse-
quently been restored. In Main Street is the present edifice
of the First Church of Christ, known as the Centre Congregational
Church, which was organized in Cambridge, Massachusetts,
in 163 2, and removed to Hartford, under the leadership of Thomas
Hooker and Samuel Stone, in 1636. In the adjoining cemetery
are the graves of Thomas Hooker, Governor William Leete
(1603-1683), and Governor John Haynes, and a monument
in memory of 100 early residents of Hartford. In the same
thoroughfare is the Wadsworth Atheneum (built in 1842;
enlarged in 1892-1893 and 1907) and its companion buildings,
the Colt memorial (built in 1908 to accommodate the Elizabeth
Colt art collection) and the Morgan art gallery (built in 1908 by
J. Pierpont Morgan in memory of his father, Junius Morgan,
a native of Hartford). In this group of buildings are the Hartford
public library (containing 90,000 volumes in 1908), the Watkinson
library of reference (70,000 volumes in 1908), the library of the
Connecticut historical society (25,000 volumes in 1908) and a
public art gallery. Other institutions of importance in Hartford
are the American school for the deaf (formerly the American
asylum for the deaf and dumb), founded in 1816 by Thomas
H. Gallaudet; the retreat for the insane (opened for patients
in 1824); the Hartford hospital; St Francis hospital; St
Thomas's seminary (Roman Catholic); La Salette Missionary
college (R.C.; 1898) ; Trinity college (founded by members of the
Protestant Episcopal church, and now non-sectarian), which was

HARTFORD

33

chartered as Washington College in 1823, opened in 1824,
renamed Trinity College in 1845, and in 1907-1908 had 27 in-
structors and 208 students; the Hartford Theological seminary,
a Congregational institution, which was founded at East Windsor
Hill in 1834 as the Theological Institute of Connecticut, was
removed to Hartford in 1865, and adopted its present name
in 1885; and, affiliated with the last mentioned institution,
the Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy. The Hartford
grammar school, founded in 1638, long managed by the town
and in 1847 merged with the classical department of the Hartford
public high school, is the oldest educational institution in the
state. In Farmington Avenue is St Joseph's cathedral (Roman
Catholic), the city being the seat of the diocese of Hartford.

During the i8th century Hartford enjoyed a large and lucrative
commerce, but the railway development of the igth century
centralized commerce in New York and Boston, and consequently
the principal source of the city's wealth has come to be manu-
facturing and insurance. In 1905 the total value of the "factory"
product was $25,975,651. The principal industries are the
manufacture of small arms (by the Colt's Patent Fire-Arms
Manufacturing Co., makers of the Colt revolver and the Catling
gun) , typewriters (Royal and Underwood) , automobiles, bicycles,
cyclometers, carriages and wagons, belting, cigars, harness,
machinists' tools and instruments of precision, coil-piping,
church organs, horse-shoe nails, electric equipment, machine
screws, drop forgings, hydrants and valves, and engines and
boilers. In 1788 the first woollen mill in New England was
opened in Hartford; and here, too, about 1846, the Rogers
process of electro-silver plating was invented. The city is one
of the most important insurance centres in the United States.
As early as 1794 policies were issued by the Hartford Fire
Insurance Company (chartered in 1810). In 1909 Hartford
was the home city of six fire insurance and six life insurance
companies, the principal ones being the Aetna (fire), Aetna
Life, Phoenix Mutual Life, Phoenix Fire, Travelers (Life and
Accident), Hartford Fire, Hartford Life, National Fire, Connecti-
cut Fire, Connecticut General Life and Connecticut Mutual
Life. In 1906 the six fire insurance companies had an aggregate
capital of more than $10,000,000; on the ist January 1906
they reported assets of about $59,000,000 and an aggregate
surplus of $30,000,000. In the San Francisco disaster of that
year they paid more than $15,000,000 of losses. Since the fire
insurance business began in Hartford, the companies of that
city now doing business there have paid about $340,000,000 in
losses. Several large and successful foreign companies have
made Hartford their American headquarters. The life insurance
companies have assets to the value of about $225,000,000.
The Aetna (fire), Aetna Life, Connecticut Fire, Connecticut
Mutual Life, Connecticut General Life, Hartford Fire, Hartford
Life, Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Co.,
National Fire, Orient Fire, Phoenix Mutual Life and Travelers
companies have their own homes, some of these being among
the finest buildings in Hartford. The city has also large banking
interests.

The first settlement on the site of Hartford was made by the
Dutch from New Amsterdam, who in 1633 established on the
bank of the Connecticut river, at the mouth of the Park river,
a fort which they held until 1654. The township of Hartford
was one of the first three original townships of Connecticut.
The first English settlement was made in 1635 by sixty immi-
grants, mostly from New Town (now Cambridge), Massachusetts;
but the main immigration was in 1636, when practically all the
New Town congregation led by Thomas Hooker and Samuel
Stone joined those who had preceded them. Their settlement
was called Newtown until 1637, when the present name was
adopted from Hertford, England, the birthplace of Stone. In
1636 Hartford was the meeting-place of the first general court
of the Connecticut colony; the Fundamental Orders, the first
written constitution, were adopted at Hartford in 1639; and
after the union of the colonies of New Haven and Connecticut,
iccomplished by the charter of 1662, Hartford became the sole
capital; but from 1701 until 1873 that honour was shared with

XIII. 2

New Haven. At Hartford occurred in 1687 the meeting of
Edmund Andros and the Connecticut officials (see CONNECTICUT).
Hartford was first chartered in 1784, was rechartered in 1856
(the charter of that date has been subsequently revised) , and in
1881 was made coterminous with the township of Hartford.
The city was the literary centre of Federalist ideas in the latter
part of the iSth century, being the home of Lemuel Hopkins,
John Trumbull, Joel Barlow and David Humphreys, the leading
members of a group of authors known as the " Hartford Wits ";
and in 1814-1815 the city was the meeting-place of the famous
Hartford Convention, an event of great importance in the history
of the Federalist party. The War of 1812, with the Embargo
Acts (1807-1813), which were so destructive of New England's
commerce, thoroughly aroused the Federalist leaders in this
part of the country against the National government as ad-
ministered by the Democrats, and in 1814, when the British
were not only threatening a general invasion of their territory
but had actually occupied a part of the Maine coast, and the
National government promised no protection, the legislature
of Massachusetts invited the other New England states to join
with her in sending delegates to a convention which should
meet at Hartford to consider their grievances, means of preserv-
ing their resources, measures of protection against the British,
and the advisability of taking measures to bring about a con-
vention of delegates from all the United States for the purpose
of revising the Federal constitution. The legislatures of Connecti-
cut and Rhode Island, and town meetings in Cheshire and Grafton
counties (New Hampshire) and in Windham county (Vermont)
accepted the invitation, and the convention, composed of 12
delegates from Massachusetts, 7 from Connecticut, 4 from Rhode
Island, 2 from New Hampshire and i from Vermont, all
Federalists, met on the i5th of December 1814, chose George
Cabot of Massachusetts president and Theodore Dwight of
Connecticut secretary, and remained in secret session until the
5th of January 1815, when it adjourned sine die. At the con-
clusion of its work it recommended greater military control for
each of the several states and that the Federal constitution
be so amended that representatives and direct taxes should be
apportioned among the several states " according to their
respective numbers of free persons," that no new state should
be admitted to the Union without the concurrence of two-thirds
of both Houses of Congress, that Congress should not have the
power to lay an embargo for more than sixty days, that the
concurrence of two-thirds of the members of both Houses of
Congress should be necessary to pass an act " to interdict the
commercial intercourse between the United States and any
foreign nation or the dependencies thereof " or to declare war
against any foreign nation except in case of actual invasion, that
" no person who shall hereafter be naturalized shall be eligible
as a member of the Senate or House of Representatives of the
United States, nor capable of holding any civil office under the
authority of the United States," and that " the same person
shall not be elected president of the United States a second time;
nor shall the president be elected from the same state two terms
in succession." After making these recommendations concerning
amendments the Convention resolved: " That if the application
of these states to the government of the United States, recom-
mended in a foregoing resolution, should be unsuccessful, and
peace should not be concluded, and the defence of these states
should be neglected, as it has been since the commencement
of the war, it will, in the opinion of this convention, be expedient
for the legislatures of the several states to appoint delegates
to another convention, to meet at Boston in the state of
Massachusetts on the third Thursday of June next, with such
powers and instructions as the exigency of a crisis so momentous
may require." The legislatures of Massachusetts and Connecticut
approved of these proposed amendments and sent commissioners
to Washington to urge their adoption, but before their arrival
the war had closed, and not only did the amendments fail to
receive the approval of any other state, but the legislatures of
nine states expressed their disapproval of the Hartford Convention
itself, some charging it with sowing "seeds of dissension and

HARTFORD CITY— HARTLEPOOL

disunion." The cessation of the war brought increased popularity
to the Democratic administration, and the Hartford Convention
was vigorously attacked throughout the country.

Hartford was the birthplace of Noah Webster, who here
published his Grammatical Institute of the English Language
(1783-1785), and of Henry Barnard, John Fiske and Frederick
Law Olmsted, and has been the home of Samuel P. Goodrich
(Peter Parley), George D. Prentice, Harriet Beecher Stowe,
Charles Dudley Warner, Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain)
and Horace Bushnell. More than 100 periodicals have been
established in Hartford, of which the oldest is the Hartford
Courant(i?64), the oldest newspaper in the United States. This
paper was very influential in shaping public opinion in the
years preceding the War of Independence; after the war it
was successively Federalist, Whig and Republican. The Times
(semi- weekly 1817; daily 1841) was one of the most powerful
Democratic organs in the period before the middle of the ipth
century, and had Gideon Wells for editor 1826-1836. The
Congregationalist (afterwards published in Boston) and the
Churchman (afterwards published in New York) were also
founded at Hartford.

See Scaeva, Hartford in the Olden Times: Its First Thirty Years
(Hartford, 1853), edited by W. M. B. Hartley; and J. H. Trumbull,
Memorial History of Hartford County (Boston, 1886). For the
Hartford Convention see History of the Hartford Convention (Boston,
1833), published by its secretary, Theodore Dwight; H. C. Lodge,
Life and Letters of George Cabot (Boston, 1877); and Henry Adams,
Documents Relating to New England Federalism (Boston, 1877).

HARTFORD CITY, a city and the county-seat of Blackford
county, Indiana, U.S.A., 62 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop.
(1890) 2287; (1900) 5912 (572 foreign-born); (1910) 6187. The
city is served by the Fort Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, and
the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and the
Indiana Union Traction line (electric) . There are oil and natural
gas wells in the vicinity, and the city has pulp and paper mills,
glass and tile works, and manufactories of woodenware, and
nitro-glycerine and powder. The municipality owns and operates
its water-works system. The first settlement in the vicinity was
made in 1832. Hartford City became the county-seat of Black-
ford county when that county was erected in 1837; it was laid
out in 1839 and was first incorporated as a town in 1867.

HARTIG, GEORG LUDWIG (1764-1837), German agricul-
turist and writer on forestry, was born at Gladenbach, near
Marburg, on the 2nd of September 1764. After obtaining a
practical knowledge of forestry at Harzburg, he studied from
1781 to 1783 at the university of Giessen. In 1786 he became
manager of forests to the prince of Solms-Braunfels at Hungen in
the Wetterau, where he founded a school for the teaching of
forestry. After obtaining in 1 797 the appointment of inspector
of forests to the prince of Orange-Nassau, he continued his school
of forestry at Dillenburg, where the attendance thereat increased
considerably. On the dissolution of the principality by Napoleon
I. in 1 805 he lost his position, but in 1 806 he went as chief inspector
of forests to Stuttgart, whence in 1811 he was called to Berlin in
a like capacity. There he continued his school of forestry, and
succeeded in connecting it with the university of Berlin, where in
1830 he was appointed an honorary professor. He died at Berlin
on the 2nd of February 1837. His son Theodor (1805-1880), and
grandson Robert (1839-1901), were also distinguished for their
contributions to the study of forestry.

G. L. Hartig was the author of a number of valuable works:
Lehrbuch fur Jdger (Stuttgart, 1810); Lehrbuch fiir Forster (3 vols.,
Stuttgart, 1808); Kubiktabellen fiir geschnittene, beschlagene, und
runde Holzer (1815, loth ed. Berlin, 1871); and Lexikon fur Jager
und Jagdfreunde (1836, 2nd ed. Berlin, 1859-1861). Theodor
Hartig and his son Robert also published numerous works dealing
with forestry, one of the latter's books being translated into English
by W. Somerville and H. Marshall Ward as Diseases of Trees (1894).

HARTLEPOOL, a parliamentary borough of Durham, England,
embracing the municipal borough of Hartlepool or East Hartle-
pool and the municipal and county borough of West Hartlepool.
Pop. (1901) of Hartlepool, 22,723; of West Hartlepool, 62,627.
The towns are on the coast of the North Sea separated by Hartle-
pool Bay, with a harbour, and both have stations on branches of

the North Eastern railway, 247 m. N. by W. from London. The
surrounding country is bleak, and the coast is low. Caves occur
in the slight cliffs, and protection against the attacks of the waves
has been found necessary. The ancient market town of Hartle-
pool lies on a peninsula which forms the termination of a south-
eastward sweep of the coast and embraces the bay. Its naturally
strong position was formerly fortified, and part of the walls,
serving as a promenade, remain. The parish church of St Hilda,
standing on an eminence above the sea, is late Norman and Early
English, with a massive tower, heavily buttressed. There is a
handsome borough hall in Italian style. West Hartlepool, a
wholly modern town, has several handsome modern churches,
municipal buildings, exchange, market hall, Athenaeum and
public library. The municipal area embraces the three town-
ships of Seaton Carew, a seaside resort with good bathing,
and golf links; Stranton, with its church of All Saints, of the
I4th century, on a very early site; and Throston.

The two Hartlepools are officially considered as one port. The
harbour, which embraces two tidal basins and six docks aggregat-
ing 83! acres, in addition to timber docks of 57 acres, covers
altogether 350 acres. There are five graving docks, admitting
vessels of 550 ft. length and 10 to 21 ft. draught. The depth of
water on the dock sills varies from 17 j ft. at neap tides to 25 ft. at
spring tides. A breakwater three-quarters of a mile long protects
the entrance to the harbour. An important trade is carried on
in the export of coal, ships, machinery, iron and other metallic
ores, woollens and cottons, and in the import of timber, sugar, iron
and copper ores, and eggs. Timber makes up 59 % of the
imports, and coal and ships each about 30% of the exports. The
principal industries are shipbuilding (iron), boiler and engineer-
ing works, iron and brass foundries, steam saw and planing mills,
flour-mills, paper and paint factories, and soapworks.

The parliamentary borough (falling within the south-east
county division) returns one member. The municipal borough
of Hartlepool is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors,
and has an area of 972 acres. The municipal borough of West
Hartlepool is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors, and
has an area of 2684 acres.

Built on the horns of a sheltered bay, Hartlepool (Hertepull,
Hertipol), grew up round the monastery founded there in 640,
but was destroyed by the Danes in 800 and rebuilt by Ecgred,
bishop of Lindisfarne. In 1173 Bishop Hugh de Puiset allowed
French and Flemish troops to land at Hartlepool to aid the Scots.
It is not mentioned in Boldon Book as, being part of the royal
manor of Sadberg held at this time by the family of Bruce, it did
not become the property of the see of Durham until the purchase
of that manor in 1189. The bishops did not obtain possession
until the reign of John, who during the interval in 1201 gave
Hartlepool a charter granting the burgesses the same privileges
that the burgesses of Newcastle enjoyed; in 1230 Bishop
Richard Poor granted further liberties, including a gild merchant.
Edward II. seized the borough as a possession of Robert Bruce,
but he could control it very slightly owing to the bishop's powers.
In 1328 Edward III. granted the borough 100 marks towards the
town-wall and Richard II. granted murage for seven years, the
term being extended in 1400. In 1383 Bishop Fordham gave
the burgesses licence to receive tolls within the borough for the
maintenance of the walls, while Bishop Neville granted a com-
mission for the construction of a pier or mole. In the i6th
century Hartlepool was less prosperous; in 1523 the haven was
said to be ruined, the fortifications decayed. An act of 1535
declared Hartlepool to be in Yorkshire, but in 1554 it was re-
instated in the county of Durham. It fell into the hands of the
northern earls in 1563, and a garrison was maintained there after
the rebellion was crushed. In 1593 Elizabeth incorporated it,
and gave the burgesses a town hall and court of pie powder.
During the civil wars Hartlepool, which a few years before was
said to be the only port town in the country, was taken by the
Scots, who maintained a garrison there until 1647. As a borough
of the Palatinate Hartlepool was not represented in parliament
until the igth century, though strong arguments in its favour
were advanced in the Commons in 1614. The markets of

HARTLEY, SIR C.— HARTLIB

35

Hartlepool were important throughout the middle ages. In 1 2 1 6
John confirmed toRobertBruce the marketon Wednesday granted
to his father and the fair on the feast of St Lawrence; this fair was
extended to fifteen days by the grant of 1230, while the charter
of 1 595 also granted a fair and market. During the i4th century
trade was carried on with Germany, Spain and Holland, and in
1346 Hartlepool provided five ships for the French war, being
considered one of the chief seaports in the kingdom. The
markets were still considerable in Camden's day, but declined
during the i8th century, when Hartlepool became fashionable as
a watering-place.

HARTLEY, SIR CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1825- ), English
engineer, was born in 1825 at Heworth, Durham. Like most
engineers of his generation he was engaged in railway work in
the early part of his career, but subsequently he devoted himself
to hydraulic engineering and the improvement of estuaries and
harbours for the purposes of navigation. He was employed in
connexion with some of the largest and most important water-
ways of the world. After serving in the Crimea as a captain of
engineers in the Anglo-Turkish contingent, he was in 1856
appointed engineer-in-chief for the works carried out by the
European Commission of the Danube for improving the naviga-
tion at the mouths of that river, and that position he retained
till 1872, when he became consulting engineer to the Commission
(see DANUBE). In 1875 he was one of the committee appointed
by the authority of the U.S.A. Congress to report on the works
necessary to form and maintain a deep channel through the south
pass of the Mississippi delta; and in 1884 the British government
nominated him a member of the international technical commission
for widening the Suez Canal. In addition he was consulted by
the British and other governments in connexion with many other
river and harbour works, including the improvement of the
navigation of the Scheldt, Hugli, Don and Dnieper, and of the
ports of Odessa, Trieste, Kustendjie, Burgas, Varna and Durban.
He was knighted in 1862, and became K.C.M.G. in 1884.

HARTLEY, DAVID (1705-1757), English philosopher, and
founder of the Associationist school of psychologists, was born
on the 30th of August 1705* He was educated at Bradford
grammar school and Jesus College, Cambridge, of which society
he became a fellow in 1727. Originally intended for the Church,
he was deterred from taking orders by certain scruples as to
signing the Thirty-nine Articles, and took up the study of
medicine. Nevertheless, he remained in the communion of the
English Church, living on intimate terms with the most dis-
tinguished churchmen of his day. Indeed he asserted it to be a
duty to obey ecclesiastical as well as civil authorities. The
doctrine to which he most strongly objected was that of eternal
punishment. Hartley practised as a physician at Newark,
Bury St Edmunds, London, and lastly at Bath, where he died on
the 28th of August 1757. His Observations on Man was pub-
lished in 1749, three years after Condillac's Essai sur I'origine des
connaissances humaines, in which theories essentially similar
to his were expounded. It is in two parts — the first dealing
with the frame of the human body and mind, and their mutual
connexions and influences, the second with the duty and expecta-
tions of mankind. His two main theories are the doctrine of
vibrations and the doctrine of associations. His physical
theory, he tells us, was drawn from certain speculations as to
nervous action which Newton had published in his Principia.
His psychological theory was suggested by the Dissertation con-
cerning the Fundamental Principles of Virtue or Morality, which
was written by a clergyman named John Gay (1699-1745), and
prefixed by Bishop Law to his translation 1 of Archbishop King's
Latin work on the Origin of Evil, its chief object being to show
that sympathy and conscience are developments by means of
association from the selfish feelings.

The outlines of Hartley's theory are as follows. With Locke he
asserted that, prior to sensation, the human mind is a blank. By
a growth from simple sensations those states of consciousness which
appear most remote from sensation come into being. And the one

1 Anonymously in the 1731 ed., with acknowledgment in the
1758 ed.

law of growth of which Hartley took account was -the law of con-
tiguity, synchronous and successive. By this law he sought to
explain, not only the phenomena of memory, which others had
similarly explained before him, but also the phenomena of emotion,
of reasoning, and of voluntary and involuntary action (see ASSOCIA-
TION OF IDEAS).

By his physical theory Hartley gave the first strong impulse to
the modern study of the intimate connexion of physiological and
psychical facts which has proved so fruitful, though his physical
theory in itself is inadequate, and has not been largely adopted.
He held that sensation is the result of a vibration of the minute
particles of the medullary substance of the nerves, to account for
which he postulated, with Newton, a subtle elastic ether, rare in
the interstices of solid bodies and in their close neighbourhood, and
denser as it recedes from them. Pleasure is the resujt of moderate
vibrations, pain of vibrations so violent as to break the continuity
of the nerves. These vibrations leave behind them in the brain
a tendency to fainter vibrations or " vibratiuncles " of a similar
kind, which correspond to " ideas of sensation." Thus memory is
accounted for. The course of reminiscence and of the thoughts
generally, when not immediately dependent upon external sensation,
is accounted for on the ground that there are always vibrations in
the brain on account of its heat and the pulsation of its arteries.
What these vibrations shall be is determined by the nature of each
man's past experience, and by the influence of the circumstances of
the moment, which causes now one now another tendency to prevail
over the rest. Sensations which are often associated together
become each associated with the ideas corresponding to the others;
and the ideas corresponding to the associated sensations become
associated together, sometimes so intimately that they form what
appears to be a new simple idea, not without careful analysis resolv-
able into its component parts.

Starting, like the modern Associationists, from a detailed account
of the phenomena of the senses, Hartley tries to show how, by the
above laws, all the emotions, which he analyses with considerable
skill, may be explained. Locke's phrase " association of ideas " is
employed throughout, " idea " being taken as including every
mental state but sensation. He emphatically asserts the existence
of pure disinterested sentiment, while declaring it to be a growth
from the self-regarding feelings. Voluntary action is explained as
the result of a firm connexion between a motion and a sensation or
"idea," and, on the physical side, between an "ideal" and a
motory vibration. Therefore in the Freewill controversy Hartley
took his place as a determinist. It is singular that, as he tells us,
it was only with reluctance, and when his speculations were nearly
complete, that he came to a conclusion on this subject in accordance
with his theory.

See life of Hartley by his son in the 1801 edition of the Observations,
which also contains notes and additions translated from the German
of H. A. Pistorius; Sir Leslie Stephen, History of English Thought
in the Eighteenth Century (y& ed., 1902), and article fn the Dictionary
of National Biography; G. S. Bower, Hartley and James Mill (1881);
B. Schonlank, Hartley und Priestley die Begrilnder des Assoziatio-
nismus in England (1882). See also the histories of philosophy and
bibliography in J. M. Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and
Psychology (1905), vol. iii.

HARTLEY, JONATHAN SCOTT (1845- ), American
sculptor, was born at Albany, New York, on the 23rd of
September 1845. He was a pupil of E. D. Palmer, New York,
and of the schools of the Royal Academy, London; he later
studied for a year in Berlin and for a year in Paris. His first
important work (1882) was a statue of Miles Morgan, the Puritan,
for Springfield, Mass. Among his other works are the Daguerre
monument in Washington; " Thomas K. Beecher," Elmira,
New York, and "Alfred the Great," Appellate Court House,
New York. He devoted himself particularly to the making of
portrait busts, in which he attained high rank. In 1891 he
became a member of the National Academy of Design.

HARTLIB, SAMUEL (c. 1599-6. 1670), English writer on
education and agriculturist, was born towards the close of the
1 6th century at Elbing in Prussia, his father being a refugee
merchant from Poland. His mother was the daughter of a rich
English merchant at Danzig. About 1628 Hartlib went to
England, where he carried on a mercantile agency, and at the
same time found leisure to enter with interest into the public
questions of the day. An enthusiastic admirer of Comenius, he
published in 1637 his Conatuum Comenianorum praeludia, and
in 1639 Comenii pansophiae prodromus el didaclica dissertatio.
In 1641 appeared his Relation of that which hath been lately
attempted to procure Ecclesiastical Peace among Protestants, and
A Description of Macaria, containing his ideas of what a model
state should be. During the civil war Hartlib occupied himself

HARTMANN, K. R. E. VON — HARTMANN, M.

with the peaceful study of agriculture, publishing various works
by himself, and printing at his own expense several treatises
by others on the subject. In 1652 he issued a second edition of
the Discourse of Flanders Husbandry by Sir Richard Weston
(1645); and in 1651 Samuel Hartlib, his Legacy, or an Enlarge-
ment of the Discourse of Husbandry used in Brabant and Flanders,
by Robert Child. For his various labours Hartlib received from
Cromwell a pension of £100, afterwards increased to £300, as he
had spent all his fortune on his experiments. He planned a school
for the sons of gentlemen, to be conducted on new principles,
and this probably was the occasion of his friend Milton's Tractate
on Education, addressed to him in 1644, and of Sir William Petty 's
Two Letters on the same subject, in 1647 and 1648. At the
Restoration Hartlib lost his pension, which had already fallen
into arrears; he petitioned parliament for a new grant of it,
but what success he met with is unknown, as his latter years and
death are wrapped in obscurity. A letter from him is known to
have been written in February 1661-1662, and apparently he
is referred to by Andrew Marvell as alive in 1670 and fleeing to
Holland from his creditors.

A Biographical Memoir of Samuel Hartlib, by H. Dircks, appeared
in 1865.

HARTMANN, KARL ROBERT EDUARD VON (1842-1906),
German philosopher, was born in Berlin on the 23rd of February
1842. He was educated for the army, and entered the artillery
of the Guards as an officer in 1860, but a malady of the knee,
which crippled him, forced him to quit the service in 1865.
After some hesitation between music and philosophy, he decided
to make the latter the serious work of his life, and in 1867 the
university of Rostock conferred on him the degree of doctor of
philosophy. He subsequently returned to Berlin, and died at
Grosslichterfelde on the 5th of June 1906. His reputation
as a philosopher was established by his first book, The Philosophy
of the Unconscious (1869; loth ed. 1890). This success was
largely due to the originality of its title, the diversity of its
contents (von Hartmann professing to obtain his speculative
results by the methods of inductive science, and making plentiful
use of concrete illustrations), the fashionableness of its pessimism
and the vigour and lucidity of its style. The conception of the
Unconscious, by which von Hartmann describes his ultimate
metaphysical principle, is not at bottom as paradoxical as it
sounds, being merely a new and mysterious designation for the
Absolute of German metaphysicians. The Unconscious appears
as a combination of the metaphysic of Hegel with that of Schopen-
hauer. The Unconscious is both Will and Reason and the
absolute all-embracing ground of all existence. Von Hartmann
thus combines " pantheism " with " panlogism " in a manner
adumbrated by Schelling in his " positive philosophy." Never-
theless Will and not Reason is the primary aspect of the Un-
conscious, whose melancholy career is determined by the primacy
of the Will and the subservience of the Reason. Precosmically
the Will is potential and the Reason latent, and the Will is void
of reason when it passes from potentiality to actual willing.
This latter is absolute misery, and to cure it the Unconscious
evokes its Reason and with its aid creates the best of all possible
worlds, which contains the promise of its redemption from
actual existence by the emancipation of the Reason from its
subjugation to the Will in the conscious reason of the enlightened
pessimist. When the greater part of the Will in existence is so
far enlightened by reason as to perceive the inevitable misery
of existence, a collective effort to will non-existence will be made,
and the world will relapse into nothingness, the Unconscious into
quiescence. Although von Hartmann is a pessimist, his pessim-
ism is by no means unmitigated. The individual's happiness
is indeed unattainable either here and now or hereafter and in
the future, but he does not despair of ultimately releasing the
Unconscious from its sufferings. He differs from Schopenhauer
in making salvation by the " negation of the Will-to-live "
depend on a collective social effort and not on individualistic
asceticism. The conception of a redemption of the Unconscious
also supplies the ultimate basis of von Hartmann's ethics. We
must provisionally affirm life and devote ourselves to social

evolution, instead of striving after a happiness which is
impossible; in so doing we shall find that morality renders life
less unhappy than it would otherwise be. Suicide, and all other
forms of selfishness, are highly reprehensible. Epistemologically
von Hartmann is a transcendental realist, who ably defends his
views and acutely criticizes those of his opponents. His realism
enables him to maintain the reality of Time, and so of the process
of the world's redemption.

Von Hartmann's numerous works extend to more than 12,000
pages. They may be classified into — A. Systematical, including
Grundprobleme der Erkenntnistheorie ; Kategorienlehre; Das sittliche
Bewusstsein; Die Philosophic des Schonen; Die Religion des Geistes;
Die Philosophic des Unbewusslen (3 vols., which now include his,
originally anonymous, self-criticism, Das Unbewusste vom Stand-
punkte der Physiologic und Descendenztheorie, and its refutation, Eng.
trs. by W. C. Coupland, 1884) ; System der Philosophic im Crundriss,
i.; Grundriss der Erkennlnislehre. B. Historical and critical — Das
religiose Bewusstsein der Menschheil; Geschichte der Metaphysik
(2 vols.); Kant's Erkenntnistheorie; Kritische Grundlegung des
transcendentalen Realismus; Vber die dialektische Methode; studies of
Schelling, Lotze, von Kirchmann; Zur Geschichte des Pessimismus;
Neukantianismus, Schopenhauerismus, Hegelianismus ; Geschichte
der deutschen Aslhetik seit Kant; Die Krisis des Christentums in
der modernen Theologie; Philosophische Fragen der Gegenwart;
Ethische Studien; Moderne Psychologic; Das Christentum des
neuen Testaments; Die Weltanschauung der modernen Physik.
C. Popular — Soziale Kernfragen; Moderne Probleme; Tagesfragen;
Zwei Jahrzehnte deutscher Politik; Das Judentum in Gegenwart und
Zukunft; Die Selbslzersetzung des Christentums; Gesammelte
Sludien; Der Spiritismus and Die Geisterhypothese des Spiritismus;
Zur Zeitgeschichle. His select works have been published in 10
volumes (2nd ed., 1885-1896). On his philosophy see R. Kober,
Das philosophische System Eduard von Hartmanns (1884); O.
Plumacher, Der Kampf urns Unbewusste (2nd ed., 1890), with a
chronological table of the Hartmann literature from 1868 to 1890;
A. Drews, E. von Hartmanns Philosophic und der Materialismus in
der modernen Kultur (1890) and E. von Hartmanns philosophisches
System im Grundriss (1902), with biographical introduction; and
for further authorities, J. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and
Psychology (1901-1905).

HARTMANN, MORITZ (1821-1872), German poet and
author, was born of Jewish parentage at Duschnik in Bohemia
on the isth of October 1821. Having studied philosophy at
Prague and Vienna, he travelled in south Germany, Switzerland
and Italy, and became tutor in a family at Vienna. In 1845 he
proceeded to Leipzig and there published a volume of patriotic
poems, Kelch und Schwert (1845). Fearing in consequence
prosecution at the hands of the authorities, he abided events in
France and Belgium, and after issuing in Leipzig Neuere Gedichte
(1846) returned home, suffered a short term of imprisonment,
and in 1848 was elected member for Leitmeritz in the short-lived
German parliament at Frankfort-on-Main, in which he sided
with the extreme Radical party. He took part with Robert
Blum (1807-1848) in the revolution of that year in Vienna, but
contrived to escape to London and Paris. In 1849 he published
Reimclironik des Pfaffen Mauritius, a satirical political poem in
the style of Heine. During the Crimean War (1854-56) Hart-
mann was correspondent of the Kolnische Zeitung, settled in
1860 in Geneva as a teacher of German literature and history,
became in 1865 editor of the Frcya in Stuttgart and in 1868 a
member of the staff of the Neue Freie Presse in Vienna. He
died at Oberdobling near Vienna on the i3th of May 1872.

Among Hartmann's numerous works may be especially
mentioned Der Krieg urn den Wald (1850), a novel, the scene of
which is laid in Bohemia; Tagebuch aus Languedoc und Provence
(1852); Erzahlungen eines Unstelen (1858); and Die lelzlen Tage
eines Kdnigs (1867). His idyll, Adam und Eva (1851), and his
collection of poetical tales, Schatten (1851), show that the author
possessed but little talent for epic narrative. Hartmann's
poems are often lacking in genuine poetical feeling, but the love
of liberty which inspired them, and the fervour, ease and clear-
ness of their style compensated for these shortcomings and
gained for him a wide circle of admirers.

His Gesammelte Werke were published in 10 vols. in 1873-1874,
and a selection of his Gedichte in the latter year. The first two
volumes of a new edition of his works contain a biography of Hart-
mann by O. Wittner. See also E. Ziel, " Moritz Hartmann " (in
Unsere Zeit, 1872); A. Marchand, Les Poetes lyriques de I'Autriche
(1892) ; Brandes, Dasjunge Deutschland (Charlottenburg, 1899).

HARTMANN VON AUE— HARUSPICES

37

HARTMANN VON AUE (c. ii^o-c. 1210), one of the chief
Middle High German poets. He belonged to the lower nobility
of Swabia, where he was born about 1170. After receiving a
monastic education, he became retainer (dienstman) of a noble-
man whose domain, Aue, has been identified with Obernau
on the Neckar. He also took part in the Crusade of 1196-97.
The date of his death is as uncertain as that of his birth; he
is mentioned by Gottfried von Strassburg (c. 1210) as still alive,
and in the Krone of Heinrich von dem Tiirlin, written about 1220,
he is mourned for as dead. Hartmann was the author of four
narrative poems which are of importance for the evolution of
the Middle High German court epic. The oldest of these, Erec,
which may have been written as early as 1191 or 1192, and the
latest and ripest, Iwein, belong to the Arthurian cycle and are
based on epics by Chretien de Troyes (q.v.) ; between them lie
the romance, Gregorius, also an adaptation of a French epic, and
Der arme Heinrich, one of the most charming specimens of
medieval German poetry. The theme of the latter — the cure
of the leper, Heinrich, by a young girl who is willing to sacrifice
her life for him — Hartmann had evidently found in the annals of
the family in whose service he stood. Hartmann's most con-
spicuous merit as a poet lies in his style; his language is care-
fully chosen, his narrative lucid, flowing and characterized by a
sense of balance and proportion which is rarely to be found in
German medieval poetry. Gregorius, Der arme Heinrick and his
lyrics, which are all fervidly religious in tone, imply a tendency
towards asceticism, but, on the whole, Hartmann's striving
seems rather to have been to reconcile the extremes of life; to
establish a middle way of human conduct between the worldly
pursuits of knighthood and the ascetic ideals of medieval religion.

Erec has been edited by M. Haupt (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1871);
Gregorius, by H. Paul (2nd ed., Halle, 1900); Der arme Heinrich,
by W. Wackernagel and W. Toischer (Basel, 1885) and by H.
Paul (2nd ed., Halle, 1893); by J. G. Robertson (London, 1895),
with English notes; Iwein, by G. F. Benecke and K. Lach-
mann (4th ed., Berlin, 1877) and E. Henrici (Halle, 1891-1893).
A convenient edition of all Hartmann's poems by F. Bech,
3 vols. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1891-1893, vol. 3 in 4th ed., 1902).

The literature on Hartmann is extensive. See especially L.
Schmid. Des Minnesingers Hartmann von Aue Stand, Heimat und
Ceschlecht (Tubingen, 1874); H. Rotteken, Die epische Kunst
Heinrichs von Veldeke und Hartmanns von Aue (Halle, 1887); F.
Saran, Hartmann von Aue als Lyriker (Halle, 1889) ; A. E. Schonbach,
(Jber Hartmann von Aue (Graz, 1894); F. Piquet, Ittude sur Hart-
mann d'Aue (Paris, 1898). Translations have been made into
modern German of all Hartmann's poems, while Der arme Heinrich
has repeatedly attracted the attention of modern poets, both English
(Longfellow, Rossetti) and German (notably, Gerhart Hauptmann).
See H. Tardel, Der arme Heinrich in der neueren Dichtung (Berlin,

HARTSHORN, SPIRITS OF, a name signifying originally the
ammoniacal liquor obtained by the distillation of horn shavings,
afterwards applied to the partially purified similar products of the
action of heat on nitrogenous animal matter generally, and now
popularly used to designate the aqueous solution of ammonia (q.ti).

HARTZENBUSCH, JUAN EUGENIO (1806-1880), Spanish
dramatist, was born at Madrid on the 6th of September 1806.
The son of a German carpenter, he was educated for the priest-
hood, but he had no religious vocation and, on leaving school,
followed his father's trade till 1830, when he learned shorthand
and joined the staff of the Gaceta. His earliest dramatic essays
were translations from Moliere, Voltaire and the elder Dumas;
he next recast old Spanish plays, and in 1837 produced his first
original play, Los Amantes de T cruel, the subject of which had
been used by Rey de Artieda, Tirso de Molina and Perez de
Montalban. Los Amantes de Teruel at once made the author's
reputation, which was scarcely maintained by Dona Mencia
(1839) and Alfonso el Casto (1841); it was not till 1845 that he
approached his former success with La Jura en Santa Gadea.
Hartzenbusch was chief of the National Library from 1862 to
1875, and was an indefatigable — though not very judicious —
editor of many national classics. Inferior in inspiration to other
contemporary Spanish dramatists, Hartzenbusch excels his
rivals in versatility and in conscientious workmanship.

HARUN AL-RASHID (763 or 766-809), i.e. "Harun the
Orthodox," the fifth of the 'Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad, and the
second son of the third caliph Mahdi. His full name was Harun
ibn Muhammad ibn 'Abdallah ibn Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn
'Abdallah ibn 'Abbas. He was born at Rai (Rhagae) on the 2oth
of March A.D. 763, according to some accounts, and according
to others on the isth of February A.D. 766. Harun al-Rashld
was twenty-two years old when he ascended the throne. His
father Mahdi just before his death conceived the idea of
superseding his elder son Musa (afterwards known as Hadi,
the fourth caliph) by Harun. But on Mahdi's death Harun
gave way to his brother. For the campaigns in which he
took part prior to his accession see CALIPHATE, section C,
The Abbasids, §§ 3 and 4.

Rashid owed his succession to the throne to the prudence and
sagacity of Yahya b. Khalid the Barmecide, his secretary,
whom on his accession he appointed his lieutenant and grand
vizier (se.e BARMECIDES). Under his guidance the empire
flourished on the whole, in spite of several revolts in the provinces
by members of the old Alid family. Successful wars were waged
with the rulers of Byzantium and the Khazars. In 803, however,
Harun became suspicious of the Barmecides, whom with only
a single exception he caused to be executed. Henceforward
the chief power was exercised by Fadl b. Rabi', who had
been chamberlain not only under Harun himself but under his
predecessors, Mansur, Madhi and Hadi. In the later years of
Harun's reign troubles arose in the eastern parts of the empire.
These troubles assumed proportions so serious that Harun
himself decided to go to Khorasan. He died, however, at Tus
in March 809.

The reign of Harun (see CALIPHATE, section C, § 5) was one of
the most brilliant in the annals of the caliphate, in spite of
losses in north-west Africa and Transoxiana. His fame spread
to the West, and Charlemagne and he exchanged gifts and com-
pliments as masters respectively of the West and the East. No
caliph ever gathered round him so great a number of learned men,
poets, jurists, grammarians, cadis and scribes, to say nothing of
the wits and musicians who enjoyed his patronage. Harun
himself was a scholar and poet, and was well versed in history,
tradition and poetry. He possessed taste and discernment,
and his dignified demeanour is extolled by the historians. In
religion he was extremely strict; he prostrated himself a hundred
times daily, and nine or ten times made the pilgrimage to Mecca.
At the same time he cannot be regarded as a great administrator.
He seems to have left everything to his viziers Yahya and Fadl,
to the former of whom especially was due the prosperous con-
dition of the empire. Harun is best known to Western readers
as the hero of many of the stories in the Arabian Nights; and in
Arabic literature he is the central figure of numberless anecdotes
and humorous stories. Of his incognito walks through Bagdad,
however, the authentic histories say nothing. His Arabic
biographers are unanimous in describing him as noble and
generous, but there is little doubt that he was in fact a man of
little force of character, suspicious, untrustworthy and on
occasions cruel.

See the Arabic histories of Ibn al-Athir and Ibn Khaldun. Among
modern works see Sir W. Muir, The Caliphate (London, 1891);
R. D. Osborn, Islam under the Khalifs of Bagdad (London, 1878);
Gustav Weil, Geschichte der Chalifen (Mannheim and Stuttgart,
1846-1862); G. le Strange, Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate
(Oxford, 1900); A. Miiller, Der Islam, vol. i. (Berlin, 1885); E. H.
Palmer, The Caliph Haroun Alraschid (London, 1880); J. B. Bury's
edition of Gibbon's Decline and Fall (London, 1898), vol. vi. pp.
34 foil.

HARUSPICES, or ARUSPICES (perhaps " entrail observers,"
cf. Skt. hira, Gr. xopSy), a class of soothsayers in Rome. Their
art (disciplina) consisted especially in deducing the will of the
gods from the appearance presented by the entrails of the slain
victim . They also interpreted all portents or unusual phenomena
of nature, especially thunder and lightning, and prescribed the
expiatory ceremonies after such events. To please the god, the
victim must be without spot or blemish, and the practice of ob-
serving whether the entrails presented any abnormal appearance,

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

and thence deducing the will of heaven, was also very im-
portant in Greek religion. This art, however, appears not to
have been, as some other modes of ascertaining the will of the
gods undoubtedly were, of genuine Aryan growth. It is foreign
to the Homeric poems, and must have been introduced into
Greece after their composition. In like manner, as the Romans
themselves believed, the art was not indigenous in Rome, but
derived from Etruria.1 The Etruscans were said to have learned
it from a being named Tages, grandson of Jupiter, who had
suddenly sprung from the ground near Tarquinii. Instructions
were contained in certain books called libr i haruspicini, fulgurates,
rituales. The art was practised in Rome chiefly by Etruscans,
occasionally by native-born Romans who had studied in the
priestly schools of Etruria. From the regal period to the end
of the republic, haruspices were summoned from Etruria to deal
with prodigies not mentioned in the pontifical and Sibylline
books, and the Roman priests carried out their instructions as to
the offering necessary to appease the anger of the deity con-
cerned. Though the art was of great importance under the early
republic, it never became a part of the state religion. In this
respect the haruspices ranked lower than the augurs, as is shown
by the fact that they received a salary; the augurs were a more
ancient and purely Roman institution, and were a most important
element in the political organization of the city. In later times
the art fell into disrepute, and the saying of Cato the Censor is well
known, that he wondered how one haruspex could look another
in the face without laughing (Cic. De div. ii. 24). Under the
empire, however, we hear of a regular collegium of sixty haru-
spices; and Claudius is said to have tried to restore the art and
put it under the control of the pontifices. This collegium con-
tinued to exist till the time of Alaric.

See A. Bouche'-Leclercq, Hisloire de la divination dans_ I'antiquite
(1879-1881); Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii. (1885),
pp. 410-415; G. Schmeisser, Die etruskische Disciplin vom Bundes-
genossenkriege bis zum Untergang des Heidentums (1881), and
Quaestionum de Etrusca disciplina particula (1872); P. Clairin, De
haruspicibus apud Romanes (1880). Also OMEN.

HARVARD UNIVERSITY, the oldest of American educational
institutions, established at Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 1636
the General Court of the colony voted £400 towards " a schoale
or colledge," which in the next year was ordered to be at " New
Towne." In memory of the English university where many
(probably some seventy) of the leading men of the colony had
been educated, the township was named Cambridge in 1638.
In the same year John Harvard (1607-1638), a Puritan minister
lately come to America, a bachelor and master of Emmanuel
college, Cambridge, dying in Charlestown (Mass.), bequeathed
to the wilderness seminary half his estate (£780) and some three
hundred books; and the college, until then unorganized, was
named Harvard College (1639) in his honour. Its history is
unbroken from 1640, and its first commencement was held in
1642. The spirit of the founders is beautifully expressed in the
words of a contemporary letter which are carved on the college
gates: " After God had carried us safe to New-England, and wee
had builded our houses, provided necessaries for our liveli-hood,
rear'd convenient places for Gods worship, and setled the Civill
Government; One of the next things we longed for, and looked
after was to advance Learning, and perpetuate it to Posterity;
dreading to leave an illiterate Ministry to the Churches, when our
present Ministers shall lie in the Dust." The college charter of
1650 dedicated it to " the advancement of all good literature,
arts, and sciences," and " the education of the English and Indian
youth ... in knowledge and godly nes." The second building
(1654) on the college grounds was called " the Indian College."
In it was set up the College press, which since 1638 had been in the
president's house, and here, it is believed, was printed the trans-
lation of the Bible (1661-1663) by John Eliot into the language
of the natives, with primer, catechisms, grammars, tracts, &c.
A fair number of Indians were students, but only one, Caleb
Cheeshahteaumuck, took a bachelor's degree(i665). By generous

1 The statement of Dionysius of Halicarnassus (ii. 22) that the
haruspices were instituted by Romulus is due to his confusing them
with the augurs.

aid received from abroad for this special object, the college was
greatly helped in its infancy.

The charter of 1650 has been in the main, and uninterruptedly
since 1707, the fundamental source of authority in the administra-
tion of the university. It created a co-optating corporation
consisting of the president, treasurer and five fellows, who
formally initiate administrative measures, control the college
funds, and appoint officers of instruction and government;
subject, however, to confirmation by the Board of Overseers
(established in 1642), which has a revisory power over all acts
of the corporation. Circumstances gradually necessitated
ordinary government by the resident teachers; and to-day the
various faculties, elaborately organized, exercise immediate
government and discipline over all the students, and individually
or in the general university council consider questions of policy.
The Board of Overseers was at first jointly representative of
state and church. The former, as founder and patron, long
regarded Harvard as a state institution, controlling or aiding
it through the legislature and the overseers; but the contro-
versies and embarrassments incident to legislative action proved
prejudicial to the best interests of the college, and its organic
connexion with the state was wholly severed in 1866. Financial
aid and practical dependence had ceased some time earlier;
indeed, from the very beginning, and with steadily increasing
preponderance, Harvard has been sustained and fostered by
private munificence rather than by public money. The last
direct subsidy from the state determined in 1824, although
state aid was afterwards given to the Agassiz museum, later
united with the university. The church was naturally sponsor
for the early college. The changing composition of its Board
of Overseers marked its liberation first from clerical and later
from political control; since 1865 the board has been chosen
by the alumni (non-residents of Massachusetts being eligible
since 1880), who therefore really control the university. When
the state ceased to repress effectually the rife speculation
characteristic of the first half of the seventeenth century, in
religion as in politics, and in America as in England, the unity
of Puritanism gave way to a variety of intense sectarianisms,
and this, as also the incoming of Anglican churchmen, made
the old faith of the college insecure. President Henry Dunster
(c. 1612-1659), the first president, was censured by the
magistrates and removed from office for questioning infant
baptism. The conservatives, who clung to pristine and undiluted
Calvinism, sought to intrench themselves in Harvard, especially
in the Board of Overseers. The history of the college from about
1673 to 1725 was exceedingly troubled. Increase and Cotton
Mather, forceful but bigoted, were the bulwarks of reaction
and fomenters of discord. One episode in the struggle was the
foundation and encouragement of Yale College by the reaction-
aries of New England as a truer " school of the prophets "
(Cotton Mather being particularly zealous in its interests), after
they had failed to secure control of the government of Harvard.
It represented conservative secession. In 1792 the first layman
was chosen to the corporation; in 1805 a Unitarian became
professor of theology; in 1843 the board of overseers was
opened to clergymen of all denominations; in 1886 attendance
on prayers by the students ceased to be compulsory. Thus
Harvard, in response to changing ideas and conditions, grew
away from the ideas of its founders.

Harvard, her alumni, and her faculty have- been very closely
connected with American letters, not only in the colonial period,
when the Mathers, Samuel Sewall and Thomas Prince were
important names, or in the revolutionary and early national
epoch with the Adamses, Fisher Ames, Joseph Dennie and
Robert Treat Paine, but especially in the second third of the
ipth century, when the great New England movements of
Unitarianism and Transcendentalism were led by Harvard
graduates. In 1805 Henry Ware (1764-1845) was elected the
first anti-Trinitarian to be Hollis professor of divinity, and this
marked Harvard's close connexion with Unitarianism, in the
later history of which Ware, his son Henry (1794-1843), and
Andrews Norton (1786-1852)^1! Harvard alumni and professors,

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

39

and Joseph Buckminster (1751-1812) and William Ellery
Channing were leaders of the conservative Unitarians, and
Joseph Stevens Buckminster (1784-1812), James Freeman
Clarke, and Theodore Parker were liberal leaders.- Of the
" Transcendentalists," Emerson, Francis Henry Hedge (1805-
1890), Clarke, Convers Francis (1795-1863), Parker, Thoreau
and Christopher Pearse Cranch (1813-1892) were Harvard
graduates. Longfellow's professorship at Harvard identified
him with it rather than with Bowdoin; Oliver Wendell Holmes
was professor of anatomy and physiology at Harvard in 1847-
1882; and Lowell, a Harvard alumnus, was Longfellow's
successor in 1855-1886 as Smith Professor of the French and
Spanish languages and literatures. Ticknor and Charles Eliot
Norton are other important names in American literary criticism.
The historians Sparks, Bancroft, Hildreth, Palfrey, Prescott,
Motley and Parkman were graduates of Harvard, as were
Edward Everett, Charles Sumner and Wendell Phillips.

In organization and scope of effort Harvard has grown,
especially after 1869, under the direction of President Charles
W. Eliot, to be in the highest sense a university; but the
" college " proper, whose end is the liberal culture of under-
graduates, continues to be in many ways the centre of university
life, as it is the embodiment of university traditions. The
medical school (in Boston) dates from 1782, the law school from
1817, the divinity school 1 (though instruction in theology was of
course given from the foundation of the college) from 1819, and
the dental school (in Boston ) from 1867. The Bussey Institution
at Jamaica Plain was established in 1871 as an undergraduate
school of agriculture, and reorganized in 1908 for advanced
instruction and research in subjects relating to agriculture and
horticulture. The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences dates
from 1872, the Graduate School of Applied Science (growing
out of the Lawrence Scientific School) from 1906, and the
Graduate School of Business Administration (which applies to
commerce the professional methods used in post-graduate
schools of medicine, law, &c.) from 1908. The Lawrence
Scientific School, established in 1847, was practically abolished
in 1907-1908, when its courses were divided between the College
(which thereafter granted a degree of S.B.) and the Graduate
School of Applied Science, which was established in 1906 and
gives professional degrees in civil, mechanical and electrical
engineering, mining, metallurgy, architecture, landscape archi-
tecture, forestry, applied physics, applied chemistry, applied
zoology and applied geology. A school of veterinary medicine,
established in 1882, was discontinued in 1901. The university
institutions comprise the botanic garden (1807) and the (Asa)
Gray herbarium (1864); the Arnold arboretum (1872), at
Jamaica Plain, for the study of arboriculture, forestry and
dendrology; the university museum of natural history, founded
in 1859 by Louis Agassiz as a museum of comparative zoology,
enormously developed by his son, Alexander Agassiz, and
transferred to the university in 1876, though under an inde-
pendent faculty; the Peabody museum of American archaeology
and ethnology, founded in 1866 by George Peabody; the
William Hayes Fogg art museum (1895); the Semitic museum
(1889); the Germanic Museum (1902), containing rich gifts
from Kaiser Wilhelm II., the Swiss government, and individuals
and societies of Germanic lands; the social museum (1906);
and the astronomical observatory (1843; location 42° 22' 48" N.
lat., 71° 8' W. long.), which since 1891 has maintained a station
near Arequipa, Peru. A permanent summer engineering camp is
maintained at Squam Lake, New Hampshire. In Petersham,
Massachusetts, is the Harvard Forest, about 2000 acres of hilly
wooded country with a stand in 1908 of 10,000,000 ft. B.M. of
merchantable timber (mostly white pine) ; this forest was given
to the university in 1907, and is an important part of the equip-
ment of the division of forestry. The university library is the
largest college library in the country, and from its slow and
competent selection is of exceptional value. In 1 908 it numbered,

1 Affiliated with the university, but autonomous and independent,
is the Andovcr Theological Seminary, which in 1908 removed from
Andover to Cambridge.

including the various special libraries, 803,800 bound volumes,
about 496,600 pamphlets, and 27,450 maps. Some of its collec-
tions are of great value from associations or special richness,
such as Thomas Carlyle's collection on Cromwell and Frederick
the Great; the collection on folk-lore and medieval romances,
supposed to be the largest in existence and including the material
used by Bishop Percy in preparing his Reliques; and that on the
Ottoman empire. The law library has been described by
Professor A. V. Dicey of Oxford as " the most perfect collection
of the legal records of the English people to be found in any
part of the English-speaking world." There are department
libraries at the Arnold arboretum, the Gray herbarium, the
Bussey Institution, the astronomical observatory, the dental
school, the medical school, the law school, the divinity school,
the Peabody museum, and the museum of comparative zoology.
In 1878 the library published the first of a valuable series of
Bibliographical Contributions. Other publications of the univer-
sity (apart from annual reports of various departments) are:
the Harvard Oriental Series (started 1891), Harvard Studies in
Classical Philology (1890), Harvard Theological Review (1907),
the Harvard Law Review (1889), Harvard Historical Studies
(1897), Harvard Economic Studies (1906), Harvard Psychological
Studies (1903), the Harvard Engineering Journal (1902), the
Bulletin (1874) of the Bussey Institution, the Archaeological
and Ethnological Papers (1888) of the Peabody museum, and the
Bulletin (-1863), Contributions and M emoirs (1865) of the museum
of comparative zoology. The students' publications include the
Crimson (1873), a daily newspaper; the Advocate (1831), a
literary bi-weekly; the Lampoon (1876), a comic bi-weekly;
and the Harvard Monthly (1885), a literary monthly. The
Harvard Bulletin, a weekly, and the Harvard Graduates' Magazine
(1892), a quarterly, are published chiefly for the alumni.

In 1908-1909 there were 743 officers of instruction and ad-
ministration (including those for Radcliffe) and 5250 students
(1059 in 1869), the latter including 2238 in the college, 1641 in
the graduate and professional schools, and 1332 in the summer
school. Radcliffe College, for women, had 449 additional
students. The whole number of degrees conferred up to 1905
was 31,805 (doctors of science and of philosophy by examination,
408; masters of arts and of science by examination, 1759). The
conditions of the time when Harvard was a theological seminary
for boys, governed like a higher boarding school, have left traces
still discernible in the organization and discipline, though no
longer in the aims of the college. The average age of students
at entrance, only 14 years so late as 1820, had risen by 1890 to
19 years, making possible the transition to the present regime
of almost entire liberty of life and studies without detriment,
but with positive improvement, to the morals of the student
body. A strong development toward the university ideal
marked the opening of the igth century, especially in the widen-
ing of courses, the betterment of instruction, and the suggestions
of quickening ideas of university freedom, whose realization,
along with others, has come since 1870. The elimination of the
last vestiges of sectarianism and churchly discipline, a lessening
of parietal oversight, a lopping off of various outgrown colonial
customs, a complete reconstruction of professional standards
and methods, the development of a great graduate school in
arts and sciences based on and organically connected with the
undergraduate college, a great improvement in the college
standard of scholarship, the allowance of almost absolute
freedom to students in the shaping of their college course (the
" elective " system), and very remarkable material prosperity
marked the administration (1869-1909) of President Eliot. In
the readjustment in the curricula of American colleges of the
elements of professional training and liberal culture Harvard
has been bold in experiment and innovation. With Johns
Hopkins University she has led the movement that has trans-
formed university education, and her influence upon secondary
education in America has been incomparably greater than that
of any other university. Her entrance requirements to the
college and to the schools of medicine, law, dentistry and divinity
have been higher than those of any other American university.

HARVEST

A bachelor's degree is requisite for entrance to the professional
schools (except that of dentistry), and the master's degree (since
•1872) is given to students only for graduate work in residence,
and rarely to other persons as an honorary degree. In scholarship
and in growth of academic freedom Germany has given the
quickening impulse. This influence began with George Ticknor
and Edward Everett, who were trained in Germany, and was
continued by a number of eminent German scholars, some driven
into exile for their liberalism, who became professors in the
second half of the ipth century, and above all by the many
members of the faculty still later trained in German universities.
The ideas of recognizing special students and introducing the
elective system were suggested in 1824, attaining establishment
even for freshmen by 1885, the movement characterizing particu-
larly the years 1865-1885. The basis of the elective system (as
in force in 1910) is freedom in choice of studies within liberal
limits; and, as regards admission to college1 (completely
established 1891), the idea that the admission is of minds for the
quality of their training and not for their knowledge of particular
subjects, and that any subject may be acceptable for such
training if followed with requisite devotion and under proper
methods. Except for one course in English in the Freshman
year, and one course in French or German for those who do not
on entrance present both of these languages, no study is pre-
scribed, but the student is compelled to select a certain number
of courses in some one department or field of learning, and to
distribute the remainder among other departments, the object
being to secure a systematic education, based on the principle of
knowing a little of everything and something well.

The material equipment of Harvard is very rich. In 1909 it
included invested funds of $22,716,760 ($2,257,990 in 1869)
and lands and buildings valued at $i 2,000,000 at least. In 1908-
1909 an income of more than $130,000 was distributed in
scholarships, fellowships, prizes and other aids to students. The
yearly income available for immediate use from all sources in
1899-1904 averaged $1,074,229, of which $452,760 yearly
represented gifts. The total gifts, for funds and for current use,
in the same years aggregated $6,152,988. The income in 1907-
1908 was $1,846,976; $241,924 was given for immediate use,
and $449,822 was given for capital. The medical school is well
endowed and is housed in buildings (1906) on Longwood Avenue,
Boston; the gifts for its buildings and endowments made in
1901-1902 aggregate $5,000,000. Among the university buildings
are two dining-halls accommodating some 2500 students, a
theatre for public ceremonies, a chapel, a home for religious
societies, a club-home (the Harvard Union) for graduates and
undergraduates, an infirmary, gymnasium, boat houses and large
playgrounds, with a concrete stadium capable of seating 27,000
spectators. Massachusetts Hall (1720) is the oldest building.
University Hall (1815), the administration building, dignified,
of excellent proportions and simple lines, is a good example
of the work of Charles Bulfinch. Memorial Hall (1874), an
ambitious building of cathedral suggestion, commemorates the
Harvard men who fell in the Civil War, and near it is an ideal
statue (1884) of John Harvard by Daniel C. French. The
medical and dental schools are in Boston, and the Bussey
Institution and Arnold Arboretum are at Jamaica Plain.

RADCLIFFE COLLEGE, essentially a part of Harvard, dates
from the beginning of systematic instruction of women by
members of the Harvard faculty in 1879, the Society for the
Collegiate Instruction of Women being formally organized in
1882. The present name was adopted in 1894 in honour of Ann

1 The requirements for admission as changed in 1908 are based
on the " unit system "; satisfactory marks must be got in subjects
aggregating 26 units, the unit being a measure of preparatory study.
Of these 26 units, English (4 units), algebra (2), plane geometry (2),
some science or sciences (2), history (2; either Greek and Roman,
or American and English), a modern language (2; French and
German) are prescribed ; prospective candidates for the degree of
A.B. are required to take examinations for 4 additional units in
Greek or Latin, and for the other 8 points have large range of choice;
and candidates for the degree of S.B. must take additional examina-
tions in French or German (2 units) and have a similar freedom of
choice in making up the remaining 10 units.

Radcliffe, Lady Mowlson (ob. c. 1661), widow of Sir Thomas
Mowlson, alderman and (1634) lord mayor of London, who in
1643 founded the first scholarship in Harvard College. From
1894 alsa dates the present official connexion of Radcliffe with
Harvard. The requirements for admission and for degrees are the
same as in Harvard (whose president countersigns all diplomas),
and the president and fellows of Harvard control absolutely the
administration of the college, although it has for immediate ad-
ministration a separate government. Instruction is given by
members of the university teaching force, who repeat in Rad-
cliffe many of the Harvard courses. Many advanced courses in
Harvard, and to a certain extent laboratory facilities, are directly
accessible to Radcliffe students, and they have unrestricted
access to the library.

The presidents of Harvard have been: Henry Dunster (1640-
1654); Charles Chauncy (1654-1672); Leonard Hoar (1672-
1675); Urian Oakes (1675-1681); John Rogers (1682-1684);
Increase Mather (1685-1701); Charles Morton (vice-president)
(1697-1698); Samuel Willard (1700-1707); John Leverett (1708-
1724); Benjamin Wadsworth (1725-1737); Edward Holyoke
(1737-1769); Samuel Locke (1770-1773); Samuel Langdon
(1774-1780); Joseph Willard (1781-1804); Samuel Webber
(1806-1810); John Thornton Kirkland (1810-1828); Josiah
Quincy (1829-1845); Edward Everett (1846-1849); Jared
Sparks (1849-1853); James Walker (1853-1860); Cornelius
Conway Felton (1860-1862); Thomas Hill (1862-1868); Charles
William Eliot (1869-1909); Abbott Lawrence Lowell (appointed
1909).

AUTHORITIES. — Benjamin Peirce, A History of Harvard University
1636-1775 (Boston, 1883); Josiah Quincy, A History of Harvard
University (2 vols., Boston, 1840) ; Samuel A. Eliot, Harvard College
and its Benefactors (Boston, 1848); H. C. Shelley, John Harvard
and his Times (Boston, 1907) ; The Harvard Book (2 vols., Cambridge,
1874) ; G. Birkbeck Hill, Harvard College, by an Oxonian (New York,
1894); William R. Thayer, "History and Customs of Harvard
University," in Universities and their Sons, vol. i. (Boston, 1898) ;
Official Guide to Harvard, and the various other publications of the
university; also the Harvard Graduates' Magazine (1892 sqq.).

HARVEST (A.S. harfest "autumn," O.K. Ger. herbist,
possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. carpere,
' ' to pluck ") , the season of the ingathering of crops. Harvest has
been a season of rejoicing from the remotest ages. The ancient
Jews celebrated the Feast of Pentecost as their harvest festival,
the wheat ripening earlier in Palestine. The Romans had their
Cerealia or feasts in honour of Ceres. The Druids celebrated
their harvest on the ist of November. In pre-reformation
England Lammas Day (Aug. ist, O.S.) was observed at the be-
ginning of the harvest festival, every member of the church
presenting a loaf made of new wheat. Throughout the world
harvest has always been the occasion for many queer customs
which all have their origin in the animistic belief in the Corn-
Spirit or Corn-Mother. This personification of the crops has left
its impress upon the harvest customs of modern Europe. In
west Russia, for example, the figure made out of the last sheaf of
corn is called the Bastard, and a boy is wrapped up in it. The
woman who binds this sheaf represents the " Cornmother," and
an elaborate simulation of childbirth takes place, the boy in the
sheaf squalling like a new-born child, and being, on his liberation,
wrapped in swaddling bands. Even in England vestiges of
sympathetic magic can be detected. In Northumberland, where
the harvest rejoicing takes place at the close of the reaping and
not at the ingathering, as soon as the last sheaf is set on end
the reapers shout that they have " got the kern." An image
formed of a wheatsheaf, and dressed in a white frock and
coloured ribbons, is hoisted on a pole. This is the " kern-baby "
or harvest-queen, and it is carried back in triumph with music
and shouting and set up in a prominent place during the harvest
supper. In Scotland the last sheaf if cut before Hallowmas is
called the " maiden," and the youngest girl in the harvest-field
is given the privilege of cutting it. If the reaping finishes after
Hallowmas the last corn cut is called the Cailleach (old woman).
In some parts of Scotland this last sheaf is kept till Christmas
morning and then divided among the cattle " to make them

HARVEST-BUG—HARVEY

thrive all the year round," or is kept till the first mare foals and
is then given to her as her first food. Throughout the world, as
J. G. Frazer shows, the semi-worship of the last sheaf is or has
been the great feature of the harvest-home. Among harvest
customs none is more interesting than harvest cries. The cry
of the Egyptian reapers announcing the death of the corn-spirit,
the rustic prototype of Osiris, has found its echo on the world's
harvest-fields, and to this day, to take an English example, the
Devonshire reapers utter cries of the same sort and go through
a ceremony which in its main features is an exact counterpart of
pagan worship. " After the wheat is cut they ' cry the neck.'
. . . An old man goes round to the shocks and picks out a bundle
of the best ears he can find. . . this bundle is called ' the neck ';
the harvest hands then stand round in a ring, the old man holding
' the neck ' in the centre. At a signal from him they take off
their hats, stooping and holding them with both hands towards
the ground. Then all together they utter in a prolonged cry ' the
neck! ' three times, raising themselves upright with their hats
held above their heads. Then they change their cry to ' Wee
yen! way yen! ' or, as some report, ' we haven!' " On a fine still
autumn evening " crying the neck " has a wonderful effect at
a distance. In East Anglia there still survives the custom known
as " Hallering Largess." The harvesters beg largess from
passers, and when they have received money they shout thrice
" Halloo, largess," having first formed a circle, bowed their heads
low crying " Hoo-Hoo-Hoo," and then jerked their heads back-
wards and uttered a shrill shriek of " Ah ! Ah ! "

For a very full discussion of harvest customs see J. G. Frazer,
The Golden Bough, and Brand's Antiquities of Great Britain (Hazlitt's
edit., 1905).

HARVEST-BUG, the familiar name for mites of the family
Trombidiidae, belonging to the order Acari of the class Arachnida.
Although at one time regarded as constituting a distinct species,
described as Leptus aulumnalis, harvest-bugs are now known to
be the six-legged larval forms of several British species of mites
of the genus Trombidium, They are minute, rusty-brown
organisms, barely visible to the naked eye, which swarm in grass
and low herbage in the summer and early autumn, and cause
considerable, sometimes intense, irritation by piercing and
adhering to the skin of the leg, usually lodging themselves in
some part where the clothing is tight, such as the knee when
covered with gartered stockings. They may be readily destroyed,
and the irritation allayed, by rubbing the affected area with some
insecticide like turpentine or benzine. They are not permanently
parasitic, and if left alone will leave their temporary host to
resume the active life characteristic of the adult mite, which is
predatory in habits, preying upon minute living animal
organisms.

HARVESTER, HARVEST-SPIDER, or HARVEST-MAN, names
given to Arachnids of the order Opiliones, referable to various
species of the family Phalangiidae. Harvest-spiders or harvest-
men, so-called on account of their abundance in the late summer
and early autumn, may be at once distinguished from all true
spiders by the extreme length and thinness of their legs, and by
the small size and spherical or oval shape of the body, which is not
divided by a waist or constriclion into an anterior and a posterior
region. They may be met with in houses, back yards, fields,
woods and heaths; either climbing on walls, running over the
grass, or lurking under stones and fallen tree trunks. They are
predaceous, feeding upon small insects, mites and spiders. The
males are smaller than the females, and often differ from them in
certain well-marked secondary sexual characters, such as the
mandibular protuberance from which one of the common English
spiders, Phalangium cormitum, takes its scientific name. The
male is also furnished with a long and protrusible penis, and the
female with an equally long and protrusible ovipositor. The
sexes pair in the autumn, and the female, by means of her
ovipositor, lays her eggs in some cleft or hole in the soil and
leaves them to their fate. After breeding, the parents die with
the autumn cold; but the eggs retain their vitality through the
winter and hatch with the warmth of spring and early summer,
the young gradually attaining maturity as the latter season

progresses. Hence the prevalence of adult individuals in the late
summer and autumn, and at no other time of the year. They
are provided with a pair of glands, situated one on each side of
the carapace, which secrete an evil-smelling fluid believed to be
protective in nature. Harvest-men are very widely distributed
and are especially abundant in temperate countries of the

FIG. i. — Harvest-man (Phalangium cprnutum, Linn.); profile of
male, with legs and palpi truncated.

a, Ocular tubercle. d, Sheath of penis protruded.

b, Mandible e. Penis.

c, Labrum (upper lip). /, The glans.

northern hemisphere. They are also, however, common in India,
where they are well known for their habit of adhering together
in great masses, comparable to a swarm of bees, and of swaying
gently backwards and forwards. The long legs of harvest-men
serve them not only as organs of rapid locomotion, but also as
props to raise the body well off the ground, thus enabling the
animals to stalk unmolested from the midst of an army of raiding
ants. (R. I. P.)

HARVEY, GABRIEL (c. 1545-1630), English writer, eldest son
of a ropemaker of Saffron- Walden, Essex, was born about 1545.
He matriculated at Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1566, and in
1570 was elected fellow of Pembroke Hall. Here he formed a
lasting friendship with Edmund Spenser, and it has been sug-
gested (A then. Cantab, ii. 258) that he may have been the poet's
tutor. Harvey was a scholar of considerable weight, who has
perhaps been judged too exclusively from the brilliant invectives
directed against him by Thomas Nashe. Henry Morley, writing
in the Fortnightly Review (March 1869), brought evidence from
Harvey's Latin writings which shows that he was distinguished
by quite other qualities than the pedantry and conceit usually
associated with his name. He desired to be " epitaphed as the
Inventour of the English Hexameter," and was the prime mover
in the literary clique that desired to impose on English verse the
Latin rules of quantity. In a " gallant, familiar letter " to M.
Immerito (Edmund Spenser) he says that Sir Edward Dyer and
Sir Philip Sidney were helping forward " our new famous enter-
prise for the exchanging of Barbarous and Balductum Rymes
with Artificial Verses." The document includes a tepid apprecia-
tion of the Faerie Queene which had been sent to him for his
opinion, and he gives examples of English hexameters illustrative
of the principles enunciated in the correspondence. The opening
lines —
" What might I call this Tree ? A Laurell ? O bonny Laurell

Needes to thy bowes will I bow this knee, and vayle my bonetto " —

afford a fair sample of the success of Harvey's metrical experi-
ments, which presented a fair mark for the wit of Thomas Nashe.
" He (Harvey) goes twitching and hopping in our language like
a man running upon quagmires, up the hill in one syllable, and
down the dale in another," says Nashe in Strange Newes, and he
mimics him in the mocking couplet:

" But eh ! what news do you hear of that good Gabriel Huffe-Snuffe,
Known to the world for a foole, and clapt in the Fleete for a

Runner ? "

Harvey exercised great influence over Spenser for a short time,
and the friendship lasted even though Spenser's genius refused

HARVEY, SIR G.— HARVEY, WILLIAM

42

to be bound by the laws of the new prosody. Harvey is the
Hobbinoll of his friend's Shepheards Calender, and into his mouth
is put the beautiful song in the fourth eclogue in praise of Eliza.
If he was really the author of the verses " To the Learned
Shepheard " signed " Hobynoll " and prefixed to the Faerie
Queene, he was a good poet spoiled. But Harvey's genuine
friendship for Spenser shows the best side of a disposition un-
compromising and quarrelsome towards the world in general.
In 1573 ill-will against him in his college was so strong that there
was a delay of three months before the fellows would agree to
grant him the necessary grace for his M.A. degree. He be-
came reader in rhetoric aboat 1576, and in 1378, on the occasion
of Queen Elizabeth's visit to Sir Thomas Smith at Audley End,
he was appointed to dispute publicly before her. In the next
year he wrote to Spenser complaining of the unauthorized publi-
cation of satirical verses of his which were supposed to reflect on
high personages, and threatened seriously to injure Harvey;s
career. In 1583 he became junior proctor of the university, and
in 1 585 he was elected master of Trinity Hall, of which he had
been a fellow from 1578, but the appointment appears to have
been quashed at court. He was a protege of the Earl of Leicester,
to whom he introduced Spenser, and this connexion may account
for his friendship with Sir Philip Sidney. But in spite of patron-
age, a second application for the mastership of Trinity Hall
failed in 1598. In 1585 he received the degree of D.C.L. from
the university of Oxford, and is found practising at the bar in
London. Gabriel's brother, Richard, had taken part in the
Marprelate controversy, and had given offence to Robert Greene
by contemptuous references to him and his fellow wits. Greene
retorted in his Quip for an Upstart Courtier with some scathing
remarks on the Harveys, the worst of which were expunged in
later editions, drawing attention among other things to Harvey's
modest parentage. In 1599 Archbishop Whitgift made a raid on
contemporary satire in general, and among other books the tracts
of Harvey and Nashe were destroyed, and it was forbidden to
reprint them. Harvey spent the last years of his life in retire-
ment at his native place, dying in 1630.

His extant Latin works are: Ciceronianus (1577); G. Harveii
rhetor, sive 2 dierum oratio de natura, arte et exercitatione rhetorica
('577); Smithus, vel Musarum lachrymae (1578), in honour of Sir
Thomas Smith; and G, Harveii gratulationum Valdensium libri
quatuour (sic), written on the occasion of the queen's visit to Audley
End (1578). The Letter-Book of Gabriel Harvey, A,D. 1573-80 (1884,
ed. E. J. L. Scott, Camden Society), contains rough drafts of the
correspondence between Spenser and Harvey, letters relative to the
disputes at Pembroke Hall, and an extraordinary correspondence
dealing with the pursuit of his sister Mercy by a young nobleman.
A copy of Quintilian (1542), in the British Museum, is extensively
annotated by Gabriel Harvey. After Greene's death Harvey pub-
lished Foure Letters and certaine Sonnets (1592), in which in a spirit
of righteous superiority he laid bare with spiteful fulness the miser-
able details of Greene's later years. Thomas Nashe, who in power of
invective and merciless wit was far superior to Harvey, took upon
himself to avenge Greene's memory, and at the same time settle his
personal account with the Harveys, in Strange Nnues (1593). Harvey
refuted the personal charges made by Nashe /in Pierce' s Superero-
gation, or a New Prayse of the Old Asse . . . (1593). InChristesTeares
over Jerusalem (1593) Nashe made a full apology to Harvey, who
refused to be appeased, and resumed what had become a very scur-
rilous controversy in a New Letter of Notable Contents (1593). Nashe
thereupon withdrew his apology in a new edition (1594) of Christes
Teares, and hearing that Harvey had boasted of victory he produced
the most biting satire of the series in Have with you to Saffron Walden
(1596). Harvey retorted in The Trimming of Thomas Nashe Gentle-
man, by the high-tituled patron Don Richardo de Medico campo

• • • (1597).

His complete works were edited by Dr A. B. Grosart with a
" Memorial Introduction " for the Huth Library (1884-1885). See
also Isaac Disraeli, on " Literary Ridicule," in Calamities of Authors
(ed. 1840) ; T. Warton's History of English Poetry (ed. W. C. Hazlitt,
1871); J. P. Collier's Bibliographical and Critical Account of the
Rarest Books in the English Language (1865), and the Works of Thomas
Nashe.

HARVEY, SIR GEORGE (1806-1876), Scottish painter, the
son of a watchmaker, was born at St Ninians, near Stirling, in
February 1806. Soon after his birth his parents removed to
Stirling, where George was apprenticed to a bookseller. His
love for art having, however, become very decided, in his

eighteenth year he entered the Trustees' Academy at Edinburgh.
Here he so distinguished himself that in 1826 he was invited
by the Scottish artists, who had resolved to found a Scottish
academy, to join it as an associate. Harvey's first picture,
"A Village School," was exhibited in 1826 at the Edinburgh
Institution; and from the time of the opening of the Academy
in the following year he continued annually to exhibit. His
best-known pictures are those depicting historical episodes
in religious history from a puritan or evangelical point of view,
such as " Covenanters Preaching," " Covenanters' Communion,"
" John Bunyan and his Blind Daughter," " Sabbath Evening,"
and the " Quitting of the Manse." He was, however, equally
popular in Scotland for subjects not directly religious; and
" The Bowlers," " A Highland Funeral," " The Curlers," "A
Schule Skailin'," and " Children Blowing Bubbles in the Church-
yard of Greyfriars', Edinburgh," manifest the same close observa-
tion of character, artistic conception and conscientious elabora-
tion of details. In " The Night Mail" and " Dawn Revealing
the New World to Columbus " the aspects of nature arc made
use of in different ways, but with equal happiness, to lend
impressiveness and solemnity to human concerns. He also
painted landscapes and portraits. In 1829 he was elected a
fellow of the Royal Scottish Academy; in 1864 he succeeded
Sir J. W. Gordon as president; and he was knighted in 1867.
He died at Edinburgh on the 22nd of January 1876.

Sir George Harvey was the author of a paper on the " Colour of
the Atmosphere," read before the Edinburgh Royal Society, and
afterwards published with illustrations in Good Words; and in
1870 he published a small volume entitled Notes of the Early History
of the Royal Scottish Academy. Selections from the Works of Sir
George Harvey, P.R.S.A., described by the Rev. A. L. Simpson,
F.S.A. Scot., and photographed by Thomas Annan, appeared at
Edinburgh in 1869.

HARVEY, WILLIAM (1578-1657), English physician, the
discoverer of the circulation of the blood, was the eldest son of
Thomas Harvey, a prosperous Kentish yeoman, and was born
at Folkestone on the ist of April 1578. After passing through
the grammar school of Canterbury, on the 3ist of May 1593,
having just entered his sixteenth year, he became a pensioner
of Caius College, Cambridge, at nineteen he took his B.A. degree,
and soon after, having chosen the profession of medicine, he
went to study at Padua under H. Fabricius and Julius Casserius.
At the age of twenty-four Harvey became doctor of medicine, in
April 1602. Returning to England in the first year of James I.,
he settled in London; and two years later he married the
daughter of Dr Lancelot Browne, who had been physician to
Queen Elizabeth. In the same year he became a candidate
of the Royal College of Physicians, and was duly admitted a
fellow (June 1607). In 1609 he obtained the reversion of the
post of physician to St Bartholomew's hospital. His application
was supported by the king himself and by Dr Henry Atkins
(1558-1635), the president of the college, and on the death of
Dr Wilkinson in the course of the same year he succeeded to the
post. He was thrice censor of the college, and in 1615 was
appointed Lumleian lecturer.

In 1616 he began his course of lectures, and first brought
forward his views upon the movements of the heart and blood.
Meantime his practice increased, and he had the lord chancellor,
Francis Bacon, and the earl of Arundel among his patients.
In 1618 he was appointed physician extraordinary to James I.,
and on the next vacancy physician in ordinary to his successor.
In 1628, the year of the publication of the Exercilatio anatomica
de motu cordis et sanguinis, he was elected treasurer of the
College of Physicians, but at the end of the following year he
resigned the office, in order, by command of Charles I., to accom-
pany the young duke of Lennox (James Stuart, afterwards duke
of Richmond) on his travels. He appears to have visited
Italy, and returned in 1632. Four years later he accompanied
the earl of Arundel on his embassy to the emperor Ferdinand II.
He was eager in collecting objects of natural history, sometimes
causing the earl anxiety for his safety by his excursions in a
country infested by robbers in consequence of the Thirty Years'
War. In a letter written on this journey, he says: " By the

HARVEY, WILLIAM

43

way we could scarce see a dogg, crow, kite, raven, or any bird,
or anything to anatomise; only sum few miserable people, the
reliques of the war and the plague, whom famine had made
anatomies before I came." Having returned to his practice
in London at the close of the year 1636, he accompanied Charles I.
in one of his journeys to Scotland (1639 or 1641). While at
Edinburgh he visited the Bass Rock; he minutely describes
its abundant population of sea-fowl in his treatise De generatione,
and incidentally speaks of the account then credited of the solan
goose growing on trees as a fable. He was in attendance on the
king at the battle of Edgehill (October 1642), where he withdrew
under a hedge with the prince of Wales and the duke of York
(then boys of twelve and ten years old), " and took out of his
pocket a book and read. But he had not read very long before
a bullet of a great gun grazed on the ground near him, which
made him remove his station," as he afterwards told John
Aubrey. After the indecisive battle, Harvey followed Charles I.
to Oxford, " where," writes the same gossiping narrator, " I
first saw him, but was then too young to be acquainted with so
great a doctor. I remember he came several times to our college
(Trinity) to George Bathurst, B.D. who had a hen to hatch eggs
in his chamber, which they opened daily to see the progress and
way of generation. " In Oxford he remained three years, and
there was some chance of his being superseded in his office at
St Bartholomew's hospital, " because he hath withdrawn himself
from his charge, and is retired to the party in arms against the
Parliament." It was no doubt at this time that his lodgings
at Whitehall were searched, and not only the furniture seized
but also invaluable manuscripts and anatomical preparations.1

While with the king at Oxford he was made warden of Merton
College, but a year later, in 1646, that city surrendered to Fairfax,
and Harvey returned to London. He was now sixty-eight years
old, and, having resigned his appointments and relinquished
the cares of practice, lived in learned retirement with one or
other of his brothers. It was in his brother Daniel's house at
Combe that Dr (afterwards Sir George) Ent, a faithful friend and
disciple (1604-1689), visited him in 1650. " I found him," he
says. " with a cheeerful and sprightly countenance investigating,
like Democritus, the nature of things. Asking if all were well
with him — 'How can that be,' he replied, 'when the state is so
agitated with storms and I myself am yet in the open sea? And
indeed, were not my mind solaced by my studies and the recollec-
tion of the observations I have formerly made, there is nothing
which should make me desirous of a longer continuance. But
thus employed, this obscure life and vacation from public cares
which would disgust other minds is the medicine of mine.' '
The work on which he had been chiefly engaged at Oxford, and
indeed since the publication of his treatise on the circulation
in 1628, was an investigation into the recondite but deeply
interesting subject of generation. Charles I. had been an
enlightened patron of Harvey's studies, had put the royal deer
parks at Windsor and Hampton Court at his disposal, and had
watched his demonstration of the growth of the chick with no
less interest than the movements of the living heart. Harvey
had now collected a large number of observations, though he
would probably have delayed their publication. But Ent
succeeded in obtaining the manuscripts, with authority to print
them or not as he should find them. " I went from him," he says,
" like another Jason in possession of the golden fleece, and when

Ignoscant mihi niveae animae, si, summarum injuriarum memor,
levem gemitum effudero. Doloris mihi haec causa est : cum, inter
nuperos_ nostros tumultus et bella plusquam civilia, serenissimum
regem (idque non solum senatus permissione sed et jussu) sequor,
rapaces quaedam manus non modo aedium mearum supellectilem
omnem expilarunt, sed etiam, quae mihi causa gravior querimoniae,
adversaria mea, multorum annorum laboribus parta, e museo meo
summoverunt. Quo factum est ut observations plurimae, prae-
sertim de generatione insectorum, cum republicae Hterariae (ausim
dicere) detrimento, perierint." — De gen., Ex. Ixviii. To this loss
Cowley refers —

" O cursed war! who can forgive thee this?
Houses and towns may rise again,

And ten times easier 'tis
To rebuild Paul's than any work of his."

I came home and perused the pieces singly, I was amazed that
so vast a treasure should have been so long hidden." The result
was the publication of the Exercilaliones de generatione (1651).

This was the last of Harvey's labours. He had now reached
his seventy-third year. His theory of the circulation had been
opposed and defended, and was now generally accepted by the
most eminent anatomists both in his own country and abroad.
He was known and honoured throughout Europe, and his own
college (Caius) voted a statue in his honour (1652) viro monti-
mentis suis immorlali. In 1654 he was elected to the highest post
in his profession, that of president of the college; but the follow-
ing day he met the assembled fellows, and, declining the honour
for himself on account of the infirmities of age, recommended
the re-election of the late president Dr Francis Prujean (1593-
1666). He accepted, however, the office of consiliarius, which
he again held in the two following years. He hati already
enriched the college with other gifts besides the honour of his
name. He had raised for them " a noble building of Roman
architecture (rustic work with Corinthian pilasters) , comprising
a great parlour or conversation room below and a library above";
he had furnished the library with books, and filled the museum
with " simples and rarities," as well as with specimens of instru-
ments used in the surgical and obstetric branches of medicine.
At last he determined to give to his beloved college his paternal
estate at Burmarsh in Kent. His wife had died some years before,
his brothers were wealthy men, and he was childless, so that he
was defrauding no heir when, in July 1656, he made the transfer
of this property, then valued at £56 per annum, with provision
for a salary to the college librarian and for the endowment of an
annual oration, which is still given on the anniversary of the day.
The orator, so Harvey orders in his deed of gift, is to exhort
the fellows of the college " to search out and study the secrets
of nature by way of experiment, and also for the honour of
the profession to continue mutual love and affection among
themselves."

Harvey, like his contemporary and great successor Thomas
Sydenham, was long afflicted with gout, but he preserved his
activity of mind to an advanced age. In his eightieth year, on
the 3rd of June 1657, he was attacked by paralysis, and though
deprived of speech was able to send for his nephews and distribute
his watch, ring, and other personal trinkets among them. He
died the same evening, " the palsy giving him an easy passport,"
and was buried with great honour in his brother Eliab's vault at
Hempstead in Essex, annorum etfamae satur. In 1883 the lead
coffin containing his remains was enclosed in a marble sarcophagus
and moved to the Harvey chapel within the church.

John Aubrey, to whom we owe most of the minor particulars
about Harvey which have been preserved, says: " In person he
was not tall, but of the lowest stature; round faced, olivaster
complexion, little eyes, round, very black, full of spirits; his
hair black as a raven, but quite white twenty years before he
died." The best portrait of him extant is by Cornelius Jansen
in the library of the College of Physicians, one of those rescued
from the great fire, which destroyed their original hall in 1666.
It has been often engraved, and is prefixed to the fine edition of
his works published in 1766.

Han'ey's Work on the Circulation. — In estimating the character
and value of the discovery announced in the Exercilatio de molu
cordis et sanguinis, it is necessary to bear in mind the previous
state of knowledge on the subject. Aristotle taught that in man
and the higher animals the blood was elaborated from the food
in the liver, thence carried to the heart, and sent by it through
the veins over the body. His successors of the Alexandrian
school of medicine, Erasistratus and Herophilus, further elabor-
ated his system, and taught that, while the veins carried blood
from the heart to the members, the arteries carried a subtle kind
of air or spirit. For the practical physician only two changes had
been made in this theory of the circulation between the Christian
era and the i6th century. Galen had discovered that the
arteries were not, as their name implies, merely air-pipes, but
that they contained blood as well as vital air or spirit. And it
had been gradually ascertained that the nerves (vtvpa) which

44-

HARVEY, WILLIAM

arose from the brain and conveyed " animal spirits " to the
body were different from the tendons or sinews (vevpa) which
attach muscles to bones. First, then, the physicians of the
time of Thomas Linacre knew that the blood is not stagnant in
the body. So did Shakespeare and Homer, and every augur who
inspected the entrails of a victim, and every village barber who
breathed a vein. Plato even uses the expression rt> alfia Kara
wavra TO. fjx\rj acfroSpSis 7repi<£«pe<r0ai. But no one had a con-
ception of a continuous stream returning to its source (a circula-
tion in the true sense of the word) either in the system or in the
lungs. If they used the word circulatio, as did Caesalpinus,1 it
was as vaguely as the French policeman cries " Circulez." The
movements of the blood were in fact thought to be slow and
irregular in direction as well as in speed, like the " circulation "
of air in a house, or the circulation of a crowd in the streets of a
city. Secondly, they supposed that one kind of blood flowed
from the liver to the right ventricle of the heart, and thence to
the lungs and the general system by the veins, and that another
kind flowed from the left ventricle to the lungs and general
system by the arteries. Thirdly, they supposed that the septum
of the heart was pervious and allowed blood to pass directly
from the right to the left side. Fourthly, they had no conception
of the functions of the heart as the motor power of the movement
of the blood. They doubted whether its substance was muscular :
they supposed its pulsation to be due to expansion of the spirits
it contained; they believed the only dynamic effect which it
had on the blood to be sucking it in during its active diastole,
and they supposed the chief use of its constant movements to be
the due mixture of blood and spirits.

Of the great anatomists of the i6th century, Sylvius (In Hipp,
et Gal. phys. partem analom. isagoge) described the valves of
the veins; Vesalius (De humani corporis fabrica, 1542) ascer-
tained that the septum between the right and left ventricles is
complete, though he could not bring himself to deny the invisible
pores which Galen's system demanded. Servetus, in his Chris-
tianismi restitutio (1553), goes somewhat farther than his fellow-
student Vesalius, and says: " Paries ille medius non est aptus ad
communicationem et elaborationem illam; licet aliquid resudare
possit"; and, from this anatomical fact and the large size of the
pulmonary arteries he concludes that there is a communication
in the lungs by which blood passes from the pulmonary artery to
the pulmonary vein: " Eodem artificio quo in hepate fit trans-
f usio a vena porta ad venam cavam propter sanguinem, fit etiam in
pulmone transfusio a vena arteriosa ad arteriam venosam propter
spiritum." The natural spirit of the left side and the vital spirit
of the right side of the heart were therefore, he concluded,
practically the same, and hence two instead of three distinct
spiritus should bs admitted. It seems doubtful whether even
Servetus rightly conceived of the entire mass of the blood passing
through the pulmonary artery and the lungs. The transference
of the spiritus naluralis to the lungs, and its return to the left
ventricle as spiritus vitalis, was the function which he regarded
as important. Indeed a true conception of the lesser circulation
as a transference of the whole blood of the right side to the left
was impossible until the corresponding transference in the
greater or systematic circulation was discovered. Servetus,
however, was the true predecessor of Harvey in physiology, and
his claims to that honour are perfectly authentic and universally
admitted.2

1 Indeed the same word, ireplodos aljiaTos, occurs in the Hippo-
cratic writings, and was held by Van der Linden to prove that to
the father of medicine himself, and not to Columbus or Caesalpinus,
belonged the laurels of Harvey.

1 Realdo Columbus (De re anatomica, 1559) formally denies the
muscularity of the heart, yet correctly teaches that blood and spirits
pass from the right to the left ventricle, not through the septum
but through the lungs, " quod nemo hactenus aut animadvertit aut
scriptum reliquit." The fact that Harvey quotes Columbus and not
Servetus is explained by the almost entire destruction of the writings
of the latter, which are now among the rarest curiosities. The great
anatomist Fabricius, Harvey's teacher at Padua, described the valves
of the veins more perfectly than had Sylvius. Carlo Ruini, in his
treatise on the Anatomy and Diseases of the Horse (1590), taught that
the left ventricle sends blood and vital spirits to all parts of the body
except the lungs — the ordinary Galenical doctrine. Yet on the

The way then to Harvey's great work had been paved by the
discovery of the valves in the veins, and by that of the lesser
circulation — the former due to Sylvius and Fabricius, the latter
to Servetus — but the significance of the valves was unsuspected,
and the face of even the pulmonary circulation was not generally
admitted in its full meaning.

In his treatise Harveyproves (i) that it is the contraction, not
the dilatation, of the heart which coincides with the pulse, and
that the ventricles as true muscular sacs squeeze the blood which
they contain into the aorta and pulmonary artery; (2) that the
pulse is not produced by the arteries enlarging and so filling, but
by the arteries being filled with blood and so enlarging; (3) that
there are no pores in the septum of the heart, so that the whole
blood in the right ventricle is sent to the lungs and round by the
pulmonary veins to the left ventricle, and also that the whole
blood in the left ventricle is again sent into the arteries, round by
the smaller veins into the venae cavae, and by them to the right
ventricle again — thus making a complete " circulation " ; (4)
that the blood in the arteries and that in the veins is the same
blood; (5) that the action of the right and left sides of the heart,
auricles, ventricles and valves, is the same, the mechanism in
both being for reception and propulsion of liquid and not of air,
since the blood on the right side, though mixed with air, is still
blood; (6) that the blood sent through the arteries to the tissues
is not all used, but that most of it runs through into the veins;
(7) that there is no to and fro undulation in the veins, but a con-
stant stream from the distant parts towards the heart; (8) that
the dynamical starting-point of the blood is the heart and not
the liver.

The method by which Harvey arrived at his complete and
almost faultless solution of the most fundamental and difficult
problem in physiology has been often discussed, and is well
worthy of attention. He begins his treatise by pointing out the
many inconsistencies and defects in the Galenical theory, quoting
the writings of Galen himself, of Fabricius, Columbus and others,
with great respect, but with unflinching criticism. For, in his
own noble language, wise men must learn anatomy, not from the
decrees of philosophers, but from the fabric of nature herself,
" nee ita in verba jurare antiquitatis magistrae, ut veritatem
amicam in apertis relinquant, et in conspectu omnium deserant."
He had, as we know, not only furnished himself with all the
knowledge that books and the instructions of the best anatomists
of Italy could give, but, by a long series of dissections, had
gained a far more complete knowledge of the comparative
anatomy of the heart and vessels than any contemporary — we
may almost say than any successor— until the times of John
Hunter and J. F. Meckel. Thus equipped, he tells us that he
began his investigations into the movements of the heart and
blood by looking at them — i.?. by seeing their action in living
animals. After a modest preface, he heads his first chapter

strength of this phrase Professor J. B. Ercolani actually put up a
tablet in the veterinary school at Bologna to Ruini as the discoverer
of the circulation of the blood! The claims of Caesalpinus, a more
plausible claimant to Harvey's laurels, are scarcely better founded.
In his Quaestiones peripateticae (1571) he followed Servetus and
Columbus in describing what we now know as the pulmonary
" circulation " under that name, and this is the only foundation
for the assertion (first made in Bayle's dictionary) that Caesalpinus
knew " the circulation of the blood." He is even behind Servetus,
for he only allows part of the blood of the right ventricle to go round
by this "circuit": some, he conceives, passes through the hypo-
thetical pores in the septum, and the rest by the superior cava to
the head and arms, by the inferior to the rest of the body: " Hanc
esse venarum utilitatem ut omnes partes corporis sanguinem pro
nutrimento deferant. Ex dextro ventr0 cordis vena cava sanguinem
crassiorem, in quo calor intensus est magis, ex altero autem ventr0,
sanguinem temperatissimum ac sincerissimum habente, egreditur
aorta." Caesalpinus seems to have had no original views on the
subject; all that he writes is copied from Galen or from Servetus
except some erroneous observations of his own. His greatest merit
was as a botanist ; and no claim to the " discovery of the circulation "
was made by him or by his contemporaries. When it was made,
Haller decided conclusively against it. The fact that an inscription
has been placed on the bust of Caesalpinus at Rome, which states
that he preceded others in recognizing and demonstrating " the
general circulation of the blood," is only a proof of the blindness of
misplaced national vanity.

HARVEY, WILLIAM

45

" Ex vivorum dissectione, qualis sit cordis motus." He minutely
describes what he saw and handled in dogs, pigs, serpents, frogs
and fishes, and even in slugs, oysters, lobsters and insects, in the
transparent minima squilla, " quae Anglice dicitur a shrimp,"
and lastly in the chick while still in the shell. In these investiga-
tions he used a perspidllum or simple lens. He particularly
describes his observations and experiments on the ventricles,
the auricles, the arteries and the veins. He shows how the
arrangement of the vessels in the foetus supports his theory.
He adduces facts observed in disease as well as in health to prove
the rapidity of the circulation. He explains how the mechanism
of the valves in the veins is adapted, not, as Fabricius believed,
to moderate the flow of blood from the heart, but to favour its
flow to the heart. He estimates the capacity of each ventricle,
and reckons the rate at which the whole mass of blood passes
through it. He elaborately and clearly demonstrates the effect
of obstruction of the blood-stream in arteries or in veins, by the
forceps in the case of a snake, by a ligature on the arm of a man,
and illustrates his argument by figures. He then sums up his
conclusion thus: " Circulari quodam motu, in circuitu, agitari
in animalibus sanguinem, et esse in perpetuo motu; et hanc esse
actionem sive functionem cordis quam pulsu peragit; et omnino
motus et pulsus cordis causam unam esse." Lastly, in the isth,
i6th and i7th chapters, he adds certain confirmatory evidence,
as the effect of position on the circulation, the absorption of
animal poisons and of medicines applied externally, the muscular
structure of the heart and the necessary working of its valves.
The whole treatise, which occupies only 67 pages of large print
in the quarto edition of 1766, is a model of accurate observation,
patient accumulation of facts, ingenious experimentation, bold
yet cautious hypothesis and logical deduction.

In one point only was the demonstration of the circulation
incomplete. Harvey could not discover the capillary channels
by which the blood passes from the arteries to the veins. This
gap in the circulation was supplied several years later by the great
anatomist Marcello Malpighi, who in 1661 saw in the lungs of
a frog, by the newly invented microscope, how the blood passes
from the one set of vessels to the other. Harvey saw all that
could be seen by the unaided eye in his observations on living
animals; Malpighi, four years after Harvey's death, by another
observation on a living animal, completed the splendid chain of
evidence. If this detracts from Harvey's merit it leaves Servetus
no merit at all. But in fact the existence of the channels first
seen by Malpighi was as clearly pointed to by Harvey's reasoning
as the existence of Neptune by the calculations of Leverrier and
of Adams. .

Harvey himself and all his contemporaries were well aware of the
novelty and importance of his theory. He says in the admirable
letter to Dr Argent, president of the College of Physicians, which
follows the dedication of his treatise to Charles I., that he should
not have ventured to publish " a book which alone asserts that
the blood pursues its course and flows back again by a new path,
contrary to the received doctrine taught so many ages by innumerable
learned and illustrious men," if he had not set forth his theory for
more than nine years in his college lectures, gradually brought it to
perfection, and convinced his colleagues by actual demonstrations
of the truth of what he advanced. He anticipates opposition, and
even obloquy or loss, from the novelty of his views. These antici-
pations, however, the event proved to have been groundless. If we
are to credit Aubrey indeed, he found that after the publication
of the Dz motu " he fell mightily in his practice; 'twas believed by
the vulgar that he was crackbrained, and all the physicians were
against him." But the last assertion is demonstrably untrue;
and if apothecaries and patients ever forsook him, they must soon
have returned, for Harvey left a handsome fortune. By his own
profession the book was received as it deserved. So novel a doctrine
was not to be accepted without due inquiry, but his colleagues had
heard his lectures and seen his demonstrations for years; they were
already convinced of the truth of his theory, urged its publication,
continued him in his lectureship, and paid him every honour in
their power. In other countries the book was widely read and
much canvassed. Few accepted the new theory; but no one
dreamt of claiming the honour of it for himself, nor for several years
did any one pretend that it could be found in the works of previous
authors. The first attack on it was a feeble tract by one James
Primerose, a pupil of Jean Riolan (Exerc. et animadv. in libr.
Hand de motu cord, et sang., 1630). Five years later Parisanus,
an Italian physician, published his Lapis Lydius de motu cord.

et sang. (Venice, 1635), a still more bulky and futile performance.
Primerose's attacks were " imbellia pleraque " and " sine ictu ";
that of Parisanus " in quamplurimis turpius," according to the con-
temporary judgment of Johann Vessling. Their dulness has pro-
tected them from further censure. Caspar Hoffmann, professor at
Nuremberg, while admitting the truth of the lesser circulation in
the full Harveian sense, denied the rest of the new doctrine. To
him the English anatomist replied in a short letter, still extant,
with great consideration yet with modest dignity, beseeching him
to convince himself by actual inspection of the truth of the facts in
question. He concludes: . " I accept your censure in the candid
and friendly spirit in which you say you wrote it; do you also the
same to me, now that I have answered you in the same spirit."
This letter is dated May 1636, and in that year Harvey passed
through Nuremberg with the earl of Arundel, and visited Hoffmann.
But he failed to convince him; "nee tamen valuit Harveius vel
coram," writes P. M. Schlegel, who, however, afterwards succeeded
in persuading the obstinate old Galenist to soften his opposition to
the new doctrine, and thinks that his complete conversion might have
been effected if he had but lived a little longer — •" nee dubito quin
concessisset tandem in nostra castra." While in Italy the following
year Harvey visited his old university of Padua, and demonstrated
his views to Professor Vessling. A few months later this excellent
anatomist wrote him a courteous and sensible letter, with certain
objections to the new theory. The answer to this has not been
preserved, but it convinced his candid opponent, who admitted
the truth of the circulation in a second letter (both were published
in 1640), and afterwards told a friend, " Harveium nostrum si audis,
agnosces coelestem sanguinis et spiritus ingressum ex arteriis per
venas in dextrum cordis sinum." Meanwhile a greater convert,
R. Descartes, in his Discours sur la mcthode (1637) had announced
his adhesion to the new doctrine, and refers to " the English physician
to whom belongs the honour of having first shown that the course
of the blood in the body is nothing less than a kind of perpetual
movement in a circle." J. Walaeus of Leyden, H. Regius of Utrecht
and Schlegel of Hamburg successively adopted the new physiology.
Of these professors, Regius was mauled by the pertinacious Prime-
rose and mauled him in return (Spongia qua eluuntur sordes quae Jac.
Primirosius, &c., and Antidotum adv. Spongiam venenatam Henr.
Regii). Descartes afterwards repeated Harvey's vivisections, and,
more convinced than ever, demolished Professor V. F. Plempius of
Louvain, who had written on the other side. George Ent also
published an Apologia pro circulations sanguinis in answer to
Parisanus.

At last Jean Riolan ventured to publish his Enchiridium ana-
tomicum (1648), in which he attacks Harvey's theory, and proposes
one of his own. Riolan had accompanied the queen dowager of
France (Maria de' Medici) on a visit to her daughter at Whitehall,
and had there met Harvey and discussed his theory. He was, in the
opinion of the judicious Haller, " vir asper et in nuperos suosque
coaevos immitis ac nemini parcens, nimis avidus suarum laudum
praeco, et se ipsp fatente anatomicorum princeps." Harvey replied
to the Enchiridium with perfectly courteous language and perfectly
conclusive arguments, in two letters De circulatione sanguinis,
which were published at Cambridge in 164^, and are still well worth
reading. He speaks here of the " circuitus sanguinis a me in-
ventus." Riolan was unconvinced, but lived to see another pro-
fessor of anatomy appointed in his own university who taught
Harvey's doctrines. Even in Italy, Trullius, professor of anatomy
at Rome, expounded the new doctrine in 1651. But the most
illustrious converts were Jean Pecquet of Dieppe, the discoverer of
the thoracic duct, and of the true course of the lacteal vessels, and
Thomas Barthplinus of Copenhagen, in his Anatome ex omnium
veterum recentiorumque obseniationibus, imprimis inslitutionibus
beali mei parentis Caspari Bartholini, ad circulalionem Harveianam
et vasa lymphatica renovata (Leiden, 1651). At last Plempius also
retracted all his objections; for, as he candidly stated, " having
opened the bodies of a few living dogs, I find that all Harvey's state-
ments are perfectly true." Hpbbes of Malmesbury could thus say in
the preface to his Elementa philosophiae that his friend Harvey,
" solus quod sciam, doctrinam novam superata invidia vivens
stabilivit."

It has been made a reproach to Harvey that he failed to appreciate
the importance of the discoveries of the lacteal and lymphatic vessels
by G. Aselli, J. Pecquet and C. Bartholinus. In three letters on the
subject, one to Dr R. Morison of Paris (1652) and two to Dr Horst of
Darmstadt (1655), a correspondent of Bartholin's, he discusses
these observations, and shows himself unconvinced of their accuracy.
He writes, however, with great moderation and reasonableness, and
excuses himself from investigating the subject further on the score
of the infirmities of age; he was then above seventy-four. The
following quotation shows the spirit of these letters: " Laudo
equidem summopere Pecqueti aliorumque in indaganda veritate
industriam singularem, nee dubito quin multa adhuc in Democriti
putco abscondita sint, a venturi saeculi indefatigabili diligentia
:xpromenda." Bartholin, though reasonably disappointed in not
bavir.g Harvey's concurrence, speaks of him with the utmost respect,
and generously says that the glory of discovering the movements of
the heart and of the blood was enough for one man.

HARVEY, WILLIAM

Hartley's Work on Generation. — We have seen how Dr. Ent per-
suaded his friend to publish this book in 1651. It is between
five and six times as long as the Exerc. de molu cord, el sang.,
and is followed by excursus De partu, De uteri membranis, De
conceptione; but, though the fruit of as patient and extensive
observations, its value is far inferior. The subject was far more
abstruse, and in fact inaccessible to proper investigation without
the aid of the microscope. And the field was almost untrodden
since the days of Aristotle. Fabricius, Harvey's master, in his
work De formatione ovi et pulli (1621), had alone preceded him
in modern times. Moreover, the seventy-two chapters which
form the book lack the co-ordination so conspicuous in the earlier
treatise, and some of them seem almost like detached chapters of
a system which was never completed or finally revised.

Aristotle had believed that the male parent furnished the body of
the future embryo, while the female only nourished and formed the
seed; this is in fact the theory on which, in the Eumenides of
Aeschylus, Apollo obtains the acquittal of Orestes. Galen taught
almost as erroneously that each parent contributes seeds, the union
of which produced the young animal. Harvey, after speaking with
due honour of Aristotle and Fabricius, begins rightly " ab ovo ";
for, as he remarks, " eggs cost little and are always and everywhere
to be had," and moreover " almost all animals, even those which
bring forth their young alive, and man himself, are produced from
eggs " (" omnia omnino animalia, etiam yivipara, atque hominem
adeo ipsum, ex ovo progigni "). This dictum, usually quoted as
" omne vivum ex ovo," would alone stamp this work as worthy of
the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, but it was a prevision
of genius, and was not proved to be a fact until K. E. von Baer
discovered the mammalian ovum in 1827. Harvey proceeds with
a careful anatomical description of the ovary and oviduct of the hen,
describes the new-laid egg, and then gives an account of the appear-
ance seen on the successive days of incubation, from the 1st to the
6th, the loth and the I4th, and lastly describes the process of
hatching. He then comments upon and corrects the opinions of
Aristotle and Fabricius, declares against spontaneous generation
(though in one passage he seems to admit the current doctrine of
production of worms by putrefaction as an exception), proves that
there is no semen foemineum, that the chalazae of the hen's eggs are
not the semen galli, and that both parents contribute to the forma-
tion of the egg. He describes accurately the first appearance of the
ovarian ova as mere specks, their assumption of yelk and after-
wards of albumen. In chapter xlv. he describes two methods of
production of the embryo from the ovum : one is metamorphosis, or
the direct transformation of pre-existing material, as a worm from
an egg, or a butterfly from an aurelia (chrysalis); the other is
epigenesis, or development with addition of parts, the true genera-
tion observed in all higher animals. Chapters xlvi.-l. are devoted
to the abstruse question of the efficient cause of generation, which,
after much discussion of the opinions of Aristotle and of Sennertius,
Harvey refers to the action of both parents as the efficient instru-
ments of the first great cause.1 He then goes on to describe the
order in which the several parts appear in the chick. He states that
the punctum saliens or foetal heart is the first organ to be seen, and
explains that the nutrition of the chick is not only effected by yelk
conveyed directly into the midgut, as Aristotle taught, but also by
absorption from yelk and white by the umbilical (omphalomeseraic)
veins; on the fourth day of incubation appear two masses (which he
oddly names vermiculus), one of which develops into three vesicles,
to form the cerebrum, cerebellum and eyes, the other into the
breastbone and thorax; on the sixth or seventh day come the
viscera, and lastly, the feathers and other external parts. Harvey
points out how nearly this order of development in the chick agrees
with what he had observed in mammalian and particularly in human
embryos. He notes the bifid apex of the foetal heart in man and
the equal thickness of the ventricles, the soft cartilages which
represent the future bones, the large amount of liquor amnii and
absence of placenta which characterize the foetus in the third month ;
in the fourth the position of the testes in the abdomen, and the uterus
with its Fallopian tubes resembling the uterus bicornis of the sheep;
the large thymus; the caecum, small as in the adult, not forming a

1 So in Exerc. liv. : " Superior itaque et divinior opifex, quam
est homo, videtur hominem fabricare et conservare, et nobilior
artifex, quam gallus, pullum ex ovo producere. Nempe agnoscimus
Deum, creatorem summum atque omnipotentem, in cunctorum
animalium fabrica ubique praesentem esse, et in operibus suis quasi
digito monstrari: cujus in procreatione pulli instruments sint gallus
et gallina. . . . Ncc cuiquam ' sane haec attributa convenient nisi
omnipotent! rerum Principio, quocunque demum nomine idipsum
appellare libuerit : sive Mentem divinam cum Aristotele, sive cum
Platone Animam Mundi, aut cum aliis Naturam naturantem, vel
cum ethnicis Saturnum aut lovem; vel potius (ut nos decet) Crea-
torem ac Patrem omnium quae in coelis et terris, a quo animalia
eorumque origines dependent, cujusque nutu sive effatu fiunt et
generantur omnia.

second stomach as in the pig, the horse and the hare ; the lobulated
kidneys, like those of the seal (" vitulo," sc. marino) and porpoise,
and the large suprarenal veins, not much smaller than those of the
kidneys (li.-lvi). He failed, however, to trace the connexion of
the urachus with the bladder. In the following chapters (Ixiii.-
Ixxii.) he describes the process of generation in the fallow deer or
the roe. After again insisting that all animals arise from ova,
that a " conception " is an internal egg and an egg an extruded
conception, he goes on to describe the uterus of the doe, the process
of impregnation, and the subsequent development of the foetus and
its membranes, the punctum saliens, the cotyledons of the placenta,
and the " uterine milk," to which Sir William Turner recalled
attention in later years. The treatise concludes with detached
notes on the placenta, parturition and allied subjects.

Harvey's other Writings and Medical Practice. — The remaining
writings of Harvey which are extant are unimportant. A com-
plete list of them will be found below, together with the titles of
those which we know to be lost. Of these the most important
were probably that on respiration, and the records of post-
mortem examinations. From the following passage (De partu,
p. 550) it seems that he had a notion of respiration being con-
nected rather with the production of animal heat than, as then
generally supposed, with the cooling of the blood. " Haec qui
diligenter perpenderit, naturamque aeris diligenter introspexerit,
facile opinor fatebitur eundem nee refrigerationis gratia nee in
pabulum animalibus concedi. Haec autem obiter duntaxat de
respiratione diximus, proprio loco de eadem forsitan copiosius
disceptaturi."

Of Harvey as a practising physician we know very little.
Aubrey tells us that " he paid his visits on horseback with a foot-
cloth, his man following on foot, as the fashion then was." He
adds — " Though all of his profession would allow him to be an
excellent anatomist, I never heard any that admired his thera-
peutic way. I knew several practitioners that would not have
given threepence for one of his bills " (the apothecaries used to
collect physicians' prescriptions and sell or publish them to their
own profit), " and that a man could hardly tell by his bill what
he did aim at." However this may have been, — and rational
therapeutics was impossible when the foundation stone of physio-
logy had only just been laid, — we know that Harvey was an active
practitioner, performing such important surgical operations as
the removal of a breast, and he turned his obstetric experience
to account in his book on generation. Some good practical
precepts as to the conduct of labour are quoted by Percivall
Willughby (1596-1685). He also took notes of the anatomy of
disease; these unfortunately perished with his other manuscripts.
Otherwise we might regard him as a forerunner of G. B. Mor-
gagni; for Harvey saw that pathology is but a branch of physio-
logy, and like it must depend first on accurate anatomy. He
speaks strongly to this purpose in his first epistle to Riolan:
"Sicut enim sanorum et boni habitus corporum dissectio pluri-
mum ad philosophiam et rectam physiologiam facit, ita corporum
morbosorum et cachecticorum inspectio potissimum ad patho-
logiam philosophicam." The only specimen we have of his
observations in morbid anatomy is his account of the post-
mortem examination made by order of the king on the body of
the famous Thomas Parr, who died in 1635, at the reputed age
of 152. Harvey insists on the value of physiological truths for
their own sake, independently of their immediate utility; but
he himself gives us an interesting example of the practical
application of his theory of the circulation in the cure of a large
tumour by tying the arteries which supplied it with blood (De
general. Exerc. xix.).

The following is believed to be a complete list of all the known
writings of Harvey, published and unpublished : — •

Exercitatio anatomica de molu cordis et sanguinis, 4to (Frankfort-
on-the-Main, 1628); Exercitationes duae anatomicae de circulations
sanguinis, ad Johannem Riolanum, filium, Parisiensem (Cambridge,
1649) ; Exercitationes de generatione animalium, quibus accedunl
quaedam de partu, de membranis ac humoribus uteri, et de concep-
tione, 4to (London, 1651); Anatomia Thomae Parr, first published
in the treatise of Dr John Belts, De ortu el natura sanguinis, 8vo
(London, 1669). Letters: (l) to Caspar Hoffmann of Nuremberg,
May 1636; (2) to Schlegel of Hamburg, April 1651; (3) three to
Giovanni Nardi of Florence, July 1651, Dec. 1653 and Nov. 1655;
(4) two to Dr Morison of Paris, May 1652; (5) two to Dr Horst of

HARVEY— HARZBURG

47

Darmstadt, Feb 1654-1655 and July 1655; (6) to Dr Vlackveld of
Haarlem, May 1657. His letters to Hoffmann and Schlegel are on
the circulation; those to Morison, Horst and Vlackveld refer to
the discovery of the lacteals; the two to Nardi are short letters of
friendship. All these letters were published by Sir George Ent in
his collected works (Leiden, 1687). Of two MS. letters, one on
official business to the secretary Dorchester was printed by Dr
Aveling, with a facsimile of the crabbed handwriting (Memorials of
Harvey, 1875), and the other, about a patient, appears in Dr Robert
Willis's Life of Harvey (1878). Praelectiones anatomiae universalis
per me Gul. Harveium medicum Londinensem, anal, el Mr. professorem,
an. dom. (1616), aetat. 37, — MS. notes of his Lumleian lectures in
Latin, — are in the British Museum library; an autotype reproduction
was issued by the College of Physicians in 1886. An account of a
second MS. in the British Museum, entitled Gulielmus Harveius de
musculis, motu locali, &c., was published by Sir G. E. Paget (Notice
of an unpublished MS. of Harj-y, London, 1850). The following
treatises, or notes towards them, were lost either in the pillaging
of Harvey's house, or perhaps in the fire of London, which destroyed
the old College of Physicians: A Treatise on Respiration, promised
and probably at least in part completed (pp. 82, 550, ed. 1766);
Observationes de usu Lienis; Observationes de motu locali, perhaps
. identical with the above-mentioned manuscript; Tractatum physio-
logicum ; Anatcmia medicalis (apparently notes of morbid anatomy) ;
De generatione insectorum. The fine 410 edition of Harvey's Works,
published by the Royal College of Physicians in 1766, was super-
intended by Dr Mark Akenside; it contains the two treatises,
the account of the post-mortem examination of old Parr, and the
six letters enumerated above. A translation of this volume by Dr
Willis, with Harvey's will, was published by the Sydenham Society,
8vo (London, 1849).

The following are the principal biographies of Harvey : in Aubrey's
Letters of Eminent Persons, &c., vol. ii. (London, 1813), first pub-
lished in 1685, the only contemporary account; in Bayle's Diclion-
naire historique el critique (1698 and 1720; Eng. ed., 1738);
in the Biographia Britannica, and in Aitken's Biographical Memoirs;
the Latin Life by Dr Thomas Lawrence, prefixed to the college
edition of Harvey's Works in 1766; memoir in Lives of British
Physicians (London, 1830) : a Life by Dr Robert Willis, founded on
that by Lawrence, and prefixed to his English edition of Harvey
in 1847; the much enlarged Life by the same author, published in
1878; the biography by Dr William Munk in the Roll of the College
of Physicians, voL i. (2nd ed., 1879).

. The literature which has arisen on the great discovery of Harvey,
on his methods and his merits, would fill a library. The most im-
portant contemporary writings have been mentioned above. The
following list gives some of the most remarkable in modern times:
the article in Bayle's dictionary quoted above; Anatomical Lectures,
by Wm. Hunter, M.D. (1784) ; Sprengell, Geschichte der Arzneikunde
(Halle, 1800), vol. iv. ; Flourens, Histoire de la circulation (1854);
Lewes, Physiology of Common Life (1859), vol. i. pp. 291-345;
Ceradini, La Scoperta della circolazione del sangue (Milan, 1876);
Tollin, Die Entdeckung des Blutkreislaufs durch Michael Servet
(Jena, 1876); Kirchner, Die Entdeckung des Blutkreislaufs (Berlin,
1878); Willis, in his Life of Harvey; Wharton Jones, " Lecture on
the Circulation of the Blood," Lancet for Oct. 25 and Nov. I, 1879;
and the various Harveian Orations, especially those by Sir E. Sieve-
king, Dr Guy and Professor George Rolleston. (P. H. P.-S.)

HARVEY, a city of Cook county, Illinois, U.S.A., about 18 m.
S. of the Chicago Court House. Pop. (1900) 5395 (982 foreign-
born);(i9io) 7227. It is served by the Chicago Terminal Transfer,
the Grand Trunk and the Illinois Central railways. Harvey is
a manufacturing and residence suburb of Chicago. Among its
manufactures are railway, foundry and machine-shop supplies,
mining and ditching machinery, stone crushers, street-making
and street-cleaning machinery, stoves and motor-vehicles. It
was named in honour of Turlington W. Harvey, a Chicago
capitalist, founded in 1890, incorporated as a village in 1891
and chartered as a city in 1895.

HARWICH, a municipal borough and seaport in the Harwich
parliamentary division of Essex, England, on the extremity of
a small peninsula projecting into the estuary of the Stour and
Orwell, 70 m. N.E. by E. of London by the Great Eastern
railway. Pop. (1901), 10,070. It occupies an elevated situation,
and a wide view is obtained from Beacon Hill at the southern
end of the esplanade. The church of St Nicholas was built of
brick in 1821; and there are a town hall and a custom-house.
The harbour is one of the best on the east coast of England, and
in stormy weather is largely used for shelter. A breakwater
and sea-wall prevent the blocking of the harbour entrance and
encroachments of the sea; and there is another breakwater at
Landguard Point on the opposite (Suffolk) shore of the estuary.
The principal imports are grain and agricultural produce, timber

and coal, and the exports cement and fish. Harwich is one of
the principal English ports for continental passenger traffic,
steamers regularly serving the Hook of Holland, Amsterdam,
Rotterdam, Antwerp, Esbjerg, Copenhagen and Hamburg. The
continental trains of the Great Eastern railway run to Parkeston
Quay, i m. from Harwich up the Stour, where the passenger
steamers start. The fisheries are important, principally those
for shrimps and lobsters. There are cement and shipbuilding
works. The port is the headquarters of the Royal Harwich
Yacht Club. There are batteries at and opposite Harwich, and
modern works on Shotley Point, at the fork of the two estuaries.
There are also several of the Martello towers of the Napoleonic
era. At Landguard Fort there are important defence works with
heavy modern guns commanding the main channel. This has
been a point of coast defence since the time of James I. Between
the Parkeston Quay and Town railway stations is that of Dover-
court, an adjoining parish and popular watering-place. Harwich
is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1341
acres.

Harwich (Herewica, Herewyck) cannot be shown to have been
inhabited very early, although in the i8th century remains of a
camp, possibly Roman, existed there. Harwich formed part of
the manor of Dovercourt. It became a borough in 1319 by a
charter of Edward II., which was confirmed in 1342 and 1378,
and by each of the Lancastrian kings. The exact nature and
degree of its self-government is not clear. Harwich received
charters in 1547, 1553 and 1560. In 1604 James I. gave it a charter
which amounted to a new constitution, and from this charter
begins the regular parliamentary representation. Two burgesses
had attended parliament in 1343, but none had been summoned
since. Until 1867 Harwich returned two members; it then lost
one, and in 1885 it was merged in the county. Included in the
manor of Dovercourt, Harwich from 1086 was for long held by
the de Vere family. In 1252 Henry III. granted to Roger Bigod
a market here every Tuesday, and a fair on Ascension day, and
eight days after. In 1320 a grant occurs of a Tuesday market,
but no fair is mentioned. James I. granted a Friday market,
and two fairs, at the feast of St Philip and St James, and on
St Luke's day. The fair has died out, but markets are still
held on Tuesday and Friday. Harwich has always had a
considerable trade; in the I4th century merchants came
even from Spain, and there was much trade in wheat and
wool with Flanders. But the passenger traffic appears to have
been as important at Harwich in the i4th century as it is now.
Shipbuilding was a considerable industry at Harwich in the
1 7th century.

HARZBURG, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick,
beautifully situated in a deep and well-wooded vale at the north
foot of the Harz Mountains, at the terminus of the Brunswick-
Harzburg railway, 5 m. E.S.E. from Goslar and 18 m. S.
from Wolfenbuttel. Pop. (1905), 4396. The Radau, a mountain
stream, descending from the Brocken, waters the valley and adds
much to its picturesque charm. The town is much frequented
as a summer residence. It possesses brine and carbonated springs,
the Juliushall saline baths being about a mile to the soufh of
the town, and a hydropathic establishment. A mile and a half
south from the town lies the'Burgberg, 1500 ft. above sea-level,
on whose summit, according to tradition, was once an altar to
the heathen idol Krodo, still to be seen in the Ulrich chapel at
Goslar. There are on the summit of the hill the remains of an
old castle, and a monument erected in 1875 to Prince Bismarck,
with an inscription taken from one of his speeches against
the Ultramontane claims of Rome — " Nach Canossa gehen
wir nicht."

The castle on the Burgberg called the Harzburg is famous in
German history. It was built between 1065 and 1069, but was
laid in ruins by the Saxons in 1074; again it was built and
again destroyed during the struggle between the emperor
Henry IV. and the Saxons. By Frederick I. it was granted to
Henry the Lion, who caused it to be rebuilt about 1180. It was
a frequent residence of Otto IV., who died therein, and after
being frequently besieged and taken, it passed to the house of

HARZ MOUNTAINS— HASA, EL

Brunswick. It ceased to be of importance as a fortress after the
Thirty Years' War, and gradually fell into ruins.

See Delius, Untersuchungen tiber die Geschichte der Harzburg
(Halberstadt, 1826) ; Dommes, Harzburg und seine Umgebung
(Goslar, 1862); Jacobs, Die Harzburg und Hire Geschichte (1885);
and Stolle, Fiihrervon Bad Harzburg (1899).

HARZ MOUNTAINS (also spelt HAETZ, Ger. Harzgebirge, anc.
Silva Hercynia), the most northerly mountain-system of
Germany, situated between the rivers Weser and Elbe, occupy
an area of 784 sq. m., of which 455 belong to Prussia, 286 to
Brunswick and 43 to Anhalt. Their greatest length extends in
a S.E. and N.W. direction for 57 m., and their maximum breadth
is about 20 m. The group is made up of an irregular series of
terraced plateaus, rising here and there into rounded summits,
and intersected in various directions by narrow, deep valleys.
The north-western and higher part of the mass is called the Ober
or Upper Harz; the south-eastern and more extensive part,
the Unter or Lower Harz; while the N.W. and S.W. slopes of
the Upper Harz form the Vorharz. The Brocken group, which
divides the Upper and Lower Harz, is generally regarded as
belonging to the first. The highest summits of the Upper Harz
are the Brocken (3747 ft.), the Heinrichshohe (3425 ft.), the
Konigsberg (3376 ft.) and the Wurmberg (3176 ft.); of the
Lower Harz, the Josephshohe in the Auerberg group and the
Viktorhohe in the Ramberg, each 1887 ft. Of these the Brocken
(q.v.) is celebrated for the legends connected with it, immortal-
ized in Goethe's Faust. Streams are numerous, but all small.
While rendered extensively useful, by various skilful artifices, in
working the numerous mines of the district, at other parts of
their course they present the most picturesque scenery in the
Harz. Perhaps the finest valley is the rocky Bodethal, with the
Rosstrappe, the Hexentanzplatz, the Baumannshohle and the
Bielshohle.

The Harz is a mass of Palaeozoic rock rising through the Mesozoic
strata of north Germany, and bounded on all sides by faults. Slates,
schists, quartzites and limestones form the greater part of the hills,
but the Brocken and Victorshohe are masses of intrusive granite,
and diabases and diabase tuffs are interstratified with the sedi-
mentary deposits. The Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous
systems are represented — the Silurian and Devonian forming the
greater part of the hills S.E. of a line drawn from Lauterberg to
Wernigerode, while N.W. of this line the Lower Carboniferous pre-
dominates. A few patches of Upper Carboniferous are found on the
borders of the hijls near Ilfeld, Ballenstedt, &c., lying unconformably
upon the Devonian. The structure of the Harz is very complicated,
but the general strike of the folds, especially in the Oberharz plateau,
is N.E. or N.N.E. The whole mass evidently belongs to the ancient
Hercynian chain of North Europe (which, indeed, derives its name
from the Harz), and is the north-easterly continuation of the rocks
of the Ardennes and the Eifel. The folding of the old rocks took
place towards the close of the Palaeozoic era; but the faulting to
which they owe their present position was probably Tertiary.
Metalliferous veins are common, amongst the best-known being the
silver-bearing lead veins of Klausthal, which occur in the Culm or
Lower Carboniferous.

Owing to its position as the first range which the northerly
winds strike after crossing the north German plain, the climate
on the summit of the Harz is generally raw and damp, even in
summer. In 1895 an observatory was opened on the top of the
Brocken, and the results of the first five years (1896-1900) showed
a July mean of 50° Fahr., a February mean of 24-7°, and a yearly
mean of 36-6°. During the same five years the rainfall averaged
645 ins. annually. But while the summer is thus relatively un-
genial on the top of the Harz, the usual summer heat of the
lower-lying valleys is greatly tempered and cooled; so that,
adding this to the natural attractions of the scenery, the deep
forests, and the legendary and romantic associations attaching
to every fantastic rock and ruined castle, the Harz is a favourite
summer resort of the German people. Among the more popular
places of resort are Harzburg, Thale and the Bodethal; Blanken-
burg, with the Teufelsmauer and the Hermannshohle; Werni-
gerode, Ilsenburg, Grund, Lauterberg, Hubertusbad, Alexisbad
and Suderode. Somecf these, and other places not named, add
to their natural attractions the advantage of mineral springs and
baths, pine-needle baths, whey cures, &c. The Harz is pene-
trated by several railways, among them a rack-railway up the

Brocken, opened in 1898. The district is traversed by excellent
roads in all directions.

The northern summits are destitute of trees, but the lower
slopes of the Upper Harz are heavily wooded with pines and firs.
Between the forests of these stretch numerous peat-mosses,
which contain in their spongy reservoirs the sources of many
small streams. On the Brocken are found one or two arctic and
several alpine, plants. In the Lower Harz the forests contain a
great variety of timber. The oak, elm and birch are common,
while the beech especially attains an unusual size and beauty.
The walnut-tree grows in the eastern districts.

The last bear was killed in the Harz in 1705, and the last lynx
in 1817, and since that time the wolf too has become extinct;
but deer, foxes, wild cats and badgers are still found in the
forests.

The Harz is one of the richest mineral storehouses in Germany,
and the chief industry is mining, which has been carried on since
the middle of the loth century. The most important mineral is
a peculiarly rich argentiferous lead, but gold in small quantities,
copper, iron, sulphur, alum and arsenic are also found. Mining
is carried on principally at Klausthal and St Andreasberg in the
Upper Harz. Near the latter is one of the deepest mining shafts
in Europe, namely the Samson, which goes down 2790 ft. or 720
ft. below sea-level. For the purpose of getting rid of the water,
and obviating the flooding of such deep workings, it has been
found necessary to construct drainage works of some magnitude.
As far back as 1777-1799 the Georgsstollen was cut through the
mountains from the east of Klausthal westward to Grund, a
distance of 4 m.; but this proving insufficient, another sewer,
the Ernst-Auguststollen, no less than 14 m. in length, was made
from the same neighbourhood to Gittelde, at the west side of the
Harz, in 1851-1864. Marble, granite and gypsum are worked;
and large quantities of vitriol are manufactured. The vast
forests that cover the mountain slopes supply the materials
for a considerable trade in timber. Much wood is exported for
building and other purposes, and in the Harz itself is used as
fuel. The sawdust of the numerous mills is collected for use
in the manufacture of paper. Turf-cutting, coarse lace-making
and the breeding of canaries and native song-birds also occupy
many of the people. Agriculture is carried on chiefly on the
plateaus of the Lower Harz; but there is excellent pasturage
both in the north and in the south. In the Lower Harz, as in
Switzerland, the cows, which carry bells harmoniously tuned,
are driven up into the heights in early summer, returning to the
sheltered regions in late autumn.

The inhabitants are descended from various stocks. The
Upper and Lower Saxon, the Thuringian and the Prankish
races have all contributed to form the present people, and their
respective influences are still to be traced in the varieties of
dialect. The boundary line between High and Low German
passes through the Harz. The Harz was the last stronghold of
paganism in Germany, and to that fact are due the legends, in
which no district is richer, and the fanciful names given by the
people to peculiar objects and appearances of nature.

See Zeitschrift des Harzvereins (Wernigerode, annually since 1868) ;
Gunther, Der Harz in Geschichts- Kuitur- und Landschaftsbildern
(Hanover, 1885), and " Der Harz " in Scobel's Monographien zur
Erdkunde (Bielefeld, 1901); H. Hoffmann and others, Der Harz
(Leipzig, 1899), Harzwanderungen (Leipzig, 1902); Hampe, Flora
Hercynica (Halle, 1873); von Groddeck, Abriss der Geognosie des
Harzes (2nd ed., Klausthal, 1883); Prohle, Harzsagen (2nd ed.,
Leipzig, 1886); Hautztnger, Der Kupfer- und Silbersegen des Harzes
(Berlin, 1877) ; Hoppe, Die Bergwerke im Ober- und Unterharz
(Klausthal, 1883); Schulze, Lilhia Hercynica (Leipzig, 1895);
Liidecke, Die Minerale des Harzes (Berlin, 1896).

HASA, EL (Ahsa, Al Hasa), a district in the east of Arabia
stretching along the shore of the Persian Gulf from Kuwet in 29°
20' N. to the south point of the Gulf of Bahrein in 25° 10' N., a
length of about 360 m. On the W. it is bounded by Nejd, and
on the S.E. by the peninsula of El Katr which forms part of
Oman. The coast is low and flat and has no deep-water port
along its whole length with the exception of Kuwet; from that .
place to El Katif the country is barren and without villages

HASAN AND HOSAIN— HASDEU

49

or permanent settlements, and is only occupied by nomad tribes,
of which the principal are the Bani Hajar, Ajman and Khalid.
The interior consists of low stony ridges rising gradually to the
inner plateau. The oases of Hofuf and Katif, however, form a
strong contrast to the barren wastes that cover the greater part
of the district. Here an inexhaustible supply of underground
water (to which the province owes its nameHasa) issues in strong
springs, marking, according to Arab geographers, the course of a
great subterranean river draining the Nejd highlands. Hofuf the
capital, a town of 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants, with its neighbour
Mubariz scarcely less populous, forms the centre of a thriving
district 50 m. long by 15 m. in breadth, containing numerous
villages each with richly cultivated fields and gardens. The town
walls enclose a space of 15 by i m., at the north-west angle
of which is a remarkable citadel attributed to the Carmathian
princes. Mubariz is celebrated for its hot spring, known as Um
Saba or " mother of seven," from the seven channels by which
its water is distributed. Beyond the present limits of the oasis
much of the country is well supplied with water, and ruined
sites and half-obliterated canals show that it has only relapsed
into waste in recent times. Cultivation reappears at Katif, a
town situated on a small bay some 35 m. north-west of Bahrein.
Date groves extend for several miles along the coast, which is
low and muddy. The district is fertile but the climate is hot and
unhealthy; still, owing to its convenient position, the town has
a considerable trade with Bahrein and the gulf ports on one side
and the interior of Nejd on the other. The fort is a strongly built
enclosure attributed, like that at Hofuf, to the Carmathian prince
Abu Tahir.

'Uker or "Ujer is the nearest port to Hofuf, from which it is
distant about 40 m.; large quantities of rice and piece goods
transhipped at Bahrein are landed here and sent on by caravan
to Hofuf, the great entrepot for the trade between southern Nejd
and the coast. It also shares in the valuable pearl fishery of
Bahrein and the adjacent coast.

Politically El Hasa is a dependency of Turkey, and its capital
Hofuf is the headquarters of the sanjak or district of Nejd.
Hofuf, Katif and El Katr were occupied by Turkish garrisons in
1871, and the occupation has been continued in spite of British
protest as to El Katr, which according to the agreement made in
1867, when Bahrein was taken under British protection, was
tributary to the latter. Turkish claims to Kuwet have not been
admitted by Great Britain.

AUTHORITIES. — W. G. Palgrave, Central and Eastern Arabia
(London, 1865); L. Pelly, Journal R.C.S. (1866); S. M. Zwemer,
Ceog. Journal (1902) ; G. F. Sadlier, Diary of a Journey across Arabia
(Bombay, 1866); V. Chirol, The Middle East (London, 1904).

(R. A. W.)

HASAN AND HOSAIN (or HUSEIN), sons of the fourth
Mahommedan caliph Ali by his wife Fatima, daughter of
Mahomet. On Ali's death Hasar> was proclaimed caliph, but
the strength of Moawiya who had rebelled against Ali was such
that he resigned his claim on condition that he should have the
disposal of the treasure stored at Kufa, with the revenues of
Darabjird. This secret negotiation came to the ears of Hasan's
supporters, a mutiny broke out and Hasan was wounded. He
retired to Medina where he died about 669. The story that he
was poisoned at Moawiya's instigation is generally discredited
(see CALIPHATE, sect. B, § i). Subsequently his brother Hosain
was invited by partisans in Kufa to revolt against Moawiya's
successor Yazid. He was, however, defeated and killed at
Kerbela on the loth of October (Muharram) 680 (see CALIPHATE,
sect. B, § 2 ad init.). Hosain is the hero of the Passion Play
which is performed annually (e.g. at Kerbela) on the anniversary
of his death by the Shi'ites of Persia and India, to whom from
the earliest times the family of Ali are the only true descendants of
Mahomet. The play lasts for several days and concludes with
the carrying out of the coffins (tabut) of the martyrs to an open
place in the neighbourhood.

See Sir VVm. Muir, The Caliphate (1883); Sir Lewis Pelly, The
Miracle Play of Hasan and Hosein (1879).

HASAN UL-BA§Rl [Abu Sa'ud ul-flasan ibn Abi-1-Hasan
Yassar ul-Basri], (642-728 or 737), Arabian theologian, was

born at Medina. His father was a freedman of Zaid ibn Thabit,
one of the An^ar (Helpers of the Prophet), his mother a client of
Umm Salama, a wife of Mahomet. Tradition says that Umm
Salama often nursed Hasan in his infancy. He was thus one
of the Tdbi'un (i.e. of the generation that succeeded the Helpers).
He became a teacher of Basra and founded a school there.
Among his pupils was Wasil ibn 'Ata, the founder of the
Mo'tazilites. He himself was a great supporter of orthodoxy
and the most important representative of asceticism in the time
of its first development. With him fear is the basis of morality,
and sadness the characteristic of his religion. Life is only a
pilgrimage, and comfort must be denied to subdue the passions.
Many writers testify to the purity of his life and to his excelling
in the virtues of Mahomet's own companions. He was " as if
he were in the other world." In politics, too, he adhered to the
earliest principles of Islam, being strictly opposed to the in-
herited caliphate of the Omayyads and a believer in the election
of the caliph.

His life is given in Nawawi's Biographical Dictionary (ed. F.
Wiistenfeld, Gottingen, 1842-1847). Cf. R. Dozy, Essai sur I'his-
toire de I'islamisme, pp. 201 sqq. (Leiden and Paris, 1879); A. von
Kremer, Culturgeschichtliche Streifzuge, p. 5 seq. ; R. A. Nicholson, A
Literary History of the Arabs, pp.225-227 (London, 1907). (G.W.T.)

HASBEYA, or HASBEIYA, a town of the Druses, about 36 m.
W. of Damascus, situated at the foot of Mt. Hermon in Syria,
overlooking a deep amphitheatre from which a brook flows to
the Hasbani. The population is about 5000 (4000 Christians).
Both sides of the valley are planted in terraces with olives, vines
and other fruit trees. The grapes are either dried or made
into a kind of syrup. In 1846 an American Protestant mission
was established in the town. This little community suffered
much persecution at first from the Greek Church, and afterwards
from the Druses, by whom in 1860 nearly 1000 Christians were
massacred, while others escaped to Tyre or Sidon. The castle
in Hasbeya was held by the crusaders under Count Oran; but
in 1171 the Druse emirs of the great Shehab family (see DRUSES)
recaptured it. In 1205 this family was confirmed in the lordship
of the town and district, which they held till the Turkish
authorities took possession of the castle in the igth century.
Near Hasbeya are bitumen pits let by the government; and to
the north, at the source of the Hasbani, the ground is volcanic.
Some travellers have attempted to identify Hasbeya with the
biblical Baal-Gad or Baal-Hermon.

HASDAI IBN SHAPRUT, the founder of the new culture of
the Jews in Moorish Spain in the loth century. He was both
physician and minister to Caliph Abd ar-Rahman III. in Cordova.
A man of wide learning and culture, he encouraged the settlement
of Jewish scholars in Andalusia, and his patronage of literature,
science and art promoted the Jewish renaissance in Europe.
Poetry, philology, philosophy all flourished under his encourage-
ment, and his name was handed down to posterity as the first
of the many Spanish Jews who combined diplomatic skill with
artistic culture. This type was the creation of the Moors in
Andalusia, and the Jews ably seconded the Mahommedans
in the effort to make life at once broad and deep. (I. A.)

HASDEU, or HAJDEU, BOGDAN PETRICEICU (1836-1907),
Rumanian philologist, was born at Khotin in Bessarabia in
1836, and studied at the university of Kharkov. In 1858 he
first settled in Jassy as professor of the high school and librarian.
He may be considered as the pioneer in many branches of
Rumanian philology and history. At Jassy he started his A rchiva
historica a Romaniei (1865-1867), in which a large number of
old documents in Slavonic and Rumanian were published for
the first time. In 1870 he inaugurated Columna lui Traian,
the best philological review of the time in Rumania. In his
Cuvente den Batrdni (2 vols., 1878-1881) he was the first to
contribute to the history of apocryphal literature in Rumania.
His Historia critica a Romanilor (1875), though incomplete,
marks the beginning of critical investigation into the history
of Rumania. Hasdeu edited the ancient Psalter of Coresi of
!S77 (Psaltirea lui Coresi, 1881). His Etymologicum magnum
Romaniae (1886, &c.) is the beginning of an encyclopaedic
dictionary of the Rumanian language, though never finished

HASDRUBAL— HASLINGDEN

beyond the letter B. In 1876 he was appointed director of the
state archives in Bucharest and in 1878 professor of philology
at the university of Bucharest. His works, which include one
drama, Rasvan $i Vidra, bear the impress of great originality
of thought, and the author is often carried away by his profound
erudition and vast imagination. Hasdeu was a keen politician.
After the death of his only child Julia in 1888 he became a
mystic and a strong believer in spiritism. He died at Campina
on the 7th of September 1907. (M. G.)

HASDRUBAL, the name of several Carthaginian generals,
among whom the following are the most important: —

1. The son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca (<?.».), who followed
the latter in his campaign against the governing aristocracy
at Carthage at the close of the First Punic War, and in his
subsequent career of conquest in Spain. After Hamilcar's
death (228) Hasdrubal, who succeeded him in the command,
extended the newly acquired empire by skilful diplomacy, and
consolidated it by the foundation of New Carthage (Cartagena)
as the capital of the new province, and by a treaty with Rome
which fixed the Ebro as the boundary between the two powers.
In 221 he was killed by an assassin.

Polybius ii. I ; Livy xxi. I ; Appian, Hispanica, 4-8.

2. The second son of Hamilcar Barca, and younger brother
of Hannibal. Left in command of Spain when Hannibal departed
to Italy (218), he fought for six years against the brothers
Gnaeus and Publius Scipio. He had on the whole the worst
of the conflict, and a defeat in 216 prevented him from joining
Hannibal in Italy at a critical moment; but in 212 he com-
pletely routed his opponents, both the Scipios being killed. He
was subsequently outgeneralled by Publius Scipio the Younger,
who in 209 captured New Carthage and gained other advantages.
In the same year he was summoned to join his brother in Italy.
He eluded Scipio by crossing the Pyrenees at their western
extremity, and, making his way thence through Gaul and the
Alps in safety, penetrated far into Central Italy (207). He was
ultimately checked by two Roman armies, and being forced to
give battle was decisively defeated on the banks of the Metaurus.
Hasdrubal himself fell in the fight; his head was cut off and
thrown into Hannibal's camp as a sign of his utter defeat.

Polybius x. 34-xi. 3; Livy xxvii. 1-51; Appian, Bellum Hanni-
balicum, ch. Hi. sqq. ; R. Oehler, Der letzte Feldzug des Barkiden
Hasdrubals (Berlin, 1897); C. Lehmann, Die Angriffe der drei
Barkiden auf Italien (Leipzig, 1905). See also PUNIC WARS.

BASE, CARL BENEDICT (1780-1864), French Hellenist, of
German extraction, was born at Suiza near Naumburg on the
nth of May 1780. Having studied at Jena and Helmstedt, in
1801 he made his way on foot to Paris, where he was commis-
sioned by the comte de Choiseul-Gouffier, late ambassador to
Constantinople, to edit the works of Johannes Lydus from a
MS. given to Choiseul by Prince Mourousi. Hase thereupon
decided to devote himself to Byzantine history and literature,
•on which he became the acknowledged authority. In 1805 he
obtained an appointment in the MSS. department of the royal
library; in 1816 became professor of palaeography and modern
Greek at the Ecole Royale, and in 1852 professor of compara-
tive grammar in the university. In 1812 he was selected to
superintend the studies of Louis Napoleon (afterwards Napoleon
III.) and his brother. He died on the 2 ist of March 1864. His
most important works are the editions of Leo Diaconus and
other Byzantine writers (1819), and of Johannes Lydus, De
ostentis (1823), a masterpiece of textual restoration, the diffi-
culties of which were aggravated by the fact that the MS. had
for a long time been stowed away in a wine-barrel in a monastery.
He also edited part of the Greek authors in the collection of the
Historians of the Crusades and contributed many additions
(from the fathers, medical and technical writers, scholiasts and
other sources) to the new edition of Stephanus's Thesaurus.

See J. D. Guigniaut, Notice historique sur la vie el les travaux de
Carl Benedict Hase (Paris, 1867); articles in Nouvelle Biographic
generate and Allgemeine deutsche Biographie; and a collection of
autobiographical letters, Briefe von der Wanderung und aus Paris,
edited by O. Heine (1894), containing a vivid account of Hase's
journey, his enthusiastic impressions of Paris and the hardships of
his early life.

HASE, KARL AUGUST VON (1800-1890), German Protestant
theologian and Church historian , was born at Steinbach in Saxony
on the 25th of August 1800. He studied at Leipzig and Erlangen,
and in 1829 was called to Jena as professor of theology. He
retired in 1883 and was made a baron. He died at Jena on the
3rd of January 1890. Hase's aim was to reconcile modern culture
with historical Christianity in a scientific way. But though a
liberal theologian, he was no dry rationalist. Indeed, he vigor-
ously attacked rationalism, as distinguished from the rational
principle, charging it with being unscientific inasmuch as it
ignored the historical significance of Christianity, shut its eyes
to individuality and failed to give religious feeling its due. His
views are presented scientifically in his Evangelisch-protestan-
tische Dogmatik (1826; 6th ed., 1870), the value of which " lies
partly in the full and judiciously chosen historical materials
prefixed to each dogma, and partly in the skill, caution and tact
with which the permanent religious significance of various
dogmas is discussed " (Otto Pfleiderer) . More popular in style is
his Gnosis oder prot.-evang. Glaubenslehre (3 vols., 1827-1829; 2nd
ed. in 2 vols., 1869-1870). But his reputation rests chiefly on his
treatment of Church history in his Kirchengeschichte, Lehrbuch
zunachst jiir akademische Vorlesungen (1834, i2th ed., 1900).

His biographical studies, Franz von Assist (1856; 2nd ed., 1892),
Katerina von Siena (1864; 2nd ed., 1892), Neue Propheten (Die
Jungfrau von Orleans, Savonarola, Thomas Miinzer) are judicious
and sympathetic. Other works are: Hutterus redivivus oder Dog-
matik der evang.-luth. Kirche (1827; I2th ed., 1883), in which he
sought to present the teaching of the Protestant church in such a
way as Hutter would have reconstructed it, had he still been alive;
Leben Jesu (1829; 5th ed., 1865; Eng. trans., 1860); in an enlarged
form, Geschichte Jesu (2nd ed., 1891); and Handbuch der prot.
Polemik gegen die rom.-kath. Kirche (1862; 7th ed., 1900; Eng.
trans., 1906).

For his life see his Ideale und Irrtiimer (1872; 5th ed., 1894) and
Annalen meines Leben: (1891); and cf. generally Otto Pfleiderer,
Development of Theology (1890); F. Lichtenberger, Hist, of German
Theology (1889).

HASHISH, or HASHEESH, the Arabic name, meaning literally
" dried herb," for the various preparations of the Indian hemp
plant (Cannabis indica), used as a narcotic or intoxicant in the
East, and either smoked, chewed ordrunk (see HEMP and BHANG).
From the Arabic hashishin, i.e. "hemp-eaters," comes the English
" assassin " (see ASSASSIN).

HASLEMERE, a market-town in the Guildford parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 43 m. S.W. from London by the
London & South-Western railway. It is situated in an elevated
valley between the bold ridges of Hindhead (895 ft.) and Black-
down (918 ft.). Their summits are open and covered with heath,
but their flanks and the lower ground are magnificently wooded.
The hills are deeply scored by steep and picturesque valleys, of
which the most remarkable is the Devil's Punch Bowl, a hollow
of regular form on the west flank of Hindhead. The invigorating
air has combined with scenic attraction to make the district a
favourite place of residence. Professor Tyndall built a house on
the top of Hindhead, setting an example followed by many
others. On Blackdown, closely screened by plantations, is
Aldworth, built for Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who died here in
1892. George Eliot stayed for a considerable period at Shotter-
mill, a neighbouring village. Pop. of Haslemere (1901), 2614;
of Hindhead, 666.

HASLINGDEN, a market-town and municipal borough in the
Rossendale and Heywood parliamentary divisions of Lancashire,
England, 19 m. N. by W. from Manchester by the Lancashire &
Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901), 18,543. It lies in a hilly district
on the borders of the forest of Rossendale, and is supposed by
some to derive its name from the hazel trees which formerly
abounded in its neighbourhood. The old town stood on the
slope of a hill, but the modern part ha? extended about its base.
The parish church of St James was rebuilt in 1780, with the
exception of the tower, which dates from the time of Henry VIII.
The woollen manufacture was formerly the staple. The
town, however, steadily increasing in importance, has cotton,
woollen and engineering works — coal-mining, quarrying and
brickmaking are carried on in the neighbourhood. The borough,

HASPE— HASSELQUIST

51

as incorporated in 1891 , comprised several townships and parts of
townships, but under the Local Government Act of 1894 these
were united into one civil parish. The corporation consists of a
mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 8196 acres.

HASPE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, in the valley of the Ennepe, at the confluence of the
Hasper, and on the railway from Diisseldorf to Dortmund, 10 m.
N.E. of Barmen by rail. Pop. (1905), 19,813. Its industries
include iron foundries, rolling mills, puddling furnaces, and
manufactures of iron, steel and brass wares and of machines.
Haspe was raised to the rank of a town in 1873.

HASSAM, CHILDE (1859- ), American figure and land-
scape painter, born in Boston, Massachusetts, was a pupil of
Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris. He soon fell under the influence
of the Impressionists, and took to painting in a style of his own,
in brilliant colour, with effective touches of pure pigment. He
won a bronze medal at the Paris Exhibition of 1889; medals at
the World's Fair, Chicago, 1893; Boston Art Club, 1896;
Philadelphia Art Club, 1892; Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg,
1898; Buffalo Pan-American, 1901; Temple gold medal,
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, 1899; and
silver medal, Paris Exhibition, 1900. He became a member of
the National Academy of Design, the Society of American
Artists, the Ten Americans, the American Water Colour Society,
the Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts, Paris, and the Secession
Society, Munich.

HASSAN, a town and district of Mysore, India. The town
dates from the nth century and had in 1901 a population of 8241.
The district naturally divides into two portions, the Malnad,
or hill country, which includes some of the highest ranges of
the Western Ghats, and the Maidan or plain country, sloping
towards the south. The Hemavati, which flows into the Cauvery
in the extreme south, is the most important river of the district.
The upper slopes of the Western Ghats are abundantly clothed
with magnificent forests, and wild animals abound. Among
the mineral products are kaolin, felspar and quartz. The soil
of the valleys is a rich red alluvial loam. The area is 2547 sq. m.
Population (1901), 568,919, showing an increase of 11% in the
decade. The district contains some of the most remarkable
archaeological monuments in India, such as the colossal Jain
image at Sravana Belgola (a monolith 57 ft. high on the summit
of a hill) and the great temple at Halebid. Coffee cultivation
has been on the increase of late years. The first plantation was
opened in 1843, and now there are many coffee estates owned
by Europeans and also native holdings. The exports are large,
consisting chiefly of food-grains and coffee. The imports are
European piece-goods, hardware of all sorts and spices. The
largest weekly fair is held at Alur. A great annual religious
gathering and fair, attended by about 10,000 persons, takes
place every year at Melukot. The Southern Mahratta railway
traverses the north-east of the district.

The real history of Hassan does not begin until the epoch of
the Hoysala dynasty, which lasted from the nth till the I4th
century. Their capital was at D warasamundra (D waravati-pura) ,
the ruins of which are still to be seen scattered round the village
of Halebid. The earlier kings professed the Jain faith, but the
finest temples were erected to Siva by the later monarchs of the
line. While they were at the zenith of their power the whole
of southern India acknowledged their sway.

HASSANIA, an African tribe of Semitic stock. They inhabit
the desert between Merawi and the Nile at the 6th Cataract,
and the left bank of the Blue Nile immediately south of Khartum.

HASSAN IBN THiBIT (died 674), Arabian poet, was born
in Yathrib (Medina), a member of the tribe Rhazraj. In his
youth he travelled to Hira and Damascus, then settled in Medina,
where, after the advent of Mahomet, he accepted Islam and
wrote poems in defence of the prophet. His poetry is regarded
as commonplace and lacking in distinction.

His diwan has been published at Bombay (1864), Tunis (1864) and
Lahore (1878). See H. Hirschfeld's "Prolegomena to an edition
of the Diwan of Hassan " in Transactions of Oriental Congress
(London, 1892). (G. W. T.)

HASSE, JOHANN ADOLPH (1699-1783), German musical
composer, was born at Bergedorf near Hamburg, on the 25th
of March 1699, and received his first musical education from
his father. Being possessed of a fine tenor voice, he chose the
theatrical career, and joined the operatic troupe conducted by
Reinhard Keiser, in whose orchestra Handel had played the
second violin some years before. Hassc's success led to an
engagement at the court theatre of Brunswick, and it was there
that, in 1723, he made his debut as a composer with the opera
Antigonus. The success of this first work induced the duke to
send Hasse to Italy for the completion of his studies, and in
1724 he went to Naples and placed himself under Porpora, with
whom, however, he seems to have disagreed both as a man and
as an artist. On the other hand he gained the friendship of
Alessandro Scarlatti, to whom he owed his first commission for
a serenade for two voices, sung at a family celebration of a
wealthy merchant by two of the greatest singers of Italy, Farinelli
and Signora Tesi. This event established Hasse's fame; he
soon became very popular, and his opera Sesostrato, written for
the Royal Opera at Naples in 1726, made his name known all
over Italy. At Venice, where he went in 1727, he became
acquainted with the celebrated singer Faustina Bordogni (born
at Venice in 1700), who became the composer's wife in 1730.
The two artists soon afterwards went to Dresden, in compliance
with a brilliant offer made to them by the splendour-loving
elector of Saxony, Augustus II. There Hasse remained for two
years, after which he again journeyed to Italy, and also in 1733
to London, in which latter city he was tempted by the aristocratic
clique inimical to Handel to become the rival and antagonist
of that great master. But this he modestly and wisely declined,
remaining in London only long enough to superintend the
rehearsals for his opera Artaserse (first produced at Venice,
1730). All this while Faustina had remained at Dresden, the
declared favourite of the public and unfortunately also of the
elector, nor was her husband, who remained attached to her,
allowed to see her except at long intervals. In 1739, after the
death of Augustus II., Hasse settled permanently at Dresden
till 1763, when he and his wife retired from court service with
considerable pensions. But Hasse was still too young to rest
on his laurels. He went with his family to Vienna, and added
several operas to the great number of his works already in
existence. His last work for the stage was the opera Ruggiero
(1771), written for the wedding of Archduke Ferdinand at Milan.
On the same occasion a work by Mozart, then fourteen years
old, was performed, and Hasse observed " this youngster will
surpass us all." By desire of his wife Hasse settled at her
birthplace Venice, and there he died on the 2^rd of December
1783. His compositions include as many as 120 operas, besides
oratorios, cantatas, masses, and almost every variety of instru-
mental music. During the siege of Dresden by the Prussians
in 1760, most of his manuscripts, collected for a complete edition
to be brought out at the expense of the elector, were burnt.
Some of his works, amongst them an opera Alcide al Biiiio (i 760),
have been published, and the libraries of Vienna and Dresden
possess the autographs of others. Hasse's instrumentation is
certainly not above the low level attained by the average
musicians of his time, and his ensembles do not present any
features of interest. In dramatic fire also he was wanting, but
he had a fund of gentle and genuine melody, and by this fact
his enormous popularity during his life must be accounted for.
The two airs which Farinelli had to repeat every day for ten
years to the melancholy king of Spain, Philip V., were both from
Hasse's works. Of Faustina Hasse it will be sufficient to add
that she was, according to the unanimous verdict of the critics
(including Dr Burney), one of the greatest singers of a time rich
in vocal artists. The year of her death is not exactly known.
Most probably it shortly preceded that of her husband.

HASSELQUIST, FREDERIK (1722-1752), Swedish traveller
and naturalist, was born at Tornevalla, East Gothland, on the
3rd of January 1722. On account of the frequently expressed
regrets of Linnaeus, under whom he studied at Upsala, at the
lack of information regarding the natural history of Palestine,

HASSELT, A. H. C. VAN— HASSENPFLUG

Hasselquist resolved to undertake a journey to that country,
and a sufficient subscription having been obtained to defray
expenses, he reached Smyrna towards the end of 1749. He
visited parts of Asia Minor, Egypt, Cyprus and Palestine,
making large natural history collections, but his constitution,
naturally weak, gave way under the fatigues of travel, and
he died near Smyrna on the pth of February 1752 on his way
home. His collections reached home in safety, and five years
after his death his notes were published by Linnaeus under the
title Resa till Heliga Landet fordttad fran ar 1749 till 1752, which
was translated into French and German in 1762 and into English
in 1766.

HASSELT, ANDRfi HENRI CONSTANT VAN (1806-1874),
Belgian poet, was born at Maastricht, in Limburg, on the 5th of
January 1806. He was educated in his native town, and at.the
university of Liege. In 1833 he left Maastricht, then blockaded
by the Belgian forces, and made his way to Brussels, where he
became a naturalized Belgian, and was attached to the Biblio-
theque de Bourgogne. In 1843 he entered the education depart-
ment, and eventually became an inspector of normal schools.
His native language was Dutch, and as a French poet Andre van
Hasselt had to overcome the difficulties of writing in a foreign
language. He had published a Chant hellenique in honour of
Canaris in the columns of La Sentinelle des Pays-Box as early as
1826, and other poems followed. His first volume of verse,
Primeveres (1834), shows markedly the influence of Victor Hugo,
which had been strengthened by a visit to Paris in 1830. His
relations with Hugo became intimate in 1851-1852, when the
poet was an exile in Brussels. In 1839 he became editor of the
Renaissance, a paper founded to encourage the fine arts. His
chief work, the epic of the Quatre Incarnations du Christ, was
published in 1867. In the same volume were printed his Etudes
rylhmiqu.es, a series of metrical experiments designed to show
that the French language could be adapted to every kind of
musical rhythm. With the same end in view he executed trans-
lations of many German songs, and wrote new French libretti
for the best-known operas of Mozart, Weber and others. Hasselt
died at Saint Josse ten Noode, a suburb of Brussels, on the ist
of December 1874.

A selection from his works (10 vols., Brussels, 1876-1877) was
edited by MM. Charles Hen and Louis Alvin. He wrote many
books for children, chiefly under the pseudonym of Alfred Avelines;
and studies on historical and literary subjects. The books written
in collaboration with Charles Hen are signed Charles Andre\ A
bibliography of his writings is appended to the notice by Louis
Alvin in the Biographic nat. de Belgique, vol. vii. Van Hasselt's
fame has continued to increase since his death. A series of tributes
to his memory are printed in the Poesies choisies (1901), edited by
M. Georges Barral for the Collection des poetes franQ ais de I'etranger.
This book contains a biographical and critical study by Jules Guil-
laume, and some valuable notes on the poet's theories of rhythm.

HASSELT, the capital of the Belgian province of Limburg.
Pop. (1904), 16,179. It derives its name from Hazel-bosch (hazel
wood). It stands at the junction of several important roads
and railways from Maaseyck, Maastricht and Liege. It has many
breweries and distilleries, and the spirit known by its name,
which is a coarse gin, has a certain reputation throughout
Belgium. On the 6th of August 1831 the Dutch troops obtained
here their chief success over the Belgian nationalists during the
War of Independence. Hasselt is best known for its great septen-
nial fete held on the day of Assumption, August isth. The
curious part of this fete, which is held in honour of the Virgin
under the name of Virga Jesse, is the conversion of the town for
the day into the semblance of a forest. Fir trees and branches
from the neighbouring forest are collected and planted in front
of the houses, so that for a few hours Hasselt has the appearance
of being restored to its primitive condition as a wood. The
figure of the giant who is supposed to have once held the Hazel-
bosch under his terror is paraded on this occasion as the " lounge
man." Originally this celebration was held annually, but in
the 1 8th century it was restricted to once in seven years. There
was a celebration in 1905.

HASSENPFLUG, HANS DANIEL LUDWI6 FRIEDRICH
(1794-1862), German statesman, was born at Hanau in Hesse

on the 26th of February 1794. He studied law at Gb'ttingen,
graduated in 1816, and took his seat as Assessor in the judicial
chamber of the board of government (Regierungskollegium) at
Cassel, of which his father Johann Hassenpflug was also a member.
In 1821 he was nominated by the new elector, William II.,
Justisrat (councillor of justice) ; in 1832 he became Minislerialrat
and reporter (Referent) to the ministry of Hesse-Cassel, and in
May of the same year was appointed successively minister of
justice and of the interior. It was from this moment that he
became conspicuous in the constitutional struggles of Germany.

The reactionary system introduced by the elector William I.
had broken down before the revolutionary movements of 1830,
and in 1831 Hesse had received a constitution. This develop-
ment was welcome neither to the elector nor to the other German
governments, and Hassenpflug deliberately set to work to reverse
it. In doing so he gave the lie to his own early promise; for he
had been a conspicuous member of the revolutionary Burschf.n-
schaft at Gottingen, and had taken part as a volunteer in the War
of Liberation. Into the causes of the change it is unnecessary to
inquire; Hassenpflug by training and tradition was a strait-laced
official; he was also a first-rate lawyer; and his naturally
arbitrary temper had from the first displayed itself in an attitude
of overbearing independence towards his colleagues and even
towards the elector. To such a man constitutional restrictions
were intolerable, and from the moment he came into power he
set to work to override them, by means of press censorship, legal
quibbles, unjustifiable use of the electoral prerogatives, or frank
supersession of the legislative rights of the Estates by electoral
ordinances. The story of the constitutional deadlock that
resulted belongs to the history of Hesse-Cassel and Germany;
so far as Hassenpflug himself was concerned, it made him, more
even than Metternich, the Mephistopheles of the Reaction to
the German people. In Hesse itself he was known as " Hessen's
Hass und Fluch " (Hesse's hate and curse). In the end, however,
his masterful temper became unendurable to the regent (Frederick
William) ; in the summer of 1837 he was suddenly removed from
his post as minister of the interior and he thereupon left the
elector's service.

In 1838 he was appointed head of the administration of the
little principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, an office which
he exchanged in the following year for that of civil governor
of the grand-duchy of Luxemburg. Here, too, his independent
character suffered him to remain only a year: he resented having
to transact all business with the grand-duke (king of the Nether-
lands) through a Dutch official at the Hague; he protested
against the absorption of the Luxemburg surplus in the Dutch
treasury; and, failing to obtain redress, he resigned (1840).
From 1841 to 1850 he was in Prussian service, first as a member
of the supreme court of justice (Oberlribunal) and then (1846)
as president of the high court of appeal (Oberappellationsgericht)
at Greifswald. In 1850 he was tried for peculation and convicted ;
and, though this judgment was reversed on appeal, he left the
service of Prussia.

With somewhat indecent haste (the appeal had not been
heard) he was now summoned by the elector of Hesse once
more to the head of the government, and he immediately threw
himself again with zeal into the struggle against the constitution.
He soon found, however, that the opinion of all classes, including
the army, was solidly against him, and he decided to risk all on
an alliance with the reviving fortunes of Austria, which was
steadily working for the restoration of the status quo overthrown
by the revolution of 1848. On his advice the elector seceded
from the Northern Union established by Prussia and, on the
i3th of September, committed the folly of flying secretly from
Hesse with his minister. They went to Frankfort, where the
federal diet had been re-established, and on the 2ist persuaded
the diet to decree an armed intervention in Hesse. This decree,
carried out by Austrian troops, all but led to war with Prussia,
but the unreadiness of the Berlin government led to the triumph
of Austria and of Hassenpflug, who at the end of the year was
once more installed in power at Cassel as minister of finance.
His position was, however, not enviable; he was loathed and

HASTINAPUR— HASTINGS, MARQUESS OF

53

despised by all, and disliked even by his master. The climax
came in November 1853, when he was publicly horse-whipped
by the count of Isenburg-Wachtersbach, the elector's son-in-law.
The count was pronounced insane; but Hassenpflug was con-
scious of the method in his madness, and tendered his resignation.
This was, however, not accepted; and it was not till the i6th
of October 1855 that he was finally relieved of his offices. He
retired to Marburg, where he died on the isth of October 1862.
He lived just long enough to hear of the restoration of the Hesse
constitution of 1831 (June 21, 1862), which it had been his life's
mission to destroy. Of his publications the most important is
Actenstiicke, die landstdndischen Anklagen wider den Kur/iirst-
lichen hessischen Staatsminister Hassenpflug. Ein Beitrag zur
Zeitgeschichte und zum neueren deutschen Staatsrcchte, anonym.
(Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1836). He was twice married, his
first wife being the sister of the brothers Grimm. His son Karl
Hassenpflug (1824-1890) was a distinguished sculptor.

See the biography by Wippermann in Allgemeine deutsche Bio-
graphic, with authorities.

HASTINAPUR, an ancient city of British India, in the Meerut
district of the United Provinces, lying on the bank of a former
bed of the Ganges, 22 m. N.E. of Meerut. It formed the capital
of the great Pandava kingdom, celebrated in the Mahabhdrata,
and probably one of the earliest Aryan settlements outside the
Punjab. Tradition points to a group of shapeless mounds as
the residence of the Lunar princes of the house of Bharata whose
deeds are commemorated in the great national epic. After the
conclusion of the famous war which forms the central episode
of that poem, Hastinapur remained for some time the metropolis
of the descendants of Parikshit, but the town was finally swept
away by a flood of the Ganges, and the capital was transferred
to Kausambi.

HASTINGS, a famous English family. JOHN, BARON HASTINGS
(c. 1262-0. 1313), was a son of Sir Henry de Hastings (d. 1268),
who was summoned to parliament as a baron by Simon de
Montfort in 1264. Having joined Montfort's party Sir Henry
led the Londoners at the battle of Lewes and was taken prisoner
at Evesham. After his release he continued his opposition
to Henry III.; he was among those who resisted the king at
Kenilworth, and after the issue of the Dictum de Kenilworlh
he commanded the remnants of the baronial party when they
made their last stand in the isle of Ely, submitting to Henry in
July 1267. His younger son, Edmund, was specially noted for
his military services in Scotland during the reign of Edward I.
John Hastings married Isabella (d. 1305), daughter of William
de Valence, earl of Pembroke, a half-brother of Henry III.,
and fought in Scotland and in Wales. Through his mother,
Joanna de Cantilupe, he inherited the extensive lordship of
Abergavenny, hence he is sometimes referred to as lord of
Bergavenny, and in 1295 he was summoned to parliament as
a baron. Before this date, however, he had come somewhat
prominently to the front. His paternal grandmother, Ada,
was a younger daughter of David, earl of Huntingdon, and a
niece of the Scottish king, William the Lion; and in 1290 when
Margaret, the maid of Norway, died, Hastings came forward
as a claimant for the vacant throne. Although unsuccessful
in the matter he did not swerve from his loyalty to Edward I.
He fought constantly either in France or in Scotland; he led
the bishop of Durham's men at the celebrated siege of Carlaverock
castle in 1300; and with his brother Edmund he signed the
letter which in 1301 the English barons sent to Pope Boniface
VIII. repudiating papal interference in the affairs of Scotland;
on two occasions he represented the king in Aquitaine. Hastings
died in 1312 or 1313. His second wife was Isabella, daughter
of the elder Hugh le Despenser. Hastings, who was one of the
most wealthy and powerful nobles of his time, stood high in the
regard of the king and is lauded by the chroniclers.

His eldest son JOHN (d. 1325), who succeeded to the barony,
was the father of Laurence Hastings, who was created earl of
Pembroke in 1339, the earls of Pembroke retaining the barony
of Hastings until 1389. A younger son by a second marriage,
Sir Hugh Hastings (c. 1307-1347), saw a good deal of military

service in France; his portrait and also that of his wife may
still be seen on the east window of Elsing church, which contains
a beautiful brass to his memory.

On the death of John, the third and last earl of Pembroke
of the Hastings family, in 1389, Sir Hugh's son JOHN had,
according to a decision of the House of Lords in 1840, a title
to the barony of Hastings, but he did not prosecute his claim
and he died without sons in 1393. However his grand-nephew
and heir, Hugh (d. 1396), claimed the barony, which was also
claimed by Reginald, Lord Grey of Ruthyn. Like the earls of
Pembroke, Grey was descended through his grandmother,
Elizabeth Hastings, from John, Lord Hastings, by his first wife;
Hugh, on the other hand, was descended from John's second wife.
After Hugh's death his brother, Sir Edward Hastings (c. 1382-
1438), claimed the barony, and the case as to who should bear
the arms of the Hastings family came before the court of chivalry .
In 1410 it was decided in favour of Grey, who thereupon assumed
the arms. Both disputants still claimed the barony, but the
view seems to have prevailed that it had fallen into abeyance
in 1389. Sir Edward was imprisoned for refusing to pay his
rival's costs, and he was probably still in prison when he died in
January 1438. After his death the Hastings family, which
became extinct during the i6th century, tacitly abandoned the
claim to the barony. Then in 1840 the title was revived in
favour of Sir Jacob Astley, Bart. (1797-1859), who derived his
claim from a daughter of Sir Hugh Hastings who died in 1540.
Sir Jacob's descendant, Albert Edward (b. 1882), became 2ist
Baron Hastings in 1904.

A distant relative of the same family was William, Baron
Hastings (c. 1430-1483), a son of Sir Leonard Hastings (d. 1455).
He became attached to Edward IV., whom he served before his
accession to the throne, and after this event he became master of
the mint, chamberlain of the royal household and one of the king's
most trusted advisers. Having been made a baron in 1461, he
married Catherine, daughter of Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury,
and was frequently sent on diplomatic errands to Burgundy and
elsewhere. He was faithful to Edward IV. during the king's exile
in the winter of 1470-1471, and after his return he fought for
him at Barnet and at Tewkesbury ; he has been accused of taking
part in the murder of Henry VI. 's son, prince Edward, after the
latter battle. Hastings succeeded his sovereign in the favour of
JaneShore. He was made captain of Calais in 1471, and waswith
Edward IV. when he met Louis XI. of France at Picquigny in 147 5,
on which occasion he received gifts from Louis and from Charles
the Bold of Burgundy. After Edward IV. 's death Hastings be-
haved in a somewhat undecided manner. He disliked the queen,
Elizabeth Woodville, but he refused to ally himself with Richard,
duke of Gloucester, afterwards King Richard III. Suddenly
Richard decided to get rid of him, and during a meeting of the
council on the i3th of June 1483 he was seized and at once put
to death. This dramatic incident is related by Sir Thomas More
in his History of Richard 7//.,and has been worked by Shakespeare
into his play Richard HI. Hastings is highly praised by his
friend Philippe de Commines, and also by More. He left a son,
Edward (d. 1 508) , the father of George, Baron Hastings (c. 1488-
1545), who was created earl of Huntingdon (q.v.) in 1529.

When Francis, loth earl of Huntingdon, died in October 1789,
the barony of Hastings passed to his sister Elizabeth (1731-1 808) ,
wife of John Rawdon, earl of Moira, and from her it came to her
son Francis Rawdon-Hastings (see below), who was created
marquess of Hastings in 1817.

HASTINGS, FRANCIS RAWDON-HASTINGS, ist MARQUESS
OF (1754-1826), British soldier and governor-general of India,
born on the 9th of December 1754, was the son of Sir John
Rawdon of Moira in the county of Down, 4th baronet, who was
created Baron Rawdon of Moira, and afterwards earl of Moira,
in the Irish peerage. His mother was the Lady Elizabeth
Hastings, daughter of Theophilus, 9th earl of Huntingdon.
Lord Rawdon, as he was then called, was educated at Harrow
and Oxford, and joined the army in 1771 as ensign in the isth
foot. His life henceforth was entirely spent in the service of his
country, and may be divided into four periods: from 1775 to

54

HASTINGS, MARQUESS OF

1782 he was engaged with much distinction in the American war;
from 1783 to 1813 he held various high appointments at home,
and took an active part in the business of the House. of Lords;
from 1813 to 1823 was the period of his labours in India; after
retiring from which, in the last years of his life (1824-1826), he
was governor of Malta.

In America Rawdon served at the battles of Bunker Hill,
Brooklyn, White Plains, Monmouth and Camden, at the attacks
on Forts Washington and Clinton, and at the siege of Charleston.
In fact he was engaged in many important operations of the war.
Perhaps his most noted achievements were the raising of a
corps at Philadelphia, called the Irish Volunteers, who under him
became famous for their fighting qualities, and the victory of
Hobkirk's Hill, which, in command of only a small force, he
gained by superior military skill and determination against a
much larger body of Americans. In 1781 he was invalided. The
vessel in which he returned to England was captured and carried
into Brest. He was speedily released, and on his arrival in
England was much honoured by George III., who created him
an English peer (Baron Rawdon) in March 1783. In 1789 his
mother succeeded to the barony of Hastings, and Rawdon added
the surname of Hastings to his own.

In 1793 Rawdon succeeded his father as earl of Moira. In
1794 he was sent with 7000 men to Ostend to reinforce the duke
of York and the allies in Flanders. The march by which he
effected a junction was considered extraordinary. In 1803 he
was appointed commander-in-chief in Scotland, and in 1804 he
married Flora Mure Campbell, countess of Loudoun in her own
right. When Fox and Grenville came into power in 1806, Lord
Moira, who had always voted with them, received the place of
master-general of the ordnance. He was now enabled to carry
a philanthropic measure, of which from his first entry into the
House of Lords he had been a great promoter, namely, the Debtor
and Creditor Bill for relief of poor debtors. Ireland was another
subject to which he had given particular attention: in 1797 there
was published a Speech by Lord Moira on the Dreadful and Alarm-
ing State of Ireland. Lord Moira's sound judgment on public
affairs, combined with his military reputation and the upright-
ness of his character, won for him a high position among the
statesmen of the day, and he gained an additional prestige from
his intimate relations with the prince of Wales. As a mark of
the regent's regard Lord Moira received the order of the Garter
in 1812, and in the same year was appointed governor-general
of Bengal and commander-in-chief of the forces in India. He
landed at Calcutta, and assumed office in succession to Lord
Minto in October 1813. One of the chief questions which awaited
him was that of relations with the Gurkha state of Nepal. The
Gurkhas, a brave and warlike little nation, failing to extend
their conquests in the direction of China, had begun to encroach
on territories held or protected by the East India Company;
especially they had seized the districts of Batwal and Seoraj,
in the northern part of Oudh, and when called upon to relinquish
these, they deliberately elected (April 1814) to go to war rather
than do so. Lord Moira, having travelled through the northern
provinces and fully studied the question, declared war against
Nepal (November 1814). The enemy's frontier was 600 m. long,
and Lord Moira, who directed the plan of the campaign, resolved
to act offensively along the whole line. It was an anxious under-
taking, because the native states of India were all watching the
issue and waiting for any serious reverse to the English to join
against them. At first all seemed to go badly, as the British
officers despised the enemy, and the sepoys were unaccustomed
to mountain warfare, and thus alternate extremes of rashness
and despondency were exhibited. But this rectified itself in
time, especially through the achievements of General (afterwards
Sir David) Ochterlony, who before the end of 1815 had taken all
the Gurkha posts to the west, and early in 1816 was advancing
victoriously within 50 m. of Khatmandu, the capital. The
Gurkhas now made peace; they abandoned the disputed districts,
ceded some territory to the British, and agreed to receive a
British resident. For his masterly conduct of these affairs Lord
Moira was created marquess of Hastings in February 1817.

He had now to deal with internal dangers. A combination of
Mahratta powers was constantly threatening the continuance
of British rule, under the guise of plausible assurances severally
given by the peshwa, Sindhia, Holkar and other princes. At
the same time the existence of the Pindari state was not only
dangerous to the British, as being a warlike power always ready
to turn against them, but it was a scourge to India itself. In
1816, however, the Pindaris entered British territory in the
Northern Circars, where they destroyed 339 villages. On this,
permission was obtained to act for their suppression. Before
the end of 1817 the preparations of Lord Hastings were com-
pleted, when the peshwa suddenly broke into war, and the
British were opposed at once to the Mahratta and Pindari powers,
estimated at 200,000 men and 500 guns. Both were utterly
shattered in a brief campaign of four months (1817-18). The
peshwa's dominions were annexed, and those of Sindhia, Holkar,
and the raja of Berar lay at the mercy of the governor-general,
and were saved only by his moderation. Thus, after sixty years
from the battle of Plassey, the supremacy of British power in
India was effectively established. The Pindaris had ceased to
exist, and peace and security had been substituted for misery
and terror.

" It is a proud phrase to use," said Lord Hastings, " but it is a
true one, that we have bestowed blessings upon millions. Nothing
can be more delightful than the reports I receive of the sensibility
manifested by the inhabitants to this change in their circumstances.
The smallest detachment of our troops cannot pass through that
district without meeting everywhere eager and exulting gratula-
tions, the tone of which proves them to come from glowing hearts.
Multitudes of people have, even in this short interval, come from
the hills and fastnesses in which they had sought refuge for years,
and have reoccupied their ancient deserted villages. The plough-
share is again in every quarter turning up a soil which had for
many seasons never been stirred, except by the hoofs of predatory
cavalry."

While the natives of India appreciated the results of Lord
Hastings's achievements, the court of directors grumbled at his
having extended British territory. They also disliked and
opposed his measures for introducing education among the
natives and his encouraging the freedom of the press. In 1819
he obtained the cession by purchase of the island of Singapore.
In finance his administration was very successful, as notwith-
standing the expenses of his wars he showed an annual surplus
of two millions sterling. Brilliant and beneficent as his career
had been, Lord Hastings did not escape unjust detraction. His
last years of office were embittered by the discussions on a matter
notorious at the time, namely, the affairs of the banking-house
of W. Palmer and Company. The whole affair was mixed
up with insinuations against Lord Hastings, especially charging
him with having been actuated by favouritism towards one of
the partners in the firm. From imputations which were incon-
sistent with his whole character he has subsequently been
exonerated. But while smarting under them he tendered his
resignation in 1821, though he did not leave India till the first
day of 1823. He was much exhausted by the arduous labours
which for more than nine years he had sustained. Among his
characteristics it is mentioned that " his ample fortune
absolutely sank under the benevolence of his nature "; and,
far from having enriched himself in the appointment of governor-
general, he returned to England in circumstances which obliged
him still to seek public employment. In 1824 he received the
comparatively small post of governor of Malta, in which island
he introduced many reforms and endeared himself to the in-
habitants. He died on the 28th of November 1826, leaving a
request that his right hand should be cut off and preserved till
the death of the marchioness of Hastings, and then be interred
in her coffin.

Hastings was succeeded by his son, Francis George Augustus
(1808-1844), who in 1840 succeeded through his mother to the
earldom of Loudoun. When 'his second son, Henry Weysford,
the 4th marquess, died childless on the icth of November 1868
the marquessate became extinct; the earldom of Loudoun
devolved upon his sister, Edith Mary (d. 1874), wife of Charles
Frederick Abney-Hastings, afterwards Baron Donington; the

HASTINGS, F. A.— HASTINGS, WARREN

barony of Hastings, which fell into abeyance, was also revived
in 1871 in her favour.

See Ross-of-Bladensburg, The Marquess of Hastings (" Rulers of
India " series) (1893) ; and Private Journal cf the Marquess of
Hastings, edited by his daughter, the marchioness of Bute (1858).

HASTINGS, FRANK ABNEY (1794-1828), British naval
officer and Philhellene, was the son of Lieut. -general Sir Charles
Hastings, a natural son of Francis Hastings, tenth earl of
Huntingdon. He entered the navy in 1805, and was in the
" Neptune " (100) at the battle of Trafalgar; but in iSzoa quarrel
with his flag captain led to his leaving the service. The revolu-
tionary troubles of the time offered chances of foreign employ-
ment. Hastings spent a year on the continent to learn French,
and sailed for Greece on the i2th of March 1822 from Marseilles.
On the 3rd of April he reached Hydra. For two years he took
part in the naval operations of the Greeks in the Gulf of Smyrna
and elsewhere. He saw that the light squadrons of the Greeks
must in the end be overpowered by the heavier Turkish navy,
clumsy as it was; and in 1823 he drew up and presented to
Lord Byron a very able memorandum which he laid before the
Greek government in 1824. This paper is of peculiar interest
apart from its importance in the Greek insurrection, for it
contains the germs of the great revolution which has since
been effected in naval gunnery and tactics. In substance the
memorandum advocated the use of steamers in preference to
sailing ships, and of direct fire with shells and hot shot, as a more
trustworthy means of destroying the Turkish fleet than fire-ships.
It will be found in Finlay's History of the Greek Revolution,
vol. ii. appendix i. The application of Hastings's ideas led
necessarily to the disuse of sailing ships, and the introduction
of armour. The incompetence of the Greek government and
the corrupt waste of its resources prevented the full application
of Hastings's bold and far-seeing plans. But largely by the use
of his own money, of which he is said to have spent £7000, he
was able to some extent to carry them out. In 1824 he came
to England to obtain a steamer, and in 1825 he had fitted out a
small steamer named the " Karteria " (Perseverance), manned
by Englishmen, Swedes and Greeks, and provided with apparatus
for the discharge of shell and hot shot. He did enough to show
that if his advice had been vigorously followed the Turks would
have been driven off the sea long before the date of the battle
of Navarino. The great effect produced by his shells in an
attack on the sea-line of communication of the Turkish army,
then besieging Athens at Oropus and Volo in March and April
1827, was a clear proof that much more could have been done.
Military mismanagement caused the defeat of the Greeks round
Athens. But Hastings, in co-operation with General Sir R.
Church (q.v.), shifted the scene of the attack to western Greece.
Here his destruction of a small Turkish squadron at Salona Bay
in the Gulf of Corinth (29th of September 1827) provoked
Ibrahim Pasha into the aggressive movements which led to the
destruction of his fleet by the allies at Navarino (q.v.) on the
2oth of October 1827. On the 25th of May 1828 he was wounded
in an attack on Anatolikon, and he died in the harbour of Zante
on the ist of June. General Gordon, who served in the war
and wrote its history, says of him: " If ever there was a
disinterested and really useful Philhellene it was Hastings.
He received no pay, and had expended most of his slender
fortune in keeping the ' Karteria ' afloat for the last six months.
His ship, too, was the only one in the Greek navy where regular
discipline was maintained."

See Thomas Gordon, History of the Greek Revolution (London,
1832); George Finlay, History of the Greek Revolution (Edinburgh,
1861).

HASTINGS, WARREN (1732-1818), the first governor-general
of British India, was born on the 6th of December 1732 in the
little hamlet of Churchill in Oxfordshire. He came of a family
which had been settled for many generations in the adjoining
village of Daylesford; but his great-grandfather had sold the
ancestral manor-house, and his grandfather had been unable
to maintain himself in possession of the family living. His
mother died a few days after giving him birth; his father,

55

Pynaston Hastings, drifted away to perish obscurely in the West
Indies. Thus unfortunate in his birth, young Hastings received
the elements of education at a charity school in his native village.
At the age of eight he was taken in charge by an elder brother
of his father, Howard Hastings, who held a post in the customs.
After spending two years at a private school at Newington Butts,
he was moved to Westminster, where among his contemporaries
occur the names of Lord Thurlow and Lord Shelburne, Sir
Elijah Impey, and the poets Cowper and Churchill. In 1749,
when his headmaster Dr Nichols was already anticipating for him
a successful career at the university, his uncle died, leaving him
to the care of a distant kinsman, Mr Creswicke, who was afterwards
in the direction of the East India Company; and he determined
to send his ward to seek his fortune as a " writer " in Bengal.

When Hastings landed at Calcutta in October 1750 the affairs
of the East India Company were at a low ebb. Throughout the
entire south of the peninsula French influence was predominant.
The settlement of Fort St George or Madras, captured by force
of arms, had only recently been restored in accordance with a
clause of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. The organizing genius of
Dupleix everywhere overshadowed the native imagination, and
the star of Clive had scarcely yet risen above the horizon. The
rivalry between the English and the French, which had already
convulsed the south, did not penetrate to Bengal. That province
was under the able government of Ali Vardi Khan, who
peremptorily forbade the foreign settlers at Calcutta and Chander-
nagore to introduce feuds from Europe. The duties of a young
" writer " were then such as are implied in the name. At an
early date Hastings was placed in charge of an aurang or factory
in the interior, where his duties would be to superintend the
weaving of silk and cotton goods under a system of money
advances. In 1753 he was transferred to Cossimbazar, the
river-port of the native capital of Murshidabad. In 1756 the
old nawab died, and was succeeded by his grandson Suraj-
ud-Dowlah, a young madman of 19, whose name is indelibly
associated with the tragedy of the Black Hole. When that
passionate youn^ prince, in revenge for a fancied wrong, resolved
to drive the English out of Bengal, his first step was to occupy
the fortified factory at Cossimbazar, and make prisoners of
Hastings and his companions. Hastings was soon released at the
intercession of the Dutch resident, and made use of his position
at Murshidabad to open negotiations with the English fugitives
at Falta, the site of a Dutch factory near the mouth of the Hugli.
In later days he used to refer with pride to his services on this
occasion, when he was first initiated into the wiles of Oriental
diplomacy. After a while he found it necessary to fly from the
Mahommedan court and join the main body of the English at
Falta. When the relieving force arrived from Madras under
Colonel Clive and Admiral Watson, Hastings enrolled himself as
a volunteer, and took part in the action which led to the recovery
of Calcutta. Clive showed his appreciation of Hastings's merits
by appointing him in 1758 to the important post of resident at
the court of Murshidabad. It was there that he first came into
collision with the Bengali Brahman, Nuncomar, whose sub-
sequent fate has supplied more material for controversy than any
other episode in his career. During his three years of office as
resident he was able to render not a few valuable services to the
Company; but it is more important to observe that his name
nowhere occurs in the official lists of those who derived pecuniary
profit from the necessities and weakness of the native court. In
1761 he was promoted to be member of council, under the presi-
dency of Mr Vansittart, who had been introduced by Clive from
Madras. The period of Vansittart's government has been truly
described as " the most revolting page of our Indian history."
The entire duties of administration were suffered to remain in
the hands of the nawab, while a few irresponsible English traders
had drawn to themselves all real power. The members of
council, the commanders of the troops, and the commercial
residents plundered on a grand scale. The youngest servant of
the Company claimed the right of trading on his own account,
Free from taxation and from local jurisdiction, not only for him-
self but also for every native subordinate whom he might permit

HASTINGS, WARREN

to use his name. It was this exemption, threatening the very
foundations of the Mussulman government, that finally led to a
rupture with the nawab. Macaulay, in his celebrated essay, has
said that " of the conduct of Hastings at this time little is known."
As a matter of fact, the book which Macaulay was professing to
review describes at length the honourable part consistently
taken by Hastings in opposition to the great majority of the
council. Sometimes in conjunction only with Vansittart, some-
times absolutely alone, he protested unceasingly against the
policy and practices of his colleagues. On one occasion he was
stigmatized in a minute by Mr Batson with " having espoused
the nawab's cause, and as a hired solicitor defended all his actions,
however dishonourable and detrimental to the Company." An
altercation ensued. Batson gave him the lie and struck him in
the council chamber. When war was actually begun, Hastings
officially recorded his previous resolution to have resigned, in
order to repudiate responsibility for measures which he had
always opposed. Waiting only for the decisive victory of Buxar
over the allied forces of Bengal and Oudh, he resigned his seat
and sailed for England in November 1764.

After fourteen years' residence in Bengal Hastings did not
return home a rich man, estimated by the opportunities of his
position. According to the custom of the time he had augmented
his slender salary by private trade. At a later date he was
charged by Burke with having taken up profitable contracts for
supplying bullocks for the use of the Company's troops. It is
admitted that he conducted by means of agents a large business
in timber in the Gangetic Sundarbans. When at Falta he had
married Mrs Buchanan, the widow of an officer. She bore him
two children, of whom one died in infancy at Murshidabad, and
was shortly followed to the grave by her mother. Their common
gravestone is in existence at the present day, bearing date
July n, 1759. The other child, a son, was sent to England, and
also died shortly before his father's return. While at home
Hastings is said to have attached himself to literary society;
and it may be inferred from his own letters that he now made the
personal acquaintance of Samuel Johnson and Lord Mansfield.
In 1766 he was called upon to give evidence before a committee
of the House of Commons upon the affairs of Bengal. The good
sense and clearness of the views which he expressed caused
attention to be paid to his desire to be again employed in India.
His pecuniary affairs were embarrassed, partly from the liberality
with which he had endowed his few surviving relatives. The
great influence of Lord Clive was also exercised on his behalf.
At last, in the winter of 1768, he received the appointment of
second in council at Madras. Among his companions on his
voyage round the Cape were the Baron Imhoff, a speculative
portrait-painter, and his wife, a lady of some personal attractions
and great social charm, who was destined henceforth to be
Hastings's lifelong companion. Of his, two years' work at Madras
it is needless to speak in detail. He won the good-will of his
employers *by devoting himself to the improvement of their
manufacturing business, and he kept his hands clean from the
prevalent taint of pecuniary transactions with the nawab of the
Carnatic. One fact of some interest is not generally known.
He drew up a scheme for the construction of a pier at Madras,
to avoid the dangers of landing through the surf, and instructed
his brother-in-law in England to obtain estimates from the
engineers Brindley and Smeaton.

In the beginning of 1772 his ambition was stimulated by the
nomination to the second place in council in Bengal with a
promise of the reversion of the governorship when Mr Cartier
should retire. Since his departure from Bengal in 1764 the
situation of affairs in that settlement had scarcely improved.
The second governorship of Clive was marked by the transfer
of the diviani or financial administration from the Mogul emperor
to the Company, and by the enforcement of stringent regulations
against the besetting sin of peculation. But Clive was followed
by two inefficient successors; and in 1770 occurred the most
terrible Indian famine on record, which is credibly estimated
to have swept away one-third of the population. In April 1772
Warren Hastings took his seat as president of the council at Fort

William. His first care was to carry out the instructions received
from home, and effect a radical reform in the system of govern-
ment. Clive's plan of governing through the agency of the native
court had proved a failure. The directors were determined " to
stand forth as dvuoan, and take upon themselves by their own
servants the entire management of the revenues." All the
officers of administration were transferred from Murshidabad
to Calcutta, which Hastings boasted at this early date that he
would make the first city in Asia. This reform involved the
ruin of many native reputations, and for a second time brought
Hastings into collision with the wily Brahman, Nuncomar.
At the same time a settlement of the land revenue on leases for
five years was begun, and the police and military systems of
the country were placed upon a new footing. Hastings was a
man of immense industry, with an insatiable appetite for detail.
The whole of this large series of reforms was conducted under
his own personal supervision, and upon no part of his multifarious
labours did he dwell in his letters home with greater pride.
As an independent measure of economy, the stipend paid to the
titular nawab of Bengal, who was then a minor, was reduced by
one-half — to sixteen lakhs a year (say £160,000). Macaulay
imputes this reduction to Hastings as a characteristic act of
financial immorality; but in truth it had been expressly enjoined
by the court of directors, in a despatch dated six months before
he took up office. His pecuniary bargains with Shuja-ud-Dowlah,
the nawab wazlr of Oudh, stand on a different basis. Hastings
himself always regarded them as incidents in his general scheme
of foreign policy. The Mahrattas at this time had got possession
of the person of the Mogul emperor, Shah Alam, from whom
Clive obtained the grant of Bengal in 1765, and to whom he
assigned in return the districts of Allahabad and Kora and a
tribute of £300,000. With the emperor in their camp, the
Mahrattas were threatening the province of Oudh, and
causing a large British force to be cantoned along the frontier
for its defence. Warren Hastings, as a deliberate measure of
policy, withheld the tribute due to the emperor, and resold
Allahabad and Kora to the wazlr of Oudh. The Mahrattas
retreated, and all danger for the time was dissipated by the
death of their principal leader. The wazlr now bethought him
that he had a good opportunity for satisfying an old quarrel
against the adjoining tribe of Rohillas, who had played fast and
loose with him while the Mahratta army was at hand. The
Rohillas were a race of Afghan origin, who had established
themselves for some generations in a fertile tract west of Oudh,
between the Himalayas and the Ganges, which still bears the
name of Rohilkhand. They were not so much the occupiers of
the soil as a dominant caste of warriors and freebooters. But
in those troubled days their title was as good as any to be found
in India. After not a little hesitation, Hastings consented to
allow the Company's troops to be used to further the ambitious
designs of his Oudh ally, in consideration of a sum of money
which relieved the ever-pressing wants of the Bengal treasury.
The Rohillas were defeated in fair fight. Some of them fled the
country, and so far as possible Hastings obtained terms for
those who remained. The fighting, no doubt, on the part of the
wazlr was conducted with all the savagery of Oriental warfare ;
but there is no evidence that it was a war of extermination.

Meanwhile, the affairs of the East India Company had come
under the consideration of parliament. The Regulating Act,
passed by Lord North's ministry in 1773, effected considerable
changes in the constitution of the Bengal government. The
council was reduced to four members with a governor-general,
who were to exercise certain indefinite powers of control over the
presidencies of Madras and Bombay. Hastings was named in
the act as governor-general for a term of five years. The council
consisted of General Clavering and the Hon. Colonel Monson,
two third-rate politicians of considerable parliamentary influence;
Philip Francis (q.v.), then only known as an able permanent
official; and Barwell, of the Bengal Civil Service. At the same
time a supreme court of judicature was appointed, composed
of a chief and three puisne judges, to exercise an indeterminate
jurisdiction at Calcutta. The chief-justice was Sir Elijah Impey,

HASTINGS, WARREN

57

already mentioned as a schoolfellow of Hastings at Westminster.
The whole tendency of the Regulating Act was to establish for
the first time the influence of the crown, or rather of parliament,
in Indian affairs. The new members of council disembarked
at Calcutta on the iglh of October 1774; and on the following
day commenced the long feud which scarcely terminated twenty-
one years later with the acquittal of Warren Hastings by the
House of Lords. Macaulay states that the members of council
were put in ill-humour because their salute of guns was not
proportionate to their dignity. In a contemporary letter
Francis thus expresses the same petty feeling: " Surely Mr H.
might have put on a ruffled shirt." Taking advantage of an
ambiguous clause in their commission, the majority of the
council (for Harwell uniformly sided with Hastings) forthwith
proceeded to pass in review the recent measures of the governor-
general. All that he had done they condemned; all that they
could they reversed. Hastings was reduced to the position of a
cipher at their meetings. After a time they lent a ready ear to
detailed allegations of corruption brought against him by his
old enemy Nuncomar. To charges from such a source, and
brought in such a manner, Hastings disdained to reply, and
referred his accuser to the supreme court. The majority of the
council, in their executive capacity, resolved that the governor-
general had been guilty of peculation, and ordered him to
refund. A few days later Nuncomar was thrown into prison on
a charge of forgery preferred by a private prosecutor, tried before
the supreme court sitting in bar, found guilty by a jury of
Englishmen and sentenced to be hanged. Hastings always
maintained that he did not cause the charge to be instituted,
and the legality of Nuncomar's trial is thoroughly proved by
Sir James Stephen. The majority of the council abandoned
their supporter, who was executed in due course. He had
forwarded a petition for reprieve to the council, which Clavering
took care should not be presented in time, and which was subse-
quently burnt by the common hangman on the motion of Francis.
While the strife was at its hottest, Hastings had sent an agent
to England with a general authority to place his resignation in
the hands of the Company under certain conditions. The agent
thought fit to exercise that authority. The resignation was
promptly accepted, and one of the directors was appointed
to the vacancy. But in the meantime Colonel Monson had
died, and Hastings was thus restored, by virtue of his casting
vote, to the supreme management of affairs. He refused to
ratify his resignation; and when Clavering attempted to seize
on the governor-generalship, he judiciously obtained an opinion
from the judges of the supreme court in his favour. From that
time forth, though he could not always command an absolute
majority in council, Hastings was never again subjected to
gross insult, and his general policy was able to prevail.

A crisis was now approaching in foreign affairs which de-
manded all the experience and all the genius of Hastings for
its solution. Bengal was prosperous, and free from external
enemies on every quarter. But the government of Bombay had
hurried on a rupture with the Mahratta confederacy at a time
when France was on the point of declaring war against England,
and when the mother-country found herself unable to subdue
her rebellious colonists in America. Hastings did not hesitate
to take upon his own shoulders the whole responsibility of
military affairs. All the French settlements in India were
promptly occupied. On the part of Bombay, the Mahratta war
was conducted with procrastination and disgrace. But Hastings
amply avenged the capitulation of Wargaon by the complete
success of his own plan of operations. Colonel Goddard with a
Bengal army marched across the breadth of the peninsula from
the valley of the Ganges to the western sea, and achieved almost
without a blow the conquest of Gujarat. Captain Popham, with
a small detachment, stormed the rock fortress of Gwalior, then
deemed impregnable and the key of central India; and by this
feat held in check Sindhia, the most formidable of the Mahratta
chiefs. The Bhonsla Mahratta raja of Nagpur, whose dominions
bordered on Bengal, was won over by the diplomacy of an
emissary of Hastings. But while these events were taking place,

a new source of embarrassment had arisen at Calcutta. The
supreme court, whether rightly or wrongly, assumed a jurisdic-
tion of first instance over the entire province of Bengal. The
English common law, with all the absurdities and rigours of that
day, was arbitrarily extended to an alien system of society.
Zaminddrs, or government renters, were arrested on mesne
process; the sanctity of the zendna, or women's chamber, as
dear to Hindus as to Mahommedans, was violated by the sheriff's
officer; the deepest feelings of the people and the entire fabric
of revenue administration were alike disregarded. On this point
the entire council acted in harmony. Hastings and Francis went
joint-bail for imprisoned natives of distinction. At last, after
the dispute between the judges and the executive threatened to
become a trial of armed force, Hastings set it at rest by a charac-
teristic stroke of policy. A new judicial office was created in
the name of the Company, to which Sir Elijah Impey was
appointed, though he never consented to draw the additional
salary offered to him. The understanding between Hastings
and Francis, originating in this state of affairs, was for a short
period extended to general policy. An agreement was come to
by which Francis received patronage for his circle of friends,
while Hastings was to be unimpeded in the control of foreign
affairs. But a difference of interpretation arose. Hastings
recorded in an official minute that he had found Francis's private
and public conduct to be " void of truth and honour." They
met as duellists. Francis fell wounded, and soon afterwards
returned to England.

The Mahratta war was not yet terminated, but a far more
formidable danger now threatened the English in India. The
imprudent conduct of the Madras authorities had irritated
beyond endurance the two greatest Mussulman powers in the
peninsula, the nizam of the Deccan and Hyder Ali, the usurper
of Mysore, who began to negotiate an alliance with the Mahrattas.
A second time the genius of Hastings saved the British empire
in the east. On the arrival of the news that Hyder had descended
from the highlands of Mysore, cut to pieces the only British army
in the field, and swept the Carnatic up to the gates of Madras,
he at once adopted a policy of extraordinary boldness. He
signed a blank treaty of peace with the Mahrattas, who were still
in arms, reversed the action of the Madras government towards
the nizam, and concentrated all the resources of Bengal against
Hyder Ali. Sir Eyre Coote, a general of renown in former
Carnatic wars, was sent by sea to Madras with all the troops and
treasure that could be got together; and a strong body of rein-
forcements subsequently marched southwards under Colonel
Pearse along the coast line of Orissa. The landing of Coote
preserved Madras from destruction, though the war lasted
through many campaigns and only terminated with the death
of Hyder. Pearse's detachment was decimated by an epidemic
of cholera (perhaps the first mention of this disease by name in
Indian history); but the survivors penetrated to Madras, and
not only held in check Bhonsla and the nizam, but also corro-
borated the lesson taught by Goddard — that the Company's
sepoys could march anywhere, when boldly led. Hastings's
personal task was to provide the ways and means for this exhaust-
ing war. A considerable economy was effected by a reform in
the establishment for collecting the land tax. The government
monopolies of opium and salt were then for the first time placed
upon a remunerative basis. But these reforms were of necessity
slow in their beneficial operation. The pressing demands of the
military chest had to be satisfied by loans, and in at least one
case from the private purse of the governor-general. Ready
cash could alone fill up the void; and it was to the hoards of
native princes that Hastings's fertile mind at once turned.
Chait Sing, raja of Benares, the greatest of the vassal chiefs who
had grown rich under the protection of the British rule, lay
under the suspicion of disloyalty. The wazir of Oudh had fallen
into arrears in the payment due for the maintenance of the
Company's garrison posted in his dominions, and his administra-
tion was in great disorder. In his case the ancestral hoards were
under the control of his mother, the begum of Oudh, into whose
hands they had been allowed to pass at the time when Hastings

HASTINGS, WARREN

was powerless in council. Hastings resolved to make a progress
up country in order to arrange the affairs of both provinces, and
bring back all the treasure that could be squeezed out of its
holders by his personal intervention. When he reached Benares
and presented his demands, the raja rose in insurrection, and the
governor-general barely escaped with his life. But the faithful
Popham rapidly rallied a force for his defence. The insurgents
were defeated again and again; Chait Sing took to flight, and
an augmented permanent tribute was imposed upon his suc-
cessor. The Oudh business was managed with less risk. The
wazir consented to everything demanded of him. The begum
was charged with having abetted Chait Sing in his rebellion;
and after the severest pressure applied to herself and her
attendant eunuchs, a fine of more than a million sterling was
exacted from her. Hastings appears to have been not altogether
satisfied with the incidents of this expedition, and to have antici-
pated the censure which it received in England. As a measure
of precaution, he procured documentary evidence of the rebellious
intentions of the raja and the begum, to the validity of which
Impey obligingly lent his extra-judicial sanction;

The remainder of Hastings's term of office in India was passed
in comparative tranquillity, both from internal opposition and
foreign war. The centre of interest now shifts to the India
House and to the British parliament. The long struggle between
the Company and the ministers of the crown for the supreme
control of Indian affairs and the attendant patronage had
reached its climax. The decisive success of Hastings's adminis-
tration alone postponed the inevitable solution. His original
term of five years would have expired in 1778; but it was
annually prolonged by special act of parliament until his
voluntary resignation. Though Hastings was thus irremovable,
his policy did not escape censure. Ministers were naturally
anxious to obtain the reversion to his vacant post, and Indian
affairs formed at this time the hinge on which party politics
turned. On one occasion Dundas carried a motion in the House
of Commons, censuring Hastings and demanding his recall.
The directors of the Company were disposed to act upon this
resolution; but in the court of proprietors, with whom the
decision ultimately lay, Hastings always possessed a sufficient
majority. Fox's India Bill led to the downfall of the Coalition
ministry in 1783. The act which Pitt successfully carried in the
following year introduced a new constitution, in which Hastings
felt that he had no place. In February 1785 he finally sailed
from Calcutta, after a dignified ceremony of resignation, and
amid enthusiastic farewells from all classes.

On his arrival in England, after a second absence of sixteen
years, he was not displeased with the reception he met with at
court and in the country. A peerage was openly talked of as
his due, while his own ambition pointed to some responsible
office at home. Pitt had never taken a side against him, while
Lord Chancellor Thurlow was his pronounced friend. But he
was now destined to learn that his enemy Francis, whom he had
discomfited in the council chamber at Calcutta, was more than
his match in the parliamentary arena. Edmund Burke had taken
the subject races of India under the protection of his eloquence.
Francis, who had been the early friend of Burke, supplied him
with the personal animus against Hastings, and with the know-
ledge of detail, which he might otherwise have lacked. The
Whig party on this occasion unanimously followed Burke's lead.
Dundas, Pitt's favourite subordinate, had already committed
himself by his earlier resolution of censure; and Pitt was induced
by motives which are still obscure to incline the ministerial
majority to the same side. To meet the oratory of Burke and
Sheridan and Fox, Hastings wrote an elaborate minute with
which he wearied the ears of the House for two successive nights,
and he subsidized a swarm of pamphleteers. The impeachment
was decided upon in 1786, but the actual trial did not commence
until 1788. For seven long years Hastings was upon his defence
on the charge of " high crimes and misdemeanours." During
this anxious period he appears to have borne himself with charac-
teristic dignity, such as is consistent with no other hypothesis
than the consciousness of innocence. At last, in 1795, the House

of Lords gave a verdict of not guilty on all charges laid against
him; and he left the bar at which he had so frequently appeared,
with his reputation clear, but ruined in fortune. However large
the wealth he brought back from India, all was swallowed up in
defraying the expenses of his trial. Continuing the line of conduct
which in most other men would be called hypocrisy, he forwarded
a petition to Pitt praying that he might be reimbursed his costs
from the public funds. This petition, of course, was rejected.
At last, when he was reduced to actual destitution, it was
arranged that the East India Company should grant him an
annuity of £4000 for a term of years, with £90,000 paid down in
advance. This annuity expired before his death; and he was
compelled to make more than one fresh appeal to the bounty of
the Company, which was never withheld. Shortly before his
acquittal he had been able to satisfy the dream of his childhood,
by buying back the ancestral manor of Daylesford, where the
remainder of his life was passed in honourable retirement. In
1813 he was called on to give evidence upon Indian affairs before
the two houses of parliament, which received him with excep-
tional marks of respect. The university of Oxford conferred on
him the honorary degree of D.C.L.; and in the following year
he was sworn of the privy council, and took a prominent part in
the reception given to the duke of Wellington and the allied
sovereigns. He died on the 22nd of August 1818, in his 86th
year, and lies buried behind the chancel of the parish church,
which he had recently restored at his own charges.

In physical appearance, Hastings " looked like a great man,
and not like a bad man." The body was wholly subjugated to
the mind. A frame naturally slight had been further attenuated
by rigorous habits of temperance, and thus rendered proof
against the diseases of the tropics. Against his private character
not even calumny has breathed a reproach. As brother, as
husband and as friend, his affections were as steadfast as they
were warm. By the public he was always regarded as reserved,
but within his own inner circle he gave and received perfect
confidence. In his dealings with money, he was characterized
rather by liberality of expenditure than by carefulness of acquisi-
tion. A classical education and the instincts of family pride
saved him from both the greed and the vulgar display which
marked the typical " nabob," the self-made man of those days.
He could support the position of a governor-general and of a
country gentleman with equal credit. Concerning his second
marriage, it suffices to say that the Baroness Imhoff was nearly
forty years of age, with a family of grown-up children, when the
complaisant law of her native land allowed her to become Mrs
Hastings. She survived her husband, who cherished towards
her to the last the sentiments of a lover. Her children he
adopted as his own; and it was chiefly for her sake that he
desired the peerage which was twice held out to him.

Hastings's public career will probably never cease to be a
subject of controversy. It was his misfortune to be the scape-
goat upon whose head parliament laid the accumulated sins,
real and imaginary, of the East India Company. If the acquisi-
tion of the Indian empire can be supported on ethical grounds,
Hastings needs no defence. No one who reads his private
correspondence will admit that even his least defensible acts
were dictated by dishonourable motives. It is more pleasing to
point out certain of his public measures upon which no difference
of opinion can arise. He was the first to attempt to open a trade
route with Tibet, and to organize a survey of Bengal and of the
eastern seas. It was he who persuaded the pundits of Bengal to
disclose the treasures of Sanskrit to European scholars. He
founded the Madrasa or college for Mahommedan education at
Calcutta, primarily out of his own funds; and he projected the
foundation of an Indian institute in England. The Bengal
Asiatic Society was established under his auspices, though he
yielded the post of president to Sir W. Jones. No Englishman
ever understood the native character so well. as Hastings; none
ever devoted himself more heartily to the promotion of every
scheme, great and small, that could advance the prosperity of
India. Natives and Anglo-Indians alike venerate his name, the
former as their first beneficent administrator, the latter as the

HASTINGS

59

most able and the most enlightened of their own class. If Clive's
sword conquered the Indian empire, it was the brain of Hastings
that planned the system of civil administration, and his genius
that saved the empire in its darkest hour.

See G. B. Malleson, Life of Warren Hastings (1894); G. W.
Forrest, The Administration of Warren Hastings (Calcutta, 1892);
Sir Charles Lawson, The Private Life of Warren Hastings (1895);
L. J. Trotter, Warren Hastings (" Rulers of India " series) (1890);
Sir Alfred Lyall, Warren Hastings (" English Men of Action " series)
(1889) ; F. M. Holmes, Four Heroes of India (1892) ; G. W. Hastings,
A Vindication of Warren Hastings (1909). Macaulay's famous essay,
though a classic, is very partial and inaccurate; and Burke's speech,
on the impeachment of Warren Hastings, is magnificent rhetoric.
The true historical view has been restored by Sir James Stephen's
Story of Nuncomar (1885) and by Sir John Strachey's Hastings and
the Rohilla War (1892), and it is enforced in some detail in Sydney
C. Grier's Letters of Warren Hastings to his Wife (1905), material for
which existed in a mass of documents relating to Hastings, acquired
by the British Museum. (J. S. Co.)

HASTINGS, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
and watering-place of Sussex, England, one of the Cinque Ports,
62 m. S.E. by S. from London, on the South Eastern & Chatham
and the London, Brighton & South Coast railways. Pop. (1901),
65,528. It is picturesquely situated at the mouth of two narrow
valleys, and, being sheltered by considerable hills on the north
and east, has an especially mild climate. Eastward along the
coast towards Fairlight, and inland, the country is beautiful.
A parade fronts the English Channel, and connects the town on
the west with St Leonard's, which is included within the borough.
This is mainly a residential quarter, and has four railway stations
on the lines serving Hastings. Both Hastings and St Leonard's
have fine piers; there is a covered parade known as the Marina,
and the Alexandra Park of 75 acres was opened in 1891. There
are also numerous public gardens. The sandy beach is extensive,
and affords excellent bathing. On the brink of the West Cliff
stand a square and a circular tower and other fragments of the
castle, probably erected soon after the time of William the
Conqueror; together with the ruins, opened up by excavation
in 1824, of the castle chapel, a transitional Norman structure
no ft. long, with a nave, chancel and aisles. Besides the chapel
there was formerly a college, both being under the control of a
dean and secular canons. The deanery was held by Thomas
Becket, and one of the canonries by William of Wykeham. The
principal public buildings are the old parish churches of All
Saints and St Clements, the first containing in its register for
1619 the baptism of Titus Dates, whose father was rector of the
parish; numerous modern churches, the town hall (1880);
theatre, music hall and assembly rooms. The Brassey Institute
contains a public library, museum and art school. The Albert
Memorial clock-tower was erected in 1864. Educational institu-
tions include the grammar school (1883), school of science and
art (1878) and technical schools. At the west end of the town
are several hospitals and convalescent homes. The prosperity
of the town depends almost wholly on its reputation as a watering-
place, but there is a small fishing and boat-building industry.
In 1890 an act of parliament authorized the construction of a
harbour, but the work, begun in 1896, was not completed. The
fish-market beneath the castle cliff is picturesque. The parlia-
mentary borough, returning one member, falls within the Rye
division of the county. The county borough was created in
1888. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 10 aldermen
and 30 councillors. Area, 4857 acres.

Rock shelters on Castle Hill and numerous flint instruments
which have been discovered at Hastings point to an extensive
neolithic population, and there are ancient earthworks and a
promontory camp of unknown date. There is no evidence that
Hastings was a Roman settlement, but it was a place of some
note in the Anglo-Saxon period. In 795 land at Hastings
(Haestingaceaster, Haestingas, Haestingaport) is included in a
grant, which may possibly be a forgery, of a South Saxon chieftain
to the abbey of St Denis in France; and a royal mint was
established at the town by ^thelstan. The battle of Hastings
in 1066 described below was the first and decisive act of the
Norman Conquest. It was fought near the present Battle Abbey,

about 6 m. inland. After the Conquest William I. erected the
earthworks of the existing castle. By 1086 Hastings was a
borough and had given its name to the rape of Sussex in which
it lay. The town at that time had a harbour and a market.
Whether Hastings was one of the towns afterwards known as
the Cinque Ports at the time when they received their first charter
from Edward the Confessor is uncertain, but in the reign of
William I. it was undoubtedly among them. These combined
towns, of which Hastings was the head, had special liberties
and a separate jurisdiction under a warden. The only charter
peculiar to Hastings was granted in 1589 by Elizabeth, and
incorporated the borough under the name of " mayor, jurats
and commonalty," instead of the former title of " bailiff, jurats
and commonalty." Hastings returned two members to parlia-
ment probably from 1322, and certainly from 1366, until 1885,
when the number was reduced to one.

Battle of Hastings. — On the 28th of September 1066, William
of Normandy, bent on asserting by arms his right to the English
crown, landed at Pevensey. King Harold, who had destroyed
the invaders of northern England at the battle of Stamford
Bridge in Yorkshire, on hearing the news hurried southward,
gathering what forces he could on the way. He took up his
position, athwart the road from Hastings to London, on a hill1
some 6 m. inland from Hastings, with his back to the great
forest of Anderida (the Weald) and in front of him a long glacis-
like slope, at the bottom of which began the opposing slope of
Telham Hill. The English army was composed almost entirely
of infantry. The shire levies, for the most part destitute of body
armour and with miscellaneous and even improvised weapons,
were arranged on either flank of Harold's guards (huscarks),
picked men armed principally with the Danish axe and shield.

Before this position Duke William appeared on the morning
of the I4th of October. His host, composed not only of his
Norman vassals but of barons, knights and adventurers from all
quarters, was arranged in a centre and two wings, each corps
having its archers and arblasters in the front line, the rest of the
infantry in the second and the heavy armoured cavalry in the
third. Neither the arrows nor the charge of the second line
of foot-men, who, unlike the English, wore defensive mail, made
any impression on the English standing in a serried mass behind
their interlocked shields.2

Then the heavy cavalry came on, led by the duke and his
brother Odo, and encouraged by the example of the minstrel
Taillefer, who rode forward, tossing and catching his sword,
into the midst of the English line before he was pulled down and
killed. All along the front the cavalry came to close quarters
with the defenders, but the long powerful Danish axes were

1 Freeman called this hill Senlac and introduced the fashion of
describing the battle as " the battle of Senlac." Mr J. H. Round,
however, proved conclusively that this name, being French (Sen-
lecque), could not have been in use at the time of the Conquest,
that the battlefield had in fact no name, pointing out that in William
of Malmesbury and in Domesday Book the battle is called " of
Hastings " (Bellum Hastingense) , while only one writer, Ordericus
Vitalis, describes it two hundred years after the event as Bellum
Senlacium. See Round, Feudal England (London, 1895), p. 333
et seq.

2 There is still a difference of opinion as to whether the English
were, or were not, defended by any other rampart than that of the
customary " shield-wall." Freeman, apparently as a result of a
misunderstanding of a passage in Henry of Huntingdon and the
slightly ambiguous verse of Wace in the Roman du Ron (11. 6991-
6994 and 11. 7815-7826), affirms that Harold turned " the battle as
far as possible into the likeness of a siege," by building round his
troops a " palisade " of solid timber (Norman Conquest, iii. 444):
This was proved to be a fable by J. H. Round, in the course of a
general attack on Freeman's historical method, which provoked the
professor's defenders to take up the cudgels on his behalf in a very
long and lively controversy. The result of this was that Freeman's
account was wholly discredited, though Round 's view — that there was
no wall of any kind save the shield-wall — is not generally accepted.
Professor Oman (Academy, June 9, 1894), for instance, holds that
there was " an abattis of some sort " set to hamper the advance
of cavalry (see also ENGLISH HISTORY, vol. ix., p. 474). Mr Round
sums up the controversy, from his point of view, in his Feudal
England, p. 340 et seq., where references to other monographs on
the subject will be found.

6o

HASTINGS— HAT

as formidable as the halbert and the bill proved to be in battles
of later centuries, and they lopped off the arms of the assailants
and cut down their horses. The fire of the attack died out and
the left wing (Bretons) fled in rout. But as thefyrd levies broke
out of the line and pursued the Bretons down the hill in a wild,
formless mob, William's cavalry swung round and destroyed
them, and this suggested to the duke to repeat deliberately
what the B retons had done from fear. Another a d vance , followed
by a feigned retreat, drew down a second large body of the
English from the crest, and these in turn, once in the open, were
ridden over and slaughtered by the men-at-arms. Lastly,
these two disasters having weakened the defenders both
materially and morally, William subjected the huscarles, who
had stood fast when the fyrd broke its ranks, to a constant rain
of arrows, varied from time to time by cavalry charges. These
magnificent soldiers endured the trial for many hours, from
noon till close on nightfall; but at last, when the Norman
archers raised their bows so as to pitch the arrows at a steep
angle of descent in the midst of the huscarles, the strain became
too great. While some rushed forward alone or in twos and threes
to die in the midst of the enemy, the remainder stood fast, too
closely crowded almost for the wounded to drop. At last
Harold received a mortal wound, the English began to waver,
and the knights forced their way in. Only a remnant of the
defenders made its way back to the forest; and William, after
resting for a night on the hardly-won ground, began the work of
the Norman Conquest.

HASTINGS, a city and the county-seat of Adams county,
Nebraska, U.S.A., about 95 m. W. by S. of Lincoln. Pop.
(1890) 13,584; (1900) 7188 (1253 foreign-born); (1910) 9338.
Hastings is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the
Chicago & North-western, the Missouri Pacific and the St Joseph
& Grand Island railways. It is the seat of Hastings College
(Presbyterian, coeducational), opened in 1882, and having 286
students in 1908, and of the state asylum for the chronic insane.
The city carries on a considerable jobbing business for the farm-
ing region of which it is the centre and produce market. There
are a large foundry and several large brickyards here. Hastings
was settled in 1872, was incorporated in 1874 and was chartered
as a city in the same year.

HAT, a covering for the head worn by both sexes, and dis-
tinguished from the cap or bonnet by the possession of a brim.
The word in O.E. is licet, which is cognate with O. Frisian halt,
O.N. hotte, &c., meaning head-covering, hood ; it is distantly
related to the O.E. hod, hood, which is cognate with the German
for " hat," Hut. The history of the hat as part of the apparel
of both sexes, with the various changes in shape which it has
undergone, is treated in the article COSTUME.

Hats were originally made by the process of felting, and as
tradition ascribed the discovery of that very ancient operation
to St Clement, he was assumed as the patron saint of the craft.
At the present day the trade is divided into two distinct classes.
The first and most ancient is concerned with the manufacture
of felt hats, and the second has to do with the recent but now
most extensive and important manufacture of silk or dress hats.
In addition to these there is the important manufacture of straw
or plaited hats (see STRAW AND STRAW MANUFACTURES); and
hats are occasionally manufactured of materials and by processes
not included under any of these heads, but such manufactures
do not take a large or permanent position in the industry.

Felt Hats. — There is a great range in the quality of felt hats:
the finer and more expensive qualities are made entirely of fur;
for commoner qualities a mixture of fur and wool is used; and for
the cheapest kinds wool alone is employed. The processes and
apparatus necessary for making hats of fur differ also from those
required in the case of woollen bodies; and in large manufactories
machinery is now generally employed for operations which at no
distant date were entirely manual. An outline of the operations
by which the old beaver hat was made will give an idea of the
manual processes in making a fur napped hat, and the apparatus
and mechanical processes employed in making ordinary hard and
soft felts will afterwards be noticed.

Hatters' fur consists principally of the hair of rabbits (technically
called coneys) and hares, with some proportion of nutria, musquash
and beavers' hair; and generally any parings and cuttings from

furriers are also used. Furs intended for felting are deprived of their
long coarse hairs, after which they are treated with a solution of
nitrate of mercury, an operation called carroting or secretage, whereby
the felting properties of the fur are greatly increased. The fur is
then cut by hand or machine from the skip, and in this state it is
delivered to the hat maker.

The old process of making a beaver hat was as follows. The
materials of a proper beaver consisted, for the body or foundation, of
rabbits' fur, and for the nap, of beaver fur, although the beaver was
often mixed with or supplanted by a more common fur. In pre-
paring the fur plate, the hatter weighed out a sufficient quantity
of rabbit fur for a single hat, and spread it out and combined it by
the operation of bowing. The bow or stang ABC (fig. i) was about

FIG. i.

7 ft. long, and it stretched a single cord of catgut D, which the
workman vibrated by means of a wooden pin E, furnished with a
half knob at each end. Holding the bow in his left hand, and the pin
in his right, he caused the vibrating string to come in contact with
the heap of tangled fur, which did not cover a space greater than that
of the hand. At each vibration some of the filaments started up to
the height of a few inches, and fell away from the mass, a little to
the right of the bow, their excursions being restrained by a concave
frame of wicker work called the basket. One half of the material
was first operated on, and by bowing and gathering, or a patting use
of the basket, the stuff was loosely matted into a triangular figure,
about 50 by 36 in., called a bat. In this formation care was taken to
work about two-thirds of the fur down towards what was intended
for the brim, and this having been effected, greater density was in-
duced by gentle pressure with the basket. It was then covered with
a wettish linen cloth, upon which was laid the hardening skin, a
piece of dry half-tanned horse hide. On this the workman pressed
until the stuff adhered closely to the damp cloth, in which it was then
doubled up, freely pressed with the hand, and laid aside. By this
process, called basoning, the bat became compactly felted and
thinned toward the sides and point. The other half of the fur was next
subjected to precisely the same processes, after which a cone-shaped
slip of stiff paper was laid on its surface, and the sides of the bat were
folded over ics edges to its form and size. It was then laid paper-side
downward upon the first bat, which was now replaced on the hurdle,
and its edges were transversely doubled over the introverted side-lays
of the second bat, thus giving equal thickness to the whole body.
In this condition it was reintroduced between folds of damp linen
cloth, and again hardened, so as to unite the two halves, the knitting
together of which was quickly effected. The paper was then with-
drawn, and the body in the form of a large cone removed to the
plank or battery room.

The battery consisted of an open iron boiler or kettle A (fig. 2),
filled with scalding hot water, with shelves, B, C, partly of mahogany
and partly of lead, slop-
ing down to it. Here
the body was first dipped
in the water, and then
withdrawn to the plank
to cool and drain, when
it was unfolded, rolled
gently with a pin tapering
towards the ends, turned,
and worked in every
direction, to toughen and
shrink it, and at the same
time prevent adhesion of
its sides. Stopping or
thickening any thin spots
seen on looking through
the body, was carefully
performed by dabbing on
additional stuff in succes-

FIG. 2.

sive supplies from the hot liquor with a brush frequently dipped into
the kettle, until the body was shrunk sufficiently (about one-half) and
thoroughly equalized. When quite dried, stiffening was effected
with a brush dipped into a thin varnish of shellac, and rubbed into
the body, the surface intended for the inside having much more
laid on it than the outer, while the brim was made to absorb many
times the quantity applied to any other part.

On being again dried, the body was ready to be covered with a nap
of beaver hair. For this, in inferior qualities, the hair of the otter,
nutria or other fine fur was sometimes substituted. The requisite
quantity of one or other of these was. taken and mixed with a pro-
portion of cotton, and the whole was bowed up into a thin uniform
lap. The cotton merely s
to enable the workman

11, aliu Lllc Wliuic w<ts uuvvju up liny a. ii

L merely served to give sufficient body to the material
workman to handle the lap. The body of the hat

HATCH, EDWIN— HATCH

61

being damped, the workman spread over it a covering of this lap,
and by moistening and gentle patting with a brush the cut ends
of the hair penetrated and fixed themselves in the felt body. The
hat was then put into a coarse hair cloth, dipped and rolled in
the hot liquor until the fur was quite worked in, the cotton being
left on the surface loose and ready for removal. The blocking,
dyeing and finishing processes in the case of beaver hats were
similar to those employed for ordinary felts, except that greater care
and dexterity were required on the part of the workmen, and further
that the coarse hairs or kemps which might be in the fur were cut off
by shaving the surface with a razor. The nap also had to be laid in
one direction, smoothed and rendered glossy by repeated wettings,
ironings and brushings. A hat so finished was very durable and
much more light, cool and easy-fitting to the head than the silk hat
which has now so largely superseded it.

The first efficient machinery for making felt hats was devised in
America, and from the United States the machine-making processes
were introduced into England about the year 1858; and now in all
large establishments machinery such as that alluded to below is
employed. For the forming of hat bodies two kinds of machine are
used, according as the material employed is fur or wool. In the case
of fur, the essential portion of the apparatus is a " former," con-
sisting of a metal cone of the size and form of the body or bat to
be made, perforated all over with small holes. The cone is made to
revolve on its axis slowly over an orifice under which there is a
powerful fan, which maintains a strong inward draught of air
through the holes in the cone. At the side of the cone, and with
an opening towards it, is a trunk or box from which the fur to be
made into a hat is thrown out by the rapid revolution of a brush-
like cylinder, and as the cloud of separate hairs is expelled from
the trunk, the current of air being sucked through the cone carries
the fibres to it and causes them to cling closely to its surface. Thus
a coating of loose fibres is accumulated on the copper cone, and
these are kept in position only by the exhaust at work under it.
When sufficient for a hat body has been deposited, it is damped and a
cloth is wrapped round it ; then an outer cone is slipped over it and
the whole is removed for felting, while another copper cone is placed
in position for continuing the work. The fur is next felted by
being rolled and pressed, these operations being performed partly by
hand and partly by machine.

In the case of wool hats the hat or body is prepared by first
carding in a modified form of carding machine. The wool is divided
into two separate slivers as delivered from the cards, and these are
wound simultaneously on a double conical block of wood mounted
and geared to revolve slowly with a reciprocating horizontal motion,
so that there is a continual crossing and recrossing of the wool as
the sliver is wound around the cone. This diagonal arrangement of
the sliver is an essential feature in the apparatus, as thereby the
strength of the finished felt is made equal in every direction; and
when strained in the blocking the texture yields in a uniform manner
without rupture. The wool wound on the double block forms the
material of two hats, which are separated by cutting around the
median or base line, and slipping each half off at its own end. Into
each cone of wool or bat an " inlayer " is now placed to prevent the
inside from matting, after which they are folded in cloths, and placed
over a perforated iron plate through which steam is blown. When
well moistened and heated, they are placed between boards, and
subjected to a rubbing action sufficient to harden them for bearing
the subsequent strong planking or felting operations. The planking
of wool hats is generally done by machine, in some cases a form of
fulling mill being used; but in all forms the agencies are heat,
moisture, pressure, rubbing and turning.

When by thorough felting the hat bodies of any kind have been
reduced to dense leathery cones about one-half the size of the original
bat, they are dried, and, if hard felts are to be made, the bodies are
at this stage hardened or stiffened with a varnish of shellac. Next
follows the operations of blocking, in which the felt for the first time
assumes approximately the form it is ultimately to possess. For
this purpose the conical body is softened in boiling water, and
forcibly drawn over and over a hat-shaped wooden block. The
operation of dyeing next follows, and the finishing processes include
shaping on a block, over which crown and brim receive ultimately
their accurate form, and pouncing or pumicing, which consists of
smoothing the surface with fine emery paper, the hat being for this
purpose mounted on a rapidly revolving block. The trimmer finajly
binds the outer brim and inserts the lining, after which the brim
may be given more or less of a curl or turn over according to pre-
vailing fashion.

Silk flats. — The silk hat, which has now become co-extensive with
civilization, is an article of comparatively recent introduction. It
was invented in Florence about 1760, but it was more than half a
century before it was worn to any great extent.

A silk hat consists of a light stiff body covered with a plush of
silk, the manufacture of which in a brilliant glossy condition is the
most important element in the industry. Originally the bodies
were made of felt and various other materials, but now calico is
chiefly used. The calico is first stiffened with a varnish of shellac,
and then cut into pieces sufficient for crown, side and brim. The
side-piece is wound round a wooden hat block, and its edges are

joined by hot ironing, and the crown-piece is put on and similarly
attached to the side. The brim, consisting of three thicknesses of
calico cemented together, is now slipped over and brought to its
position, and thereafter a second side-piece and another crown are
cemented on. The whole of the body, thus prepared, now receives
a coat of size, and subsequently it is varnished over, and thus it is
ready for the operation of covering. In covering this body, the
under brim, generally of merino, is first attached, then the upper
brim, and lastly the crown and side sewn together are drawn over.
All these by hot ironing and stretching are drawn smooth and tight,
and as the varnish of the body softens with the heat, body and coyer
adhere all over to each other without wrinkle or pucker. Dressing
and polishing by means of damping, brushing and ironing, come
next, after which the hat is " velured " in a revolving machine by
the application of haircloth and velvet velures, which cleans the nap
and gives it a smooth and glossy surface. The brim has only then to
be bound, the linings inserted, and the brim finally curled, when
the hat is ready for use.

HATCH, EDWIN (1835-1889), English theologian, was born
at Derby on the I4th of September 1835, and was educated at
King Edward's school, Birmingham, under James Prince Lee,
afterwards bishop of Manchester. He had many struggles to
pass through in early life, which tended to discipline his character
and to form the habits of severe study and the mental independ-
ence for which he came to be distinguished. Hatch became
scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford, took a second-class in
classics in 1857, and won the Ellerton prize in 1858. He was
professor of classics in Trinity College, Toronto, from 1859 to
1862, when he became rector of the high school at Quebec.
In 1867 he returned to Oxford, and was made vice-principal of
St Mary Hall, a post which he held until 1885. In 1883 he was
presented to the living of Purleigh in Essex, and in 1884 was
appointed university reader in ecclesiastical history. In 1880
he was Bampton lecturer, and from 1880 to 1884 Grinfield
lecturer on the Septuagint. In 1883 the university of Edinburgh
conferred on him the D.D. degree. He was the first editor of
the university official Gazette (1870), and of the Student's Hand-
book to the University. A reputation acquired through certain
contributions to the Dictionary of Christian Antiquities was
confirmed by his treatises On the Organization of the Early
Christian Churches (1881, his Bampton lectures), and on The
Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages on the Christian Church
(the Hibbert lectures for 1888). These works provoked no little
criticism on account of the challenge they threw down to the
high-church party, but the research and fairness displayed were
admitted on all hands. The Bampton lectures were translated
into German by Harnack. Among his other works are The
Growth of Church Institutions (1887); Essays in Biblical Greek
(1889); A Concordance to the Septuagint (in collaboration with
H. A. Redpath); Towards Fields of Light (verse, 1889); The
God of Hope (sermons with memoir, 1890). Hatch died on the
loth of November 1889.

An appreciation by W. Sanday appeared in The Expositor for
February 1890.

HATCH, i. (In Mid. Eng. hacche; the word is of obscure
origin, but cognate forms appear in Swed. hacka, and Dan.
hackke; it has been connected with " hatch," grating, with
possible reference to a coop, and with " hack " in the sense
" to peck," of chickens coming out of the shell), to bring out
young from the egg, by incubation or other process, natural or
artificial. The word is also used as a substantive of a brood of
chickens brought out from the eggs. " Hatchery " is particularly
applied to a place for the hatching of fish spawn, where the
natural process is aided by artificial means. In a figurative
sense " to hatch " is often used of the development or contrivance
of a plot or conspiracy.

2. (From the Fr. hacker, to cut, hache, hatchet), to engrave
or draw by means of cutting lines on wood, metal, &c., or to
ornament by inlaying with strips of some other substance as
gold or silver. Engraved lines, especially those used in shading,
are called " hatches " or " hachures " (see HACHURE).

3. (O.E. hcec, a gate, rack in a stable; found in various
Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hek, Dan. hekke; the ultimate
origin is obscure; Skeat suggests a connexion with the root
seen in " hook "), the name given to the lower half of a divided

HATCHET- -HATHERLEY, BARON

door, as in " buttery-hatch," the half-door leading from the
buttery or kitchen, through which the dishes could be passed
into the dining-hall. It was used formerly as another name for
a ship's deck, and thus the phrase " under hatches " meant
properly below deck; the word is now applied to the doors of
grated framework covering the openings (the " hatchways ")
which lead from one deck to another into the hold through
which the cargo is lowered. In Cornwall the word is used to
denote certain dams or mounds used to prevent the tin-washes
and the water coming from the stream-works from flowing into
the fresh rivers.

HATCHET (adapted from the Fr. hachelte, diminutive of hache,
axe, hacher, to cut, hack), a small, light form of axe with a short
handle (see TOOL) ; for the war-hatchet of the North American
Indians and the symbolical ceremonies connected 'with it see
TOMAHAWK.

HATCHETTITE, sometimes termed Mountain Tallow, Mineral
Adipocire, or Adipocerite, a mineral hydrocarbon occurring in
the Coal-measures of Belgium and elsewhere, occupying in some
cases the interior of hollow concretions of iron-ore, but more
generally the cavities of fossil shells or crevices in the rocks.
It is of yellow colour, and translucent, but darkens and becomes
opaque on exposure. It has no odour, is greasy to the touch, and
has a slightly glistening lustre. Its hardness is that of soft
wax. The melting point is 46° to 47° C., and the composition is
C. 85-55, H. 14-45.

HATCHMENT, properly, in heraldry, an escutcheon or armorial
shield granted for some act of distinction or " achievement,"
of which word it is a corruption through such forms as atcheament,
achement, hachemenl, &c. " Achievement " is an adaptation
of the Fr. achevement, from achever, a chef venir, Lat. ad caput
venire, to come to a head, or conclusion, hence accomplish,
achieve. The term " hatchment " is now usually applied to
funeral escutcheons or armorial shields enclosed in a black
lozenge-shaped frame suspended against the wall of a deceased
person's house. It is usually placed over the entrance at the
level of the second floor, and remains for from six to twelve
months, when it is removed to the parish church. This custom
is falling into disuse, though still not uncommon. It is usual to
hang the hatchment of a deceased head of a house at the univer-
sities of Oxford and Cambridge over the entrance to his lodge
or residence.

If for a bachelor the hatchment bears upon a shield his arms,
crest, and other appendages, the whole on a black ground. If
for a single woman, her arms are represented upon a lozenge,

bordered with knotted ribbons,
also on a black ground. If the
hatchment be for a married
man ( as in the illustration), his
arms upon a shield impale those
of his surviving wife; or if she
be an heiress they are placed
upon a scutcheon of pretence,
and crest and other appendages
are added. The dexter half of
the ground is black, the sinister
white. For a wife whose hus-
band is alive the same arrange-
ment is used, but the sinister
ground only is black. For a
widower the same is used as
for a married man, but the
whole ground is black; for a
widow the husband's arms are given with her own, but upon a
lozenge, with ribbons, without crest or appendages, and the
whole ground is black. When there have been two wives or
two husbands the ground is divided into three parts per pale,
and the division behind the arms of the survivor is white.
Colours and military or naval emblems are sometimes placed
behind the arms of military or naval officers. It is thus easy
to discern from the hatchment the sex, condition and quality,
and possibly the name of the deceased.

In Scottish hatchments it is not unusual to place the arms
of the father and mother of the deceased in the two lateral
angles of the lozenge, and sometimes the 4, 8 or 16 genealogical
escutcheons are ranged along the margin.

HATFIELD, a town in the Mid or St Albans parliamentary
division of Hertfordshire, England, 172 m. N. of London by the
Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901), 47 54. It lies picturesquely
on the flank of a wooded hill, and about its foot, past which runs
the Great North Road. The church of St Etheldreda, well
situated towards the top of the hill, contains an Early English
round arch with the dog-tooth moulding, -but for the rest is
Decorated and Perpendicular, and largely restored. The chapel
north of the chancel is known as the Salisbury chapel, and was
erected by Robert Cecil, first earl of Salisbury (d. 1612), who
was buried here. It is in a mixture of classic and Gothic styles.
In a private portion of the churchyard is buried, among others
of the family, the third marquess of Salisbury (d. 1903). In the
vicinity is Hatfield House, close to the site of a palace of the
bishops of Ely, which was erected about the beginning of the
1 2th century. From this palace comes the proper form of the
name of the town, Bishop's Hatfield. In 1538 the manor was
resigned to Henry VIII. by Bishop Thomas Goodrich of Ely,
in exchange for certain lands in Cambridge, Essex and Norfolk;
and after that monarch the palace was successively the residence
of Edward VI. immediately before his accession, of Queen
Elizabeth during the reign of her sister Mary, and of James I.
The last-named exchanged it in 1607 for Theobalds, near
Cheshunt, in the same county, an estate of Robert Cecil, earl of
Salisbury, in whose family Hatfield House has since remained.
The west wing of the present mansion, built for Cecil in 1608-
1611, was destroyed by fire in November 1835, the dowager
marchioness of Salisbury, widow of the ist marquess, perishing
in the flames. Hatfield House was built, and has been restored
and maintained, in the richest style of its period, both without
and within. The buildings of mellowed red brick now used as
stables and offices are, however, of a period far anterior to Cecil's
time, and are probably part of the erection of John Morton,
bishop of Ely in 1478-1486. The park measures some 10 m,
in circumference. From the eminence on which the mansion
stands the ground falls towards the river Lea, which here expands
into a small lake. Beyond this is a rare example of a monks'
walled vineyard. In the park is also an ancient oak under
which Elizabeth is said to have been seated when the news of her
sister's death was brought to her. Brocket Park is another fine
demesne, at the neighbouring village of Lemsford, and the
Brocket chapel in Hatfield church contains memorials of the
families who have held this seat.

HATHERLEY, WILLIAM PAGE WOOD, IST BARON (1801-
1881), lord chancellor of Great Britain, son of Sir Matthew
.Wood, a London alderman and lord mayor who became famous
for befriending Queen Caroline and braving George IV., was born
in London on the 29th of November 1801. He was educated
at Winchester, Geneva University, and Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, where he became a fellow after being 24th wrangler in
1824. He entered Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar in
1824, studying conveyancing in Mr John Tyrrell's chambers.
He soon obtained a good practice as an equity draughtsman
and before parliamentary committees, and in 1830 married
Miss Charlotte Moor. In 1845 he became Q.C., and in 1847 was
elected to parliament for the city of Oxford as a Liberal. In
1849 he was appointed vice-chancellor of the county palatine
of Lancaster, and in 1851 was made solicitor-general and knighted,
vacating that position in 1852. When his party returned to
power in 1853, he was raised to the bench as a vice-chancellor.
In 1868 he was made a lord justice of appeal, but before the end
of the year was selected by Mr Gladstone to be lord chancellor,
and was raised to the peerage as Lord Hatherley of Down
Hatherley. He retired in 1872 owing to failing eyesight, but sat
occasionally as a law lord. His wife's death in 1878 was a great
blow, from which he never recovered, and he died in London
on the loth of July 1881. Dean Hook said that Lord Hatherley
— who was a sound and benevolent supporter of the Church of

HATHERTON, BARON— HATTON, SIR C.

England — was the best man he had ever known. He was a
particularly clear-headed lawyer, and his judgments — always
delivered extempore — commanded the greatest confidence both
with the public and the legal profession. He left no issue and
the title became extinct on his death.

HATHERTON, EDWARD JOHN LITTLETON, IST BARON
(1791-1863), was born on the i8th of March 1791 and was
educated at Rugby school and at Brasenose College, Oxford.
He was the only son of Moreton Walhouse of Hatherton, Stafford-
shire; but in 1812, in accordance with the will of his great-uncle
Sir Edward Littleton, Bart. (d. 1812), he took the name of
Littleton. From 1812 to 1832 he was member of parliament for
Staffordshire and from 1832 to 1835 for the southern division of
that county, being specially prominent in the House of Commons
as an advocate of Roman Catholic emancipation. In January
1833, against his own wish, he was put forward by the Radicals
as a candidate for the office of speaker, but he was not elected and
in May 1833 he became chief secretary to the lord-lieutenant of
Ireland in the ministry of Earl Grey. His duties in this capacity
brought him frequently into conflict with O'Connell, but he was
obviously unequal to the great Irishman, although he told his
colleagues to " leave me to manage Dan." He had to deal with
the vexed and difficult question of the Irish tithes on which the
government was divided, and with his colleagues had to face the
problem of a new coercion act. Rather hastily he made a
compact with O'Connell on the assumption that the new act could
not contain certain clauses which were part of the old act.
The clauses, however, were inserted; O'Connell charged Littleton
with deception; and in July 1834 Grey, Althorp (afterwards
Earl Spencer) and the Irish secretary resigned. The two latter
were induced to serve under the new premier, Lord Melbourne,
and they remained in office until Melbourne was dismissed in
November 1834. In 1835 Littleton was created Baron Hatherton,
and he died at his Staffordshire residence, Teddesley Hall, on the
4th of May 1863. In 1888 his grandson, Edward George Littleton
(b. 1842), became 3rd Baron Hatherton.

See Hatherton's Memoirs and Correspondence relating to Political
Occurrences, June-July 1834, edited by H. Reeve (1872); and Sir
S. Walpole, History 0} England, vol. iii. (1890).

HATHRAS, a town of British India, in the Aligarh district
of the United Provinces, 29 m. N. of Agra. Pop. (1901), 42,578.
At the end of the i8th century it was held by a Jat chieftain,
whose ruined fort still stands at the east end of the town, and
was annexed by the British in 1803, but insubordination on
the part of the chief necessitated the siege of the fort in 1817.
Since it came under British rule, Hathras has rapidly risen to
commercial importance, and now ranks second to Cawnpore
among the trading centres of the Doab. The chief articles of
commerce are sugar and grain, there are also factories for ginning
and pressing cotton, and a cotton spinning-mill. Hathras is
connected by a light railway with Muttra, and by a branch with
Hathras junction, on the East Indain main line.

HATTIESBURG, a city and the county-seat of Forrest county,
Mississippi, U.S.A., on the Hastahatchee (or Leaf) river, about
90 m. S.E. of Jackson. Pop. (1890) 1172; (1900) 4175 (1687
negroes); (1910) 11,733. Hattiesburg is served by the Gulf &Ship
Island, the Mississippi Central, the New Orleans, Mobile &
Chicago and the New Orleans & North Eastern railways. The
officers and employees of the Gulf & Ship Island railway own and
maintain a hospital here. The city is in a rich farming, truck-
gardening and lumbering "ountry. Among its manufactures
are lumber (especially yellow-pine), wood-alcohol, turpentine,
paper and pulp, fertilizers, wagons, mattresses and machine-shop
products. Hattiesburg was founded about 1882 and was nahied
in honour of the wife of W. H. Hardy, a railway official, who
planned a town at the intersection of the New Orleans & North-
Eastern (which built a round house and repair shops here in 1885)
and the Gulf & Ship Island railways. The latter railway was
opened from Gulfport to Hattiesburg in January 1897, and from
Hattiesburg to Jackson in September 1900. Hattiesburg was
incorporated as a town in 1884 and was chartered as a city in
1899. Formerly the " court house " of the second judicial

district of Perry county, Hattiesburg became on the ist of
January 1908 the county-seat of Forrest county, erected from
the W. part of Perry county.

HATTINGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Westphalia, on the river Ruhr, 21 m. N.E. of Diisseldorf.
Pop. ( 1 900) , 89 7 5 . It has two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
church. The manufactures include tobacco, and iron and steel
goods. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the Isenburg,
demolished in 1 2 26. Hattingen, which received communal rights
in 1396, was one of the Hanse towns.

HATTO I. (c. 850-913), archbishop of Mainz, belonged to a
Swabiah family, and was probably educated at the monastery
of Reichenau, of which be became abbot in 888. He soon became
known to the German king, Arnulf, who appointed him arch-
bishop of Mainz in 891; and he became such a trustworthy
and confidential counsellor that he was popularly called " the
heart of the king." He presided over the important synod at
Tribur in 895, and accompanied the king to Italy in 894 and
895, where he was received with great favour by Pope Formosus.
In 899, when Arnulf died, Hatto became regent of Germany, and
guardian of the young king, Louis the Child, whose authority
he compelled Zwentibold, king of Lorraine, an illegitimate son of
Arnulf, to recognize. During these years he did not neglect
his own interests, for in 896 he secured for himself the abbey of
Ellwangen and in 898 that of Lorsch . He assisted the Franconian
family of the Conradines in its feud with the Babenbergs, and
was accused of betraying Adalbert, count of Babenberg, to
death. He retained his influence during the whole of the reign
of Louis; and on the king's death in 911 was prominent in
securing the election of Conrad, duke of Fran'conia, to the
vacant throne. When trouble arose between Conrad and Henry,
duke of Saxony, afterwards King Henry the Fowler, the attitude
of Conrad was ascribed by the Saxons to the influence of Hatto,
who wished to prevent Henry from securing authority in Thur-
ingia, where the see of Mainz had extensive possessions. He
was accused of complicity in a plot to murder Duke Henry, who
in return ravaged the archiepiscopal lands in Saxony and
Thuringia. He died on the 1 5th of May 913, one tradition saying
he was struck by lightning, and another that he was thrown alive
by the devil into the crater of Mount Etna. His. memory was
long regarded in Saxony with great abhorrence, and stories of
cruelty and treachery gathered round his name. The legend of
the Mouse Tower at Bingen is connected with Hatto II., who
was archbishop of Mainz from 968 to 970. This Hatto built
the church of St George on the island of Reichenau, was generous
to the see of Mainz and to the abbeys of Fulda and Reichenau,
and was a patron of the chronicler Regino, abbot of Priim.

See E. Dummler, Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reichs (Leipzig,
1887-1888); G. Phillips, Die grosse Synode von Tribur (Vienna,
1865) ; J. Heidemann, Hatto I., Erzbischof von Mainz (Berlin, 1865) ;
G. Waitz, Jahrbucher der deutschen Geschichte unter Heinrich I.
(Berlin and Leipzig, 1863); and J. F. Bohmer, Regesta archiepisco-
porum Maguntinensium, edited by C. Will (Innsbruck, 1877-1886).

HATTON, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1540-1591), lord chancellor of
England and favourite of Queen Elizabeth, was a son of William
Hatton (d. 1546) of Holdenby, Northamptonshire, and was
educated at St Mary Hall, Oxford. A handsome and accom-
plished man, being especially distinguished for his elegant
dancing, he soon attracted the notice of Queen Elizabeth, became
one of her gentlemen pensioners in 1564, and captain of her
bodyguard in 1572. He received numerous estates and many
positions of trust and profit from the queen, and suspicion was
not slow to assert that he was Elizabeth's lover, a chaige which
was definitely made by Mary queen of Scots in 1584. Hatton,
who was probably innocent in this matter, had been made vice-
chamberlain of the royal household and a member of the privy
council in 1578, and had been a member of parliament since 1571,
first representing the borough of Higham Ferrers and afterwards
the county of Northampton. In 1578 he was knighted, and was
now regarded as the queen's spokesman in the House of Commons,
being an active agent in the prosecutions of John Stubbs and
William Parry. He was one of those who were appointed to
arrange a marriage between Elizabeth and Francis, duke of

64

HATTON, J. L.— HAUCH

Alencon, in 1581; was a member of the court which tried
Anthony Babington in 1586; and was one of the commissioners
who found Mary queen of Scots guilty. He besought Elizabeth
not to marry the French prince; and according to one account
repeatedly assured Mary that he would fetch her to London if
the English queen died. Whether or no this story be true,
Hatton's loyalty was not questioned; and he was the foremost
figure in that striking scene in the House of Commons in December
1584, when four hundred kneeling members repeated after him
a prayer for Elizabeth's safety. Having been the constant
recipient of substantial marks of the queen's favour, he vigor-
ously denounced Mary Stuart in parliament, and advised William
Davison to forward the warrant for her execution to Fother-
ingay. In the same year (1587) Hatton was made lord chan-
cellor, and although he had no great knowledge of the law, he
appears to have acted with sound sense and good judgment in
his new position. He is said to have been a Roman Catholic
in all but name, yet he treated religious questions in a moderate
and tolerant way. He died in London on the 2oth of November
1591, and was buried in St Paul's cathedral. Although mention
has been made of a secret marriage, Hatton appears to have
remained single, and his large and valuable estates descended
to his nephew, Sir William Newport, who took the name of
Hatton. Sir Christopher was a knight of the Garter and chan-
cellor of the university of Oxford. Elizabeth frequently showed
her affection for her favourite in an extravagant and ostentatious
manner. She called him her mouton, and forced the bishop of
Ely to give him the freehold of Ely Place, Holborn, which became
his residence, his name being perpetuated in the neighbouring
Hatton Garden. Hatton is reported to have been a very mean
man, but he patronized men of letters, and among his friends
was Edmund Spenser. He wrote the fourth act of a tragedy,
Tancred and Gismund, and his death occasioned several pane-
gyrics in both prose and verse.

When Hatton's nephew, Sir William Hatton, died without
sons in 1597, his estates passed to a kinsman, another Sir Christ-
opher Hatton (d. 1619), whose son and successor, Christopher
(c. 1605-1670), was elected a member of the Long Parliament in
1640, and during the Civil War was a partisan of Charles I.
In 1643 he was created Baron Hatton of Kirby; and, acting as
comptroller of the royal household, he represented the king during
the negotiations at Uxbridge in 1645. Later he lived for some
years in France, and after the Restoration was made a privy
councillor and governor of Guernsey. He died at Kirby on
the 4th of July 1670, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
By his wife Elizabeth (d. 1672), daughter of Sir Charles Montagu
of Boughton, he had two sons and three daughters. His eldest
son Christopher (1632-1706), succeeded his father as Baron
Hatton and also as governor of Guernsey in 1670. In 1683 he
was created Viscount Hatton of Grendon. He was married three
times, and left two sons: William (1690-1760), who succeeded
to his father's titles and estates, and Henry Charles (c. 1700-
1762), who enjoyed the same dignities for a short time after his
brother's death. When Henry Charles died, the titles became
extinct, and the family is now represented by the Finch-Hattons,
earls of Winchilsea and Nottingham, whose ancestor, Daniel
Finch, 2nd earl of Nottingham, married Anne (d. 1743), daughter
of the ist Viscount Hatton.

See Sir N. H. Nicolas, Life and Times of Sir Christopher Hatton
(London, 1847) ; and Correspondence of the Family of Ilatton, being
chiefly Letters addressed to Christopher, first Viscount Ilatton, 1601-
1704, edited with introduction by E. M. Thompson (London, 1878).

HATTON, JOHN LIPTROT (1809-1886), English musical
composer, was born at Liverpool on the i2th of October 1809.
He was virtually a self-taught musician, and besides holding
several appointments as organist in Liverpool, appeared as an
actor on the Liverpool stage, subsequently finding his way to
London as a member of Macready's company at Drury Lane
in 1832. Ten years after this he was appointed conductor
at the same theatre for a series of English operas, and in 1843
his own first operetta, Queen of the Thames, wasgiven with success.
Staudigl, the eminent German bass, was a member of the com-

pany, and at his suggestion Hatton wrote a more ambitious work,
Pascal Bruno, which, in a German translation, was presented at
Vienna, with Staudig! in the principal part; the opera con-
tained a song, " Revenge," which the basso made very popular
in England, though the piece as a whole was not successful
enough to be produced here. Hatton's excellent pianoforte
playing attracted much attention in Vienna; he took the
opportunity of studying counterpoint under Sechter, and wrote
a number of songs, obviously modelled on the style of German
classics. In 1846 he appeared at the Hereford festival as a singer,
and also played a pianoforte concerto of Mozart. He undertook
concert tours about this time with Sivori, Vieuxtemps and others.
From 1848 to 1850 he was in America; on his return he became
conductor of the Glee and Madrigal Union, and from about
1853 was engaged at the Princess's theatre to provide and con-
duct the music for Charles Kean's Shakespearean revivals. He
seems to have kept this apppointment for about five years. In
1856 a cantata, Robin Hood, was given at the Bradford festival,
and a third opera, Rose, or Love's Ransom, at Covent Garden in
1864, without much success. In 1866 he went again to America,
and from this year Hatton held the post of accompanist at the
Ballad Concerts, St James's Hail, for nine seasons. In 1875
he went to Stuttgart, and wrote an oratorio, Hezekiah, given
at the Cyrstal Palace in 1877; like all his larger works it met
with very moderate success. Hatton excelled in the lyrical
forms of music, and, in spite of his distinct skill in the severer
styles of the madrigal, &c., he won popularity by such songs as
" To Anthea," " Good-bye, Sweetheart," and " Simon the
Cellarer," the first of which may be called a classic in its own
way. His glees and part-songs, such as " When Evening's
Twilight," are still reckoned among the best of their class;
and he might have gained a place of higher distinction among
English composers had it not been for his irresistible animal
spirits and a want of artistic reverence, which made it uncertain
in his younger days whether, when he appeared at a concert,
he would play a fugue of Bach or sing a comic song. He died
at Margate on the 2oth of September 1886.

HAUCH, JOHANNES CARSTEN (1790-1872), Danish poet,
was born of Danish parents residing at Frederikshald in Norway,
on the 1 2th of May 1790. In 1802 he lost his mother, and in
1803 returned with his father to Denmark. In 1807 he fought
as a volunteer against the English invasion. He entered the
university of Copenhagen in 1808, and in 1821 took his doctor's
degree. He became the friend and associate of Steffens and
Oehlenschlager, warmly adopting the romantic views about
poetry and philosophy. His first two dramatic poems, The
Journey to Cinistan and The Power of Fancy, appeared in 1816,
and were followed by a lyrical drama, Rosaura (1817); but
these works attracted little or no attention. Hauch therefore
gave up all hope of fame as a poet, and resigned himself entirely
to the study of science. He took his doctor's degree in zoology
in 1821, and went abroad to pursue his studies. At Nice he
had an accident which obliged him to submit to the amputation
of one foot. He returned to literature, publishing a dramatized
fairy tale, the Hamadryad, and the tragedies of Bajazet, Tiberius,
Gregory VII., in 1828-1829, The Death of Charles V. (1831),
and The Siege of Maastricht (1832). These plays were violently
attacked and enjoyed no success. Hauch then turned to novel-
writing, and published in succession five romances — Vilhelm
Zabern (1834); The Alchemist (1836); A Polish Family (1839);
The Castle on the Rhine (1845); and Robert Fulton (1853).
In 1842 he collected his shorter Poems. In 1846 he was
appointed professor of the Scandinavian languages in Kiel,
but returned to Copenhagen when the war broke out in 1848.
About this time his dramatic talent was at its height, and he
produced one admirable tragedy after another; among these
may be mentioned Svend Grathe (1841); The Sisters at Kinne-
kulle (1849); Marshal Stig (1850); Honour Lost and Won (1851);
and Tycho Brake's Youth (1852). From 1858 to 1860 Hauch
was director of the Danish National Theatre; he produced
three more tragedies — The King's Favourite (1859); Henry of
Navarre (1863); and Julian the Apostate (1866). In 1861 he

HAUER— HAUGE

published another collection of Lyrical Poems and Romances;
and in 1862 the historical epic of Valdemar Seir, volumes which
contain his best work. P'rom 1851, when he succeeded Oehlen-
schlager, to his death, he held the honorary post of professor
of aesthetics at the university of Copenhagen. He died in Rome
in 1872. Hauch was one of the most prolific of the Danish
poets, though his writings are unequal in value. His lyrics and
romances in verse are always fine in form and often strongly
imaginative. In all his writings, but especially in his tragedies,
he displays a strong bias in favour of what is mystical and
supernatural. Of his dramas Marshal Stig is perhaps the best,
and of his novels the patriotic tale of Vilhelm Zabern is admired
the most.

See G. Brandes, " Carsten Hauch " (1873) in DanskeDigtere (1877) ;
F. Ronning, J. C. Hauch (1890), and in Dansk Biografisk-Lexicon,
(vol. vii. Copenhagen, 1893). Hauch's novels were collected (1873—
1874) and his dramatic works (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1852-1859).

HAUER, FRANZ, RITTER VON (1822-1899), Austrian geologist,
born in Vienna on the 3oth of January 1822, was son of Joseph
von Hauer (1778-1863), who was equally distinguished as a high
Austrian official and authority on finance and as a palaeontologist.
He was educated in Vienna, afterwards studied geology at
the mining academy of Schemnitz (1839-1843), and for a time
was engaged in official mining work in Styria. In 1846 he
became assistant to W. von Haidinger at the minera logical
museum in Vienna; three years later he joined the imperial
geological institute, and in 1866 he was appointed director.
In 1886 he became superintendent of the imperial natural history
museum in Vienna. Among his special geological works are
those on the Cephalopoda of theTriassicand Jurassicformations
of Alpine regions (1855-1856). His most important general
work was that of the Geological Map of Austro-Hungary, in
twelve sheets (1867-1871; 4th ed., 1884, including Bosnia
and Montenegro). This map was accompanied by a series of
explanatory pamphlets. In 1882 he was awarded the Wollaston
medal by the Geological Society of London. In 1892 von Hauer
became a life-member of the upper house of the Austrian parlia-
ment. He died on the 2oth of March 1899.

PUBLICATIONS. — Beitrage zur Paldontolographie von Osterreich
(1858—1859); Die Geologic und Hire Anwendung auf die Kenntnis
der Bodcnbeschajfenheit der osterr.-ungar. Monarchie (1875; ed. 2,
1878).

Memoir by Dr E. Tietze ; Jahrbuch der K. K. geolog. Reichsanslalt
(1899, reprinted 1900, with portrait).

HAUFF, WILHELM (1802-1827), German poet and novelist,
was born at Stuttgart on the 29th of November 1802, the son
of a secretary in the ministry of foreign affairs. Young Hauff
lost his father when he was but seven years of age, and his early
education was practically self-gained in the library of his maternal
grandfather at Tubingen, to which place his mother had removed.
In 1818 he was sent to the Klosterschule at Blaubeuren, whence
he passed in 1820 to the university of Tubingen. In four years
he completed his philosophical and theological studies, and on
leaving the university became tutor to the children of the famous
Wurttemberg minister of war, General Baron Ernst Eugen von
Hugel (1774-1849), and for them wrote his Marchen, which he
published in his Miirchenalmanach auf das Jahr 1826. He also
wrote there the first part of the Mitteilungen aus den Memoiren
des Satan (1826) and Der Mann im Monde (1825). The latter,
a parody of the sentimental and sensual novels of H. Clauren
(pseudonymof Karl Gottlieb Samuel Heun[i77i-i8s4l), became,
in course of composition, a close imitation of that author's style
and was actually published under his name. Clauren, in con-
sequence, brought an action for damages against Hauff and
gained his case. Whereupon Plauff followed up the attack in
hi$ witty and sarcastic Kontroverspredigt uber H. Clauren und
den Mann im Monde (1826) and attained his original object —
the moral annihilation of the mawkish and unhealthy literature
with which Clauren was flooding the country. Meanwhile,
animated by Sir Walter Scott's novels, Hauff wrote the historical
romance Lichlenstein (1826), which acquired great popularity
in Germany and especially in Swabia, treating as it did the
most interesting period in the history of that country, the reign
xni. 3

of Duke Ulrich (1487-1550). While on a journey to France,
the Netherlands and north Germany he wrote the second part
of the Memoiren des Satan and some short novels, among them
the charming Bettlerin iiom Pont des Arts and his masterpiece,
the Phantasien im Bremer Ratskeller (1827). He also published
some short poems which have passed into Volkslieder, among
them Morgenrot, Morgenrot, leuchtest mir zum friihen Tod;
and Steh' ich in finstrer Mittcrnacht. In January 1827, Hauff
undertook the editorship of the Stuttgart Morgenblatt and in
the following month married, but his happiness was prematurely
cut short by his death from fever on the i8th of November 1827.

Considering his brief life, Hauff was an extraordinarily prolific
writer. The freshness and originality of his talent, his inventive-
ness, and his genial humour have won him a high place among the
south German prose writers of the early nineteenth century.

His Sdmtliche Werke were published, with a biography, by
G. Schwab (3 vols., 1830-1834; 5 vols., i8th ed., 1882), and by
F. Bobertag (1891-1897), and a selection by M. Mendheim (3 vols.,
1891). For his life cf. J. Klaiber, Wilhelm Hauff, ein Lebensbild
(1881); M. Mendheim, Hauffs Leben und Werke (1894); and
H. Hofmann, W. Hauff (1902).

HAUG, MARTIN (1827-1876), German Orientalist, was born
at Ostdorf near Balingen. Wurttemberg, on the 3oth of January
1827. He became a pupil in the gymnasium at Stuttgart at a
comparatively late age, and in 1848 he entered the university
of Tubingen, where he studied Oriental languages, especially
Sanskrit. He afterwards attended lectures in Gottingen, and
in 1854 settled as Privatdozent at Bonn. In 1856 he removed
to Heidelberg, where he assisted Bunsen in his literary under-
takings; and in 1859 he accepted an invitation to India, where
he became superintendent of Sanskrit studies and professor of
Sanskrit in Poona. Here his acquaintance with the Zend
language and literature afforded him excellent opportunities
for extending his knowledge of this branch of literature. The
result of his researches was a volume of Essays on the sacred
language, writings and religion of the Parsees (Bombay, 1862).
Having returned to Stuttgart in 1866, he was called to Munich
as professor of Sanskrit and comparative philology in 1868.
He died on the 3rd of June 1876.

Besides the Essays on the Parsees, of which a new edition, by
E. W. West, greatly enriched from the posthumous papers of the
author, appeared in 1878, Haug published a number of works of
considerable importance to the student of the literatures of ancient
India and Persia. They include Die Pehlewisprache und der Bunde-
hesch (1854) ; Die Schrfft und Sprache der zweiten Keilschriftgattung
(1855); Die funf Cathas, edited, translated and expounded (1858-
1860) ; an edition, with translation and explanation, of the Aitareya
Brahmana of the Rigveda (Bombay, 1863), which is accounted his
best work in the province of ancient Indian literature; A Lecture
on an original Speech of Zoroaster (1865); An old Zend-Pahlavi
Glossary (1867); Uber den Charakter der Pehlewisprache (1869);
Das 18. Kapitel des Wendidad (1869); Uber das Ardai-Viraf-
nameh (1870) ; An old Pahlavi-Pazand Glossary (1870) ; and Vedische
Rdtselfragen und Rdtselspruche (1875).

For particulars of Haug's life and work, see A. Bezzenberger,
Beitrage zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen, vol. i. pp. 70 seq.

HAUGE, HANS NIELSEN (1771-1824), Norwegian Lutheran
divine, was born in the parish of Thuno, Norway, on the 3rd of
April 1771, the son of a peasant. With the aid of various
religious works which he found in his father's house, he laboured
to supplement his scanty education. In his twenty-sixth year,
believing himself to be a divinely-commissioned prophet, he
began to preach in his native parish and afterwards throughout
Norway, calling people to repentance and attacking rationalism.
In 1800 he passed to Denmark, where, as at home, he gained
many followers and assistants, chiefly among the lower orders.
Proceeding to Christiansand in 1804, Hauge set up a printing-
press to disseminate his views more widely, but was almost
immediately arrested for holding illegal religious meetings,
and for insulting the regular clergy in his books, all of which
were confiscated; he was also heavily fined. After being in
confinement for some years, he was released in 1814 on payment
of a fine, and retiring to an estate at Breddwill, near Christiania,
he died there on the 29th of March 1824. His adherents, who
did not formally break with the church, were called Haugianer
or Leser (i.e. Readers). He unquestionably did much to revive

66

HAUGESUND— HAUGWITZ

the spiritual life of the northern Lutheran Church. His views
were of a pietistic nature. Though he cannot be said to have
rejected any article of the Lutheran creed, the peculiar emphasis
which he laid upon the evangelical doctrines of faith and grace
involved considerable antagonism to the rationalistic or sacerdotal
views commonly held by the established clergy.

Hauge's principal writings are Forsog til Afhandeling om Cuds
Visdom (1796); Anvisning til nogle morkelige Sprog i Bibelen
(1798) ; Forklaring over Loven og Evangelium (1803). For an account
of his life and doctrines see C. Bang's Hans Nielsen Hauge og hans
Samtid (Christiania ; 2nd ed., 1875); O. Rost, Nogle Bemaerkninger
om Hans Nielsen Hauge og hans Reining (1883), and the article in
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie.

HAUGESUND, a seaport of Norway in Stavanger ami (county),
on the west coast, 34 m. N. by W. of Stavanger. Pop. (1900),
7935. It is an important fishing centre. Herrings are exported
to the annual value of £100,000 to £200,000, also mackerel and
lobsters. The principal imports are coal and salt. There are
factories for woollen goods and a margarine factory. Haugesund
is the reputed death-place of Harald Haarfager, to whpm an
obelisk of red granite was erected in 1872 on the thousandth
anniversary of his victory at the Hafsfjord (near Stavanger)
whereby he won the sovereignty of Norway. The memorial
stands ij m. north of the town, on the Haraldshaug, where the
hero's supposed tombstone is shown.

HAUGHTON, SAMUEL (1821-1897), Irish scientific writer,
the son of James Haughton (1795-1873), was born at Carlow
on the 2ist of December 1821. His father, the son of a Quaker,
but himself a Unitarian, was an active philanthropist, a strong
supporter of Father Theobald Mathew, a vegetarian, and an
anti-slavery worker and writer. After a distinguished career
in Trinity College, Dublin, Samuel was elected a fellow in 1844.
He was ordained priest in 1847, but seldom preached. In 1851
he was appointed professor of geology in Trinity College, and
this post he held for thirty years. He began the study of
medicine in 1859, and in 1862 took the degree of M.D. in the
university of Dublin. He was then made registrar of the
Medical School, the status of which he did much to improve,
and he represented the university on the General Medical
Council from 1878 to 1896. He was elected F.R.S. in 1858, and
in course of time Oxford conferred upon him the hon. degree
of D.C.L., and Cambridge and Edinburgh that of LL.D. He
was a man of remarkable knowledge and ability, and he
communicated papers on widely different subjects to various
learned societies and scientific journals in London and Dublin.
He wrote on the laws of equilibrium and motion of solid and
fluid bodies (1846), on sun-heat, terrestrial radiation, geological
climates and on tides. He wrote also on the granites of Leinster
and Donegal, and on the cleavage and joint-planes in the Old
Red Sandstone of Waterford (1857-1858). He was president of
the Royal Irish Academy from 1886 to 1891, and for twenty
years he was secretary of the Royal Zoological Society of Ireland.
He died in Dublin on the 3ist of October 1897.

PUBLICATIONS. — Manual of Geology (1865); Principles of Animal
Mechanics (1873); Six Lectures on Physical Geography (1880). In
conjunction with his friend, Professor J. Galbraith, he issued a
series of Manuals of Mathematical and Physical Science.

HAUGHTON, WILLIAM (fl. 1598), English playwright. He
collaborated in many plays with Henry Chettle, Thomas Dekker,
John Day and Richard Hathway. The only certain biographical
information about him is derived from Philip Henslowe, who on
the loth of March 1600 lent him ten shillings " to release him
out of the Clink." Mr Fleay credits him with a considerable
share in The Patient Grissill (1599), and a merry comedy entitled
English-Men for my Money, or A Woman will have her Will
(1598) is ascribed to his sole authorship. The Devil and his
Dame, mentioned as a forthcoming play by Henslowe in March
1600, is identified by Mr Fleay as Grim, the Collier of Croydon,
which was printed in 1662. In this play an emissary is sent
from the infernal regions to report on the conditions of married
life on earth.

Grim is reprinted in vol. viii., and English-Men for my Money in
vol. x., of W. C. Hazlitt's edition of Dodsley's Old Plays.

HAUGWITZ, CHRISTIAN AUGUST HEINRICH KURT,

COUNT VON, FREIHERR VON KRAPPITZ (1752-1831), Prussian
statesman, was born on the nth of June 1752, at Peucke near
Ols. He belonged to the Silesian (Protestant) branch of the
ancient family of Haugwitz, of which the Catholic branch is
established in Moravia. He studied law, spent some time in
Italy, returned to settle on his estates in Silesia, and in 1791 was
elected by the Silesian estates general director of the province.
At the urgent instance of King Frederick William II. he entered
the Prussian service, became ambassador at Vienna in 1792
and at the end of the same year a member of the cabinet at
Berlin.

Haugwitz, who had attended the young emperor Francis II.
at his coronation and been present at the conferences held at
Mainz to consider the attitude of the German powers towards
the Revolution, was opposed to the exaggerated attitude of the
French emigres and to any interference in the internal affairs of
France. After the war broke out, however, the defiant temper
of the Committee of Public Safety made an honourable peace
impossible, while the strained relations between Austria and
Prussia on the question of territorial " compensations " crippled
the power of the Allies to carry the war to a successful conclusion.
It was in these circumstances that Haugwitz entered on the
negotiations that resulted in the subsidy treaty between Great
Britain and Prussia, and Great Britain and Holland, signed at
the Hague on the igth of April 1794. Haugwitz, however, was
not the man to direct a strong and aggressive policy; the
failure of Prussia to make any effective use of the money "supplied
broke the patience of Pitt, and in October the denunciation by
Great Britain of the Hague treaty broke the last tie that bound
Prussia to the Coalition. The separate treaty with France,
signed at Basel on the 5th of April 1795, was mainly due to the
influence of Haugwitz.

His object was now to save the provinces on the left bank of
the Rhine from being lost to the Empire. No guarantee of their
maintenance had been inserted in the Basel treaty; but Haug-
witz and the king hoped to preserve them by establishing the
armed neutrality of North Germany and securing its recognition
by the French Republic. This policy was rendered futile by
the victories of Napoleon Bonaparte and the virtual conquest
of South Germany by the French. Haugwitz, who had con-
tinued to enjoy the confidence of the new king, Frederick
William III., recognized this fact, and urged his master to join
the new Coalition in 1798. But the king clung blindly to the
illusion of neutrality, and Haugwitz allowed himself to be made
the instrument of a policy of which he increasingly disapproved.
It was not till 1803, when the king refused his urgent advice to
demand the evacuation of Hanover by the French, that he
tendered his resignation. In August 1804 he was definitely
replaced by Hardenberg, and retired to his estates.

In his retirement Haugwitz was still consulted, and he used
all his influence against Hardenberg's policy of a rapprochement
with France. His representations had little weight, however,
until Napoleon's high-handed action in violating Prussian
territory by marching troops through Ansbach, roused the anger
of the king. Haugwitz was now once more appointed foreign
minister, as Hardenberg's colleague, and it was he who was
charged to carry to Napoleon the Prussian ultimatum which was
the outcome of the visit of the tsar Alexander I. to Berlin in
November. But in this crisis his courage failed him; his nature
was one that ever let "I dare not wait upon I will "; he delayed
his journey pending some turn in events and to give time for
the mobilization of the duke of Brunswick's army; he was
frightened by reports of separate negotiations between Austria
and Napoleon, not -realizing that a bold declaration by Prussia
would nip them in the bud. Napoleon, when at last they met,
read him like a book and humoured his diplomatic weakness
until the whole issue was decided at Austerlitz. On the I5th of
December, instead of delivering an ultimatum, Haugwitz signed
at Schonbrunn the treaty which gave Hanover to Prussia in
return for Ansbach, Cleves and Neuchatel.

The humiliation of Prussia and her minister was, however,

HAUNTINGS

67

not yet complete. In February 1806 Haugwitz went to Paris
to ratify the treaty of Schonbrunn and to attempt to secure some
modifications in favour of Prussia. He was received with a storm
of abuse by Napoleon, who insisted on tearing up the treaty and
drawing up a fresh one, which doubled the amount of territory
to be ceded by Prussia and forced her to a breach with Great
Britain by binding her to close the Hanoverian ports to British
commerce. The treaty, signed on the isth of February, left
Prussia wholly isolated in Europe. What followed belongs to
the history of Europe rather than to the biography of Haugwitz.
He remained, indeed, at the head of the Prussian ministry of
foreign affairs, but the course of Prussian policy it was beyond his
power to control. The Prussian ultimatum to Napoleon was
forced upon him by overwhelming circumstances, and with
the battle of Jena, on the I4th of October, his political career
came to an end. He accompanied the flight of the king into East
Prussia, there took leave of him and retired to his Silesian estates.
In 1811 he was appointed Curator of the university of Breslau;
in 1820, owing to failing health, he went to live in Italy, where
he remained till his death at Venice in 1831.

Haugwitz was a man of great intellectual gifts, of dignified
presence and a charming address which endeared him to his
sovereigns and his colleagues; but as a statesman he failed,
not through want of perspicacity, but through lack of will power
and a fatal habit of procrastination. During his retirement
in Italy he wrote memoirs in justification of his policy, a fragment
of which dealing with the episode of the treaty of Schonbrunn
was published at Jena in 1837.

See J. von Minutoli, Der Graf von Haugwitz und Job von Wilzleben
(Berlin, 1844); L. von Ranke, Hardenberg u. d. Gesch. des preuss.
Staates (Leipzig, 1879—1881), note on Haugwitz's memoirs in vol. ii. ;
Denkwurdigkeiten des Staatskanzlers Fiirslen von Hardenberg, ed.
Ranke (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877); A. Sorel, L'Europe et la Revol.
Frant;., passim.

HAUNTINGS (from " to haunt," Fr. hanter, of uncertain
origin, but possibly from Lat. ambitare, ambire, to go about,
frequent), the supposed manifestations of existence by spirits
of the dead in houses or places familiar to them in life. The
savage practice of tying up the corpse before burying it is clearly
intended to prevent the dead from " walking "; and cremation,
whether in savage lands or in classical times, may have originally
had the same motive. The " spirit " manifests himself, as a
rule, either in his bodily form, as when he lived, or in the shape
of some animal, or by disturbing noises, as in the case of the
poltergeist (q.v.). Classical examples occur in Plautus (Mostel-
laria), Lucian (Pldlopseud.es) , Pliny, Suetonius, St Augustine,
St Gregory, Plutarch and elsewhere, while Lucretius has his
theory of apparitions of the dead. He does not deny the fact;
he explains it by " films " diffused from the living body and
persisting in the atmosphere.

A somewhat similar hypothesis, to account for certain alleged
phenomena, was invented by Mr Edmund Gurney. Some
visionary appearances in haunted houses do not suggest the idea
of an ambulatory spirit, but rather of the photograph of a past
event, impressed we know not how on we know not what. In
this theory there is no room for the agency of spirits of the dead.
The belief in hauntings was naturally persistent through the
middle ages, and example and theory abound in the Loca infesta
(Cologne, 1598) of Petrus Thyraeus, S.J.; Wierius (c. 1560),
in De praestigiis daemonum, is in the same tale. According
to Thyraeus, hauntings appeal to the senses of sight, hearing
and touch. The auditory phenomena are mainly thumping
noises, sounds of footsteps, laughing and moaning. Rackets
in general are caused by lares domeslici (" brownies ") or the
Poltergeist. In the tactile way ghosts push the living; " I have
been thrice pushed by an invisible power," writes the Rev.
Samuel Wesley, in 1717, in his narrative of the disturbances at
his rectory at Epworth. Once he was pushed against the corner
of his desk in the study; once up against the door of the matted
chamber; and, thirdly, " against the right-hand side of the
frame of my study door, as I was going in." We have thus
Protestant corroboration of the statement of the learned
Jesuit.

Thyraeus raises the question, Are the experiences hallucina-
tory? Did Mr Wesley (to take his case) receive a mere halluci-
natory set of pushes? Was the hair of a friend of the writer's,
who occupied a haunted house, only pulled in a subjective
way? Thyraeus remarks that, in cases of noisy phenomena,
not all persons present hear them ; and, rather curiously, Mr
Wesley records the same experience; he sometimes did not
hear sounds that seemed violently loud to his wife and family,
who were with him at prayers. Thyraeus says that, as collective
hallucinations of sight are rare — all present not usually seeing
the apparition — so* audible phenomena are not always ex-
perienced by all persons present. In such cases, he thinks that
the sights and sounds have no external cause, he regards the
sights and sounds as delusions — caused by spirits. This is a
difficult question. He mentions that we hear all the furniture
being tossed about (as Sir Walter and Lady Scott heard it at
Abbotsford; see Lockhart's Life, v. 311-315). Yet, on inspec-
tion, we find all the furniture in its proper place. There is
abundant evidence to experience of this phenomenon, which
remains as inexplicable as it was in the days of Thyraeus. When
the sounds are heard, has the atmosphere vibrated, or has the
impression only been made on " the inner ear " ? In reply,
Mr. Procter, who for sixteen years (1831-1847) endured the
unexplained disturbances at Willington Mill, avers that the
material objects on which the knocks appeared to be struck
did certainly vibrate (see POLTERGEIST). Is then the felt
vibration part of the hallucination?

As for visual phenomena, " ghosts," Thyraeus does not regard
them as space-filling entities, but as hallucinations imposed by
spirits on the human senses; the spirit, in each case, not being
necessarily the soul of the dead man or woman whom the
phantasm represents.

In the matter of alleged hauntings, the symptoms, the pheno-
mena, to-day, are exactly the same as those recorded by Thyraeus.
The belief in them is so far a living thing that it greatly lowers
the letting value of a house when it is reported to be haunted.
(An action for libelling a house as haunted was reported in the
London newspapers of the 7th of March 1907). It is true that
ancient family legends of haunts are gloried in by the inheritors
of stately homes in England, or castles in Scotland, and to
discredit the traditional ghost — in the days of Sir Walter Scott
— was to come within measurable distance of a duel. But the
time-honoured phantasms of old houses usually survive only in
the memory of " the oldest aunt telling the saddest tale." Their
historical basis can no more endure criticism than does the family
portrait of Queen Mary, — signed by Medina about 1750-1770,
and described by the family as " given to our ancestor by the
Queen herself." After many years' experience of a baronial
dwelling credited with seven distinct and separate phantasms,
not one of which was ever seen by hosts, guests or domestics,
scepticism as regards traditional ghosts is excusable. Legend
reports that they punctually appear on the anniversaries of their
misfortunes, but no evidence of such punctuality has been,
produced.

The Society for Psychical Research has investigated hundreds
of cases of the alleged haunting of houses, and the reports are
in the archives of the society. But, as the mere rumour of a
haunt greatly lowers the value of a house, it is seldom possible
to publish the names of the witnesses, and hardly ever permitted
to publish the name of the house. From the point of view of
science this is unfortunate (see Proceedings S.P.R. vol. viii.
pp. 311-332 and Proceedings of 1882-1883, 1883-1884). As
far as inquiry had any results, they were to the following effect.
The spectres were of the most shy and fugitive kind, seen now by
one person, now by another, crossing a room, walking along a
corridor, and entering chambers in which, on inspection, they were
not found. There was almost never any story to account for the
appearances, as in magazine ghost-stories, and, if story there
were, it lacked evidence. Recognitions of known dead persons
were infrequent; occasionally there was recognition of a portrait
in the house. The apparitions spoke in only one or two recorded
cases, and, as a rule, seemed to have no motive for appearing.

68

HAUPT— HAUPTMANN, M.

The " ghost " resembles nothing so much as a somnambulist,
or the dream-walk of one living person made visible, telepathic-
ally, to another living person. Almost the only sign of conscious-
ness given by the appearances is their shyness; on being spoken
to or approached they generally vanish. Not infrequently they
are taken, at first sight, for living human beings. In darkness
they are often luminous, otherwise they would be invisible !
Unexplained noises often, but not always, occur in houses where
these phenomena areperceived. Evidence is only good, approxi-
mately, when a series of persons, in the same house, behold the
same appearance, without being aware that it has previously
been seen by others. Naturally it ie almost impossible to prove
this ignorance.

When inquirers believe thai the appearances are due to the
agency of spirits of the dead, they usually suppose the method
to be a telepathic impact on the mind of the living by some
" mere automatic projection from a consciousness which has its
centre elsewhere " (Myers, Proceedings S.P.R. vol. xv. p. 64).
Myers, in Human Personality, fell back on " palaeolithic psycho-
logy," and a theory of a phantasmogenetic agency producing a
phantasm which had some actual relation to space. But space
forbids us to give examples of modern experiences in haunted
houses, endured by persons sane, healthy and well educated.
The cases, abundantly offered in Proceedings S. P. R., suggest that
certain localities, more than others, are " centres of permanent
possibilities of being hallucinated in a manner more or less
uniform." The causes of this fact (if causes there be, beyond a
rasual hallucination or illusion of A, which, when reported,
begets by suggestion, or, when not reported, by telepathy,
hallucinations in B, C, D and E), remain unknown (Proceedings
S.P.R. vol. viii. p. 133 et seq.). Mr Podmore proposed this
hypothesis of causation, which was not accepted by Myers;
he thought that the theory laid too heavy a burden on telepathy
and suggestion. Neither cause, nor any other cause of similar
results, ever affects members of the S.P.R. who may be sent to
dwell in haunted houses. They have no weird experiences,
except when they are visionaries who see phantoms wherever
they go. (\- L.)

HAUPT, MORITZ (1808-1874), German philologist, was born
at Zittau, in Lusatia, on the 27th of July 1808. His early
education was mainly conducted by his father, Ernst Friedrich
Haupt, burgomaster of Zittau, a man of good scholarly attain-
ment, who used to take pleasure in turning German hymns or
Goethe's poems into Latin, and whose memoranda were employed
by G. Freytag in the 4th volume of his Bilder aus der deutschen
Vergangenhe.it. From the Zittau gymnasium, where he spent
the five years 1821-1826, Haupt removed to the university of
Leipzig with the intention of studying theology; but the natural
bent of his mind and the influence of Professor G. Hermann soon
turned all his energies in the direction of philosophy. On the
close of his university course (1830) he returned to his father's
house, and the next seven years were devoted to quiet work, not
only at Greek, Latin and German, but at Old French, Provencal
and Bohemian. He formed with Lachmann at Berlin a friendship
which had great effect on his intellectual development. In
September 1837 he " habilitated " at Leipzig as Privatdozent,
and his first lectures, dealing with such diverse subjects as
Catullus and the Nibelungenlied, indicated the twofold direction
of his labours. A new chair of German language and literature
being founded for his benefit, he became professor extraordinarius
(1841) and then professor ordinarius (1843); and in 1842 he
married Louise Hermann, the daughter of his master and col-
league. But the peaceful and prosperous course opening out
before him at the university of Leipzig was brought to a sudden
close. Having taken part in 1849 with Otto Jahn and Theodor
Mommsen in a political agitation for the maintenance of the
imperial constitution, Haupt was deprived of his professorship
by a decree of the 22nd of April 1851. Tw i years later, however,
he was called to succeed Lachmann at the university of Berlin;
and at the same time the Berlin academy, which had made him
a corresponding member in 1841, elected him an ordinary
member. For twenty-one years he continued to hold a prominent

alace among the scholars of the Prussian capital, making his
presence felt, not only by the prestige of his erudition and the
clearness of his intellect, but by the tirelessness of his energy
and the ardent fearlessness of his temperament. He died, of
icart disease, on the 5th of February 1874.

Haupt's critical work is distinguished by a happy union of the
most painstaking investigation with intrepidity of conjecture, and
while in his lectures and addresses he was frequently carried away
sy the excitement of the moment, and made sharp and questionable
attacks on his opponents, in his writings he exhibits great self-
control. The results of many of his researches are altogether lost,
Decause he could not be prevailed upon to publish what fell much
short of his own high ideal of excellence. To the progress of classical
scholarship he contributed by Quaestiones Catullianae (1837),
Obseruationes criticae (1841), and editions of Ovid's Halieutica
and the Cynegetica of Gratius and Nemesianus (1838), of Catullus,
Tibullus and Propertius (3rd ed., 1868), of Horace (3rd ed., 1871)
and of Virgil (2nd ed., 1873). As early as 1836, with Hoffmann
von Fallersleben, he started the Altdeutsche Blatter, which in 1841
gave place to the Zeitschrift fur deutsches Altertum, of which he
continued editor till his death. Hartmann von Aue's Erec (1839)
and his Lieder, Buchlein and Der arme Heinrich (1842), Rudolf
von Ems's Cuter Gerhard (1840) and Conrad von Wiirzburg's
Engelhard (1844) are the principal German works which he edited.
To form a collection of the French songs of the i6th century was
one of his favourite schemes, but a little volume published after his
death, Franzosische Volkslieder (1877), is the only monument of
his labours in that direction. Three volumes of his Opuscula were
published at Leipzig (1875-1877).

See Kirchhoff, " Gedachtnisrede," in Abhandl. der Konigl. Akad.
der Wissenschaflen zu Berlin (1875); Otto Belger, Moritz Haupt als
Lehrer (1879); Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. iii. (1908).

HAUPTMANN, GERHART (1862- ), German dramatist,
was born on the I5th of November 1862 at Obersalzbrunn in
Silesia, the son of an hotel-keeper. From the village school of
his native place he passed to the Realschule in Breslau, and was
then sent to learn agriculture on his uncle's farm at Jauer.
Having, however, no taste for country life, he soon returned to
Breslau and entered the art school, intending to become a
sculptor. He then studied at Jena, and spent the greater part
of the years 1883 and 1884 in Italy. In May 1885 Hauptmann
married and settled in Berlin, and, devoting himself henceforth
entirely to literary work, soon attained a great reputation as
one of the chief representatives of the modern drama. In 1891
he retired to Schreiberhau in Silesia. Hauptmann's first drama,
Vor Sonnenaufgang (1889) inaugurated the realistic movement
in modern German literature; it was followed by Das Friedens-
fest (1890), Einsame Menschen (1891) and Die Weber (1892), a
powerful drama depicting the rising of the Silesian weavers in
1844. Of Hauptmann's subsequent work mention may be
made of the comedies Kollege Grampian (1892), Der Biberpelz
(1893) and Der rote Hahn (1901), a " dream poem," Hannele
(1893), and an historical drama Florian Geyer (1895). He also
wrote two tragedies of Silesian peasant life, Fuhrmann Hensc/iel
(1898) and Rose Berndt (1903), and the " dramatic fairy-tales "
Die versunkene Glocke (1897) and Und Pippa tanzt (1905).
Several of his works have been translated into English.

Biographies of Hauptmann and critical studies of his dramas
have been published by A. Bartels (1897); P. Schlenther (1898);
and U. C. Woerner (2nd ed., 1900). See also L. Benoist-Hanappier,
Le Drame naturaliste en Allemagne (1905).

HAUPTMANN, MORITZ (1792-1868), German musical com-
poser and writer, was born at Dresden, on the I3th of October
1792, and studied music under Scholz, Lanska, Grosse and
Morlacchi, the rival of Weber. Afterwards he completed his
education as a violinist and composer under Spohr, and till 1820
held various appointments in private families, varying his
musical occupations with mathematical and other studies
bearing chiefly on acoustics and kindred subjects. For a time
also Hauptmann was employed as an architect, but all other
pursuits gave place to music, and a grand tragic opera. Malhilde,
belongs to the period just referred to. In 1822 he entered the
orchestra of Cassel, again under Spohr's direction, and it was then
that he first taught composition and musical theory to such men
as Ferdinand David, Burgmiiller, Kiel and others. His com-
positions at this time chiefly consisted of motets, masses, can-
tatas and songs. His opera Malhilde was performed at Cassel

HAUREAU— HAUSA

with great success. In 1842 Hauptmann obtained the position
of cantor at the Thomas-school of Leipzig (long previously
occupied by the great Johann Sebastian Bach) together with
that of professor at the conservatoire, and it was in this capacity
that his unique gift as a teacher developed itself and was acknow-
ledged by a crowd of enthusiastic and more or less distinguished
pupils. He died on the 3rd of January 1868, and the universal
regret felt at his death at Leipzig is said to have been all but
equal to that caused by the loss of his friend Medelssohn many
years before. Hauptmann's compositions are marked' by
symmetry and perfection of workmanship rather than by
spontaneous invention.

Amongst his vocal compositions — by far the most important
portion of his work — may be mentioned two masses, choral songs
for mixed voices (Op. 32, 47), and numerous part songs. The re-
sults of his scientific research were embodied in his book Die Natur
dcr Harmonik und Metrik (1853), a standard work of its kind, in
which a philosophic explanation of the forms of music is attempted.

HAUREAU, (JEAN) BARTHlJLEMY (1812-1896), French
historian and miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris. At the
age of twenty he published a series of apologetic studies on the
Montagnards. In later years he regretted the youthful enthu-
siasm of these papers, and endeavoured to destroy the copies.
He joined the staff of the National, and was praised by Theophile
Gautier as the " tribune " of romanticism. At that time he
seemed to be destined to a political career, and, indeed, after
the revolution of the 24th of February 1848 was elected member
of the National Assembly; but close contact with revolutionary
men and ideas gradually cooled his old ardour. Throughout
his life he was an enemy to innovators, not only in politics and
religion, but also in literature. This attitude sometimes led
him to form unjust estimates, but only on very rare occasions,
for his character was as just as his erudition was scrupulous.
After the coup d'etat he resigned his position as director of the
MS. department of the Bibliotheque Nationale, to which he had
been appointed in 1848, and he refused to accept any adminis-
trative post until after the fall of the empire. After having acted
as director of the national printing press from 1870 to 1881, he
retired, but in 1893 accepted the post of director of the Fondation
Thiers. He was also a member of the council of improvement
of the Ecole des Charles. He died on the agth of April 1896.
For over half a century he was engaged in writing on the religious,
philosophical, and more particularly the literary history of the
middle ages. Appointed librarian of the town of Le Mans in
1838, he was first attracted by the history of Maine, and in 1843
published the first volume of his Histoire litteraire du Maine
(4 vols., 1843-1852), which he subsequently recast on a new plan
(10 vols., 1870-1877). In 1845 he brought out an edition of
vol. ii. of G. Menage's Histoire de Sable. He then undertook
the continuation of the Callia Christiana, and produced vol. xiv.
(1856) for the province of Tours, vol. xv. (1862) for the province
of Besancon, and vol. xvi. (1865-1870) for the province of Vienne.
This important work gained him admission to the Academic des
Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1862). In the Notices et exlraits
des manuscrils he inserted several papers which were afterwards
published separately, with additions and corrections, under the
title Notices et exlraits de quelqucs manuscrits de la Bibliolh'eque
Nationale (6 vols., 1890-1893). To the Histoire litteraire de la
France he contributed a number of studies, among which must
be mentioned that relating to the sermon-writers (vol. xxvi.,
1873), whose works, being of ten anonymous, raise many problems
of attribution, and, though deficient in orginality of thought
and style, reflect the very spirit of the middle ages. Among his
other works mention must be made of his remarkable Histoire
de la philosophie scolastique (1872-1880), extending from the
time of Charlemagne to the I3th century, which was expanded
from a paper crowned by the Academic des Sciences Morales et
Politiques in 1850; Les Melanges poetiques d'Hildebert de Lavardin
1882); an edition of the Works of Hugh of St Victor (1886); a
critical study of the Latin poems attributed to St Bernard
(1890); and Bernard Delicieux et I'inquisition albigeoise (1877).
To these must be added his contributions to the Dictionnaire des
sciences philosophiques, Didot's Biographie generate, the Biblio-

theque de l'£cole des Charles, and the Journal des savants. From
the time of his appointment to the Bibliotheque, Nationale. up
to the last days of his life he was engaged in making abstracts
of all the medieval Latin writings (many anonymous or of
doubtful attribution) relating to philosophy, theology, grammar,
canon law, and poetry, carefully noting ori cards the first words
of each passage. After his death this index of incipits, arranged
alphabetically, was presented to the Academic des Inscriptions,
and a copy was placed in the MS. department of the Bibliotheque
Nationale.

See obituary notice read by Henri Wallon at a meeting of the
Academic des Inscriptions on the I2th of November 1897- and the
notice by Paul Meyer prefixed to vol. xxxiii. of the Histoire litteraire
de la France.

HAUSA, sometimes incorrectly written HAUSSA, HOUSSA or
HAOUSSA, a people inhabiting about half a million square miles
in the western and central Sudan from the river Niger in the
west to Bornu in the east. Heinrich Earth identifies them with
the Atarantians of Herodotus. According to their own traditions
the earliest home of the race was the divide between the Sokoto
and Chad basins, and more particularly the eastern watershed,
whence they spread gradually westward. In the middle ages,'
to which period the first authentic records refer, the Hausa^
though never a conquering race, attained great political power.
They were then divided into seven states known as " Hausa
bokoy " (" the seven Hausa ") and named Biram, Daura, Gober,
Kano, Rano, Katsena and Zegzeg, after the sons of their legendary
ancestor. This confederation extended its authority over many
of the neighbouring countries, and remained paramount till
the Fula under Sheikh Dan Fodio in 1810 conquered the Hausa
states and founded the Fula empire of Sokoto (see FULA).

The Hausa, who number upwards of 5,000,000, form the most
important nation of the central Sudan. They are undoubtedly
nigritic, though in places with a strong crossing of Fula and
Arab blood. Morally and intellectually they are, however,
far superior to the typical Negro. They are a powerful, heavily
built race, with skin as black as most Negroes, but with lips not
so thick nor hair so woolly. They excel in physical strength.
The average Hausa will carry on his head a load of ninety or a
hundred pounds without showing the slightest signs of fatigue
during a long day's march. When carrying their own goods
it is by no means uncommon for them to take double this weight.
They are a peaceful and industrious people, living partly in
farmsteads amid their crops, partly in large trading centres
such as Kano, Katsena and Yakoba (Bauchi). They are
extremely intelligent and even cultured, and have exercised a
civilizing effect upon their Fula conquerors to whose oppressive
rule they submitted. They are excellent agriculturists, and,
almost unaided by foreign influence, they have developed a
variety of industries, such as the making of cloth, mats, leather
and glass. In Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast territory they
'orm the backbone of the military police, and under English
leadership have again and again shown themselves to be admir-
able fighters and capable of a high degree of discipline and good
conduct. Their food consists chiefly of guinea com (sorghum
vtdgare), which is ground up and eaten as a sort of porridge
mixed with large quantities of red pepper. The Hausa attribute
their superiority in strength to the fact that they live on guinea
corn instead of yams and bananas, which form the staple food of
the tribes on the river Niger. The Hausa carried on agriculture
chiefly by slave labour; they are themselves born traders,
and as such are to be met with in almost every part of Africa
north of the equator. Small colonies of them are to be found in
owns as far distant from one another as Lagos, Tunis, Tripoli,
Alexandria and Suakin.

Language. — The Hausa language has a wider range over Africa
jorth of the equator, south of Barbary and west of the valley of the
Nile, than any other tongue. It is a rich sonorous language, with a
/ocabulary containing perhaps 10,000 words. As an example of
he richness of the vocabulary Bishop Crowther mentions that there
re eight names for different parts of the day from cockcrow till
fter sunset. About a third of the words are connected with Arabic
oots, nor are these such as the Hausa could well have borrowed in
nything like recent times from the Arabs. Many words representing

HAUSER— HAUSMANN

ideas or things with which the Hausa must have been familiar
from the very earliest time are obviously connected with Arabic or
Semitic roots. There is a certain amount of resemblance between
the Hausa language and that spoken by the Berbers to the south of
Tripoli and Tunis. This language, again, has several striking points
of resemblance with Coptic. If, as seems likely, the connexion
between these three languages should be demonstrated, such con-
nexion would serve to corroborate the Hausa tradition that their
ancestors came from the very far east away beyond Mecca. The
Hausa language has been reduced to writing for at least a century,
possibly very much longer. It is the only language in tropical
Africa which has been reduced to writing by the natives themselves,
unless the Vai alphabet, introduced by a native inventor in the
interior of Liberia in the first half of the igth century be excepted;
the character used is a modified form of Arabic. Some fragments of
literature exist, consisting of political and religious poems, together
with a limited amount of native history. A volume, consisting of
history and poems reproduced in facsimile, with translations, has
been published by the Cambridge University Press.

Religion. — About one-third of the people are professed Mahom-
medans, one-third are heathen, and the remainder have apparently
no definite form of religion. Their Mahommedanism dates from the
1 4th century, but became more general when the Fula sheikh Dan
Fodio initiated the religious war which ended in the founding of the
Fula empire. Ever since then the ruler of Sokoto has been acknow-
ledged as the religious head of the whole country, and tribute has
been paid to him as such. The Hausa who profess Mahommedanism
are extremely ignorant of their own faith, and what little religious
fanaticism exists is chiefly confined to the Fula. Large numbers of
the Hausa start every year on the pilgrimage to Mecca, travelling
sometimes across the Sahara desert and by way of Tripoli and Alex-
andria, sometimes by way of Wadai, Darfur, Khartum and Suakin.
The journey often occupies five or six years, and is undertaken quite
as much from trading as from religious motives. Mahommedanism
is making very slow, if any, progress amongst the Hausa. The
greatest obstacle to its general acceptance is the institution of the
Ramadan fast. In a climate so hot as that of Hausaland, the
obligation to abstain from food and drink from sunrise to sunset
during one month in the year is a serious difficulty. Until the last
decade of the igth century no important attempt had been made to
introduce Christianity, but the fact that the Hausa are fond of read-
ing, and that native schools exist in all parts of the country, should
greatly facilitate the work of Christian missionaries.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny, Account of
Timbuctoo and Haussa Territories (1820) ; Morris, Dialogues and part
of the New Testament in the English, Arabic, Haussa and Bornu
Languages (1853); Koelle, Polyglotta Africana (1854); Schon,
Grammar of the Hausa Language (London, 1862), Hausa Reading
Book (1877), and also A Dictionary of the Hausa Language (1877).
Schon has also produced Hausa translations of Gen. (1858), Matt.
(1857) and Luke (1858). Heinrich Barth, Travels in North and
Central Africa (2 vols., London, 1857) ; Central-afrikanische Vokabu-
larien (Gotha, 1867) ; C. H. Robinson, Hausaland, or Fifteen Hundred
Miles through the Central Soudan ( 1 896) ; Specimens of Hausa
Literature (1896); Hausa Grammar (1897); Hausa Dictionary
(1899) ; P. L. Monteil, De St-Louis a Tripoli par le lac Tchad (Paris,
1895) ; Lt. Seymour Vandeleur, Campaigning on the Upper Nile and
Niger (1898).

HAUSER, KASPAR, a German youth whose life was re-
markable from the circumstances of apparently inexplicable
mystery in which it was involved. He appeared on the 26th of
May 1828, in the streets of Nuremberg, dressed in the garb of a
peasant, and with such a helpless and bewildered air that he
attracted the attention of the passers-by. In his possession
was found a letter purporting to be written by a poor labourer,
stating that the boy was given into his custody on the 7th of
October 1812, and that according to agreement he had instructed
him in reading, writing, and the Christian religion, but that up
to the time fixed for relinquishing his custody he had kept him
in close confinement. Along with this letter was enclosed another
purporting to be written by the boy's mother, stating that he
was born on the 3Oth of April 1812, that his name was Kaspar,
and that his father, formerly a cavalry officer in the 6th regiment
at Nuremberg, was dead. The appearance, bearing, and pro-
fessions of the youth corresponded closely with these credentials.
He showed a repugnance to all nourishment except bread and
water, was seemingly ignorant of outward objects, wrote his
name as Kaspar Hauser, and said that he wished to be a cavalry
officer like his father. For some time he was detained in prison
at Nuremberg as a vagrant, but on the i8th of July 1828 he
was delivered over by the town authorities to the care of a school-
master, Professor Daumer, who undertook to be his guardian
and to take the charge of his education. Further mysteries

accumulated about Kaspar's personality and conduct, not
altogether unconnected with the vogue in Germany, at that time,
of " animal magnetism," " somnambulism," and similar theories
of the occult and strange. People associated him with all sorts
of possibilities. On the i7th of October 1829 he was found to
have received a wound in the forehead, which, according to his
own statement, had been inflicted on him by a man with a
blackened face. Having on this account been removed to the
house of a magistrate and placed under close surveillance, he
was visited by Earl Stanhope, who became so interested in his
history that he sent him in 1832 to Ansbach to be educated
under a certain Dr Meyer. After this he became clerk in the
office of Paul John Anselm von Feuerbach, president of the
court of appeal, who had begun to pay attention to his case in
1828; and his strange history was almost forgotten by the
public when the interest in it was suddenly revived by his
receiving a deep wound on his left breast, on the i4th of December
1833, and dying from it three or four days afterwards. He
affirmed that the wound was inflicted by a stranger, but many
believed it to be the work of his own hand, and that he did
not intend it to be fatal, but only so severe as to give a sufficient
colouring of truth to his story. The affair created a great sensa-
tion, and produced a long literary agitation. But the whole story
remains somewhat mysterious. Lord Stanhope eventually
became decidedly sceptical as to Kaspar's stories, and ended by
being accused of contriving his death !

In 1830 a pamphlet was published at Berlin, entitled Kaspar
Hauser nicht unwahrscheinlich ein Betruger; but the truthfulness
of his statements was defended by Daumer, who published Mittei-
lungen uber Kaspar Hauser (Nuremberg, 1832), and Enthullungen
uber Kaspar Hauser (Frankfort, 1859); as well as Kaspar Hauser,
sein Wesen, seine Unschuld, &c. (Regensburg, 1873), in answer to
Meyer's (a son of Kaspar's tutor) Authentische Mitteilungen uber
Kaspar Hauser (Ansbach, 1872). Feuerbach awakened considerable
psychological interest in the case by his pamphlet Kaspar Hauser,
Beispiel eines Verbrechens am Seelenleben (Ansbach, 1832), and Earl
Stanhope also took part in the discussion by publishing Materialen
zur Geschichte K. Hausers (Heidelberg, 1836). The theory of Daumer
and Feuerbach and other pamphleteers (finally presented in 1892 by
Miss Elizabeth E. Evans in her Story of Kaspar Hauser from Authentic
Records) was that the youth was the crown prince of Baden, the
legitimate son of the grand-duke Charles of Baden, and that he
had been kidnapped at Karlsruhe in October 1812 by minions of
the countess of Hochberg (morganatic wife of the grand-duke) in
order to secure the succession to her offspring; but this theory was
answered in 1875 by the publication in the Augsburg Allgemeine
Zeitung of the official record of the baptism, post-mortem examina-
tion and burial of the heir supposed to have been kidnapped. See
Kaspar Hauser und sein badisches Prinzentum (Heidelberg, 1876).
In 1883 the story was again revived in a Regensburg pamphlet attack-
ing, among other people, Dr Meyer; and the sons of the latter,
who was dead, brought an action for libel, under the German law,
to which no defence was made; all the copies of the pamphlet were
ordered to be destroyed. The evidence has been subtly analyzed
by Andrew Lang in his Historical Mysteries (1904), with results un-
favourable to the " romantic " version of the story. Lang's view
is that possibly Kaspar was a sort of " ambulatory automatist," an
instance of a phenomenon, known by other cases to students of
psychical abnormalities, of which the characteristics are a mania
for straying away and the persistence of delusions as to identity;
but he inclines to regard Kaspar as simply a " humbug " The
" authentic records " purporting to confirm the kidnapping story
Lang stigmatizes as worthless and impudent rubbish." The
evidence is in any case in complete confusion.

HAUSMANN, JOHANN FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1782-1859),
German mineralogist, was born at Hanover on the 22nd of Feb-
ruary 1782. He was educated at Gottingen, where he obtained
the degree of Ph.D. After making a geological tour in Denmark,
Norway and Sweden in 1807, he was two years later placed at
the head of a government mining establishment in Westphalia,
and he established a school of mines at Clausthal in the Harz
mountains. In 1811 he was appointed professor of technology
and mining, and afterwards of geology and mineralogy in the
university of Gottingen, and this chair he occupied until a short
time before his death. He was also for many years secretary
of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Gottingen. He published
observations on geology and mineralogy in Spain and Italy as
well as in central and northern Europe: he wrote on gypsum,
pyrites, felspar, tachylite, cordierite and on some eruptive

HAUSRATH— HAUSSONVILLE

rocks, and he devoted much attention to the crystals developed
during metallurgical processes. He died at Hanover on the 26th
of December 1859.

PUBLICATIONS. — Grundlinien einer Encyklopadie der Bergwerks-
wissenschaften (181 1) ; Reise durch Skandinavien (5 vois., 1811-1818) ;
Handbuch der Mineralogie (3 vols., 1813; 2nd ed., 1828-1847).

HAUSRATH, ADOLPH (1837-1909), German theologian,
was born at Karlsruhe on the I3th of January 1837 and was
educated at Jena, Gottingen, Berlin and Heidelberg, where
he became Privatdozent in 1861, professor extraordinary in
1867 and ordinary professor in 1872. He was a disciple of the
Tubingen school and a strong Protestant. Among other works he
wrote Der A pastel Paulus (1865), Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte
(1868-1873, 4 vols.; Eng. trans.), D. F. Strauss und die Theologie
seiner Zeit (1876-1878, 2 vols.), and lives qf Richard Rothe
(2 vols. 1902), and Luther (1904). His scholarship was sound
and his style vigorous. Under the pseudonym George Taylor
he wrote several historical romances, especially Antinous (1880),
which quickly ran through five editions, and is the story of a
soul " which courted death because the objective restraints
of faith had been lost." Klytia (1883) was a 16th-century story,
Jetta (1884) a tale of the great immigrations, and Elfriede " a
romance of the Rhine." He died on the 2nd of August 1909.

HAUSSER, LUDWIG (1818-1867), German historian, was
born at Kleeburg, in Alsace. Studying philology at Heidelberg
in 1835, he was led by F. C. Schlosser to give it up for history,
and after continuing his historical work at Jena and teaching
in the gymnasium at Wertheim he made his mark by his Die
teutschen Geschichtsschreiber vom Anfang des Frankenreichs
bis auf die Hohenstaufen (1839). Next year appeared his Sage
von Tell. After a short period of study in Paris on the French
Revolution, he spent some time working in the archives of
Baden and Bavaria, and published in 1845 Die GeschiMe der
rheinischen Pfalz, which won for him a professorship extra-
ordinarius at Heidelberg. In 1850 he became professor ordinarius.
Hausser also interested himself in politics while at Heidelberg,
publishing in i&46Schleswig-Holstein, Danemark und Deutschland,
and editing with Gervinus the Deutsche Zeitung. In 1848 he
was elected to the lower legislative chamber of Baden, and in
1850 advocated the project of union with Prussia at the parlia-
ment held at Erfurt. ' Another timely work was his edition
of Friedrich List's Gesammelle Schriften (1850), accompanied
with a life of the author. His greatest achievement, and the
one on which his fame as an historian rests, is his Deutsche
Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Grundung
des deutschen Bundes (Leipzig, 1854-1857, 4 vols.). This was
the first work covering that period based on a scientific study
of the archival sources. In 1859 he again took part in politics,
resuming his place in the lower chamber, opposing in 1863 the
project of Austria for the reform of the Confederation brought
forward in the assembly of princes at Frankfort, in his book
Die Reform des deutschen Bundestages, and becoming one of
the leaders of the " little German " (kleindeutsche) party, which
advocated the exclusion of Austria from Germany. In addition
to various essays (in his Gesammelte Schriften, Berlin, 1869-
1870, 2 vols.), Hausser's lectures have been edited by W. Oncken
in the Geschichte des Zeitalters der Reformation (1869, 2nd ed.
1880), and Geschichte der franzosischen Revolution (1869, 2nd
ed. 1870). These lectures reveal all the charm of style and
directness of presentation which made Hausser's work as a
professor so vital.
See W. Wattenbach, Lud. Hausser, ein Vortrag (Heidelberg, 1867).
HAUSSMANN, GEORGES EUGENE, BARON (1809-1891),
whose name is associated with the rebuilding of Paris, was born
in that city on the 27th of March 1809 of a Protestant family,
German in origin. He was educated at the College Henri IV,
and subsequently studied law, attending simultaneously the
classes at the Paris conservatoire of music, for he was a good
musician. He became sous-prefet of Nerac in 1830, and advanced
rapidly in the civil service until in 1853 he was chosen by Persigny
prefect of the Seine in succession to Jean Jacques Berger, who
hesitated to incur the vast expenses of the imperial schemes

for the embellishment of Paris. Haussmann laid out the Bois
de Boulogne, and made extensive improvements in the smaller
parks. The gardens of the Luxembourg Palace were cut down
to allow of the formation of new streets, and the Boulevard
de Sebastopol, the southern half of which is now the Boulevard
St Michel, was driven through a populous district. A new
water supply, a gigantic system of sewers, new bridges, the
opera, and other public buildings, the inclusion of outlying
districts — these were among the new prefect's achievements,
accomplished by the aid of a bold handling of the public funds
which called forth Jules Ferry's indictment, Les Comptes fan-
tasliques de Haussmann, in 1867. A loan of 250 million francs
was sanctioned for the city of Paris in 1865, and another of
260 million in 1869. These sums represented only part of his
financial schemes, which led to his dismissal by the government
of Emile Ollivier. After the fall of the Empire he spent about
a year abroad, but he re-entered public life in 1877, when he
became Bonapartist deputy for Ajaccio. He died in Paris
on the nth of January 1891. Haussmann had been made
senator in 1857, member of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1867,
and grand cross of the Legion of Honour in 1862. His name
is preserved in the Boulevard Haussmann. His later years
were occupied with the preparation of his Memoires (3 vols.,
1890-1893).

HAUSSONVILLE, JOSEPH OTHENIN BERNARD DE
CLERON, COMTE D' (1809-1884), French politician and historian,
was born in Paris on the 27th of May 1809. His grandfather had
been " grand louvetier " of France; his father Charles Louis
Bernard de Cleron, comte d'Haussonville (1770-1846), was
chamberlain at the court of Napoleon, a count of the French
empire, and under the Restoration a peer of France and an
opponent of the Villele ministry. Comte Joseph had filled a
series of diplomatic appointments at Brussels, Turin and Naples
before he entered the chamber of deputies in 1842 for Provins.
Under the Second Empire he published a liberal anti-imperial
paper at Brussels, Le Bulletin franqais, and in 1863 he actively
supported the candidature of Prevost Paradol. He was elected
to the French Academy in 1869, in recognition of his historical
writings, Histoire de la politique exterieure du gouvernemenl
franqais de 1830 a, 1848 (2 vols., 1850), Histoire de la reunion de
la Lorraine a la France (4 vols., 1854-1859), L'Eglise romaine
et le premier empire 1800-1814 (5 vols., 1864-1879). In 1870
he published a pamphlet directed against the Prussian treatment
of France, La France el la Prusse devant I' Europe, the sale of
which was prohibited in Belgium at the request of King William
of Prussia. He was the president of an association formed to
provide new homes in Algeria for the inhabitants of Alsace-
Lorraine who elected to retain their French nationality. In
1878 he was made a life-senator, in which capacity he allied
himself with the Right Centre in defence of the religious associa-
tions against the anti-clericals. He died in Paris on the 28th
of May 1884.

His wife Louise (1818-1882), a daughter of Due Victor de
Broglie, published in 1858 a novel Robert Emmet, followed by
Marguerite de Valois reine de Navarre (1870), Lajeunesse de Lord
Byron (1872), and Les Dernieres Annees de Lord Byron (1874).

His son, GABRIEL PAUL OTHENIN DE CLERON, comte
d'Haussonville, was born at Gurcy de Chatel (Seine-et-Marne)
on the 2ist of September 1843, and married in 1865 Mile Pauline
d'Harcourt. He represented Seine-et-Marne in the National
Assembly (1871) and voted with the Right Centre. Though he
was not elected to the chamber of deputies he became the right-
hand man of his maternal uncle, the due de Broglie, in the
attempted coup of the i6th of May. His Etablissements peni-
tentiaires en France et aux colonies (1875) was crowned by the
Academy, of which he was admitted a member in 1888. In
1891 the resignation of Henri Edouard Bocher from the adminis-
tration of the Orleans estates led to the appointment of M
d'Haussonville as accredited representative of the comte de
Paris in France. He at once set to work to strengthen the
Orleanist party by recruiting from the smaller nobility the
officials of the local monarchical committees. He established

HAUTE-GARONNE— HAUTE-MARNE

new Orleanist organs, and sent out lecturers with instructions
to emphasize the modern and democratic principles of the comte
de Paris; but the prospects of the party were dashed in 1894
by the death of the comte de Paris. In 1904 he was admitted
to the Academy of Moral and Political Science. The comte
d'Haussonville published: — C. A. Sainle-Beuve, sa vie et ses
ceuvres (1875), £.tudes biographiques et litter aires, 2 series (1879
and 1888), Le Saloh de Mme Necker (1882, 2 vols.), Madame
de La Fayette (1891), Madame Ackermann (1892), Le Comte de
Paris, souvenirs personnels (1895), La Duchesse de Bourgogne
et I' alliance savoy arde (1898-1903), Salaire et miseres de femme
(1900), and, with G. Hanotaux, Souvenirs sur Madame de
Maintcnon (3 vols., 1902-1904).

HAUTE-GARONNE, a frontier department of south-western
France, formed in 1790 from portions of the provinces of
Languedoc(ToulousainandLauraguais)andGascony(Comminges
and Nebouzan). Pop. (1906), 442,065. Area, 2458 sq. m. It
is bounded N. by the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, E. by
Tarn, Aude and Ariege, S. by Spain and W. by Gers and Hautes-
Pyrenees. Long and narrow in shape, the department consists
in the north of an undulating stretch of country with continual
interchange of hill and valley nowhere thrown into striking
relief; while towards the south the land rises gradually to the
Pyrenees, which on the Spanish border attain heights of upwards
of 10,000 ft. Two passes, the Port d'Oo, near the beautiful lake
and waterfall of Oo, and the Port de Venasque, exceed 9800 and
7900 ft. in altitude respectively. Entering the department in
the south-east, the Garonne flows in a northerly direction and
traverses almost its entire length, receiving in its course the
Pique, the Salat, the Louge, the Ariege, the Touch and the Save.
Except in the mountainous region the climate is mild, the mean
annual temperature being rather higher than that of Paris.
The rainfall, which averages 24 in. at Toulouse, exceeds 40 in.
in some parts of the mountains; and sudden and destructive
inundations of the Garonne — of which that of 1875 is a celebrated
example — are always to be feared. The valley of the Garonne
is also frequently visited by severe hail-storms. Thick forests
of oak, fir and pine exist in the mountains and furnish timber
for shipbuilding. The arable land of the plains and valleys is
well adapted for the cultivation of wheat, maize and other grain
crops; and the produce of cereals is generally much more than is
required for the local consumption. Market-gardening flourishes
around Toulouse. A large area is occupied by vineyards, though
the wine is only of medium quality; and chestnuts, apples and
peaches are grown. As pasture laud is abundant a good deal
of attention is given to the rearing of cattle and sheep, and
co-operative dairies are numerous in the mountains; but de-
forestation has tended to reduce the area of pasture-land, because
the soil, unretained by the roots of trees, has been gradually
washed away. Haute-Garonne has deposits of zinc and lead,
and salt- workings; there is an ancient and active marble-
working industry at St Beat. Mineral springs are common,
those of Bagneres-de-Luchon Encausse, Barbazan and Salies-du-
Salat being well known. The manufactures are various though
not individually extensive, and include iron and copper goods,
woollen, cotton and linen goods, leather, paper, boots and shoes,
tobacco and table delicacies. Flour-mills, iron-works and
brick-works are numerous. Railway communication is furnished
by the Southern and the Orleans railways, the main line of the
former from Bordeaux to Cette passing through Toulouse. The
Canal du Midi traverses the department for 32m. and the lateral
canal of the Garonne for ism. The Garonne is navigable below
its confluence with the Salat. There are four arrondissements —
Toulouse, Villefranche, Muret and St Gaudcns, subdivided into
39 cantons and 588 communes. The chief town is Toulouse,
which is the seat of a court of appeal and of an archbishop, the
headquarters of the XVIIth army corps and the centre of an
academy; and St Gaudens, Bagneres-de-Luchon and, from an
architectural and historical standpoint, St Bertrand-de-
Comminges are of importance and receive separate treatment.
Other placesof interest are St Aventin,Montsaunes and Venerque,
which possess ancient churches in the Romanesque style. The

church of St Just at Valcabrere is of still greater age, the choir
dating from the 8th or 9th century and part of the nave from the
nth century. There are ruins of a celebrated Cistercian abbey
at Bonnefont near St Martory. Gallo-Roman remains and
works of art have been discovered at Martres. Near Revel is
the fine reservoir of St Ferreol, constructed for the canal du Midi
in the i7th century.

HAUTE-LOIRE, a department of central France, formed
in 1790 of Velay and portions of Vivarais and Gevaudan, three
districts formerly belonging to the old province of Languedoc,
of a portion of Forez formerly belonging to Lyonnais, and a
portion of lower Auvergne. Pop. (1906), 314,770. Area, 1931
sq. m. It is bounded N. by Puy-de-D6me and Loire, E. by Loire
and Ardeche, S. by Ardeche and Lozere and W. by Lozere and
Cantal. Haute-Loire, which is situated on the central plateau
of France, is traversed from north to south by four mountain
ranges. Its highest point, the Mont Mezenc (5755 ft.), in the
south-east of the department, belongs to the mountains of
Vivarais, which are continued along the eastern border by the
Boutieres chain. The Lignon divides the Boutieres from the
Massif du Megal, which is separated by the Loire itself from the
mountains of Velay, a granitic range overlaid with the eruptions
of more than one hundred and fifty craters. The Margeride
mountains run along the western border of the department.
The Loire enters the department at a point 16 m. distant from
its source in Ardeche, and first flowing northwards and then
north-east, waters its eastern half. The Allier, which joins the
Loire at Nevers, traverses the western portion of Haute-Loire
in a northerly direction. The chief affluents of the Loire within
the limits of the department are the Borne on the left, joining it
near Le Puy, and the Lignon, which descends from the Mezenc,
between the Boutieres and Megal ranges, on the right. The
climate, owing to the altitude, the northward direction of the
valleys, and the winds from the Cevennes, is cold, the winters
being long and rigorous. Storms and violent rains are frequent
on the higher grounds, and would give rise to serious inundations
were not the rivers for the most part confined within deep rocky
channels. Cereals, chiefly rye, oats, barley and wheat, are
cultivated in the lowlands and on the plateaus, on which aromatic
and medicinal plants are abundant. Lentils, peas, mangel-
wurzels and other forage and potatoes are also grown. Horned
cattle belong principally to the Mezenc breed; goats are
numerous. The woods yield pine, fir, oak and beech. Lace-
making, which employs about 90,000 women, and coal-mining
are main industries; the coal basins are those of Brassac and
Langeac. There are also mines of antimony and stone-quarries.
Silk-milling, caoutchouc-making, various kinds of smith's work,
paper-making, glass-blowing, brewing, wood-sawing and flour-
milling are also carried on. The principal imports are flour,
brandy ,wine, live-stock, lace-thread and agricultural implements.
Exports include fat stock, wool, aromatic plants, coal, lace.
The department is served chiefly by the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee
company. There are three arrondissements — Le Puy, Brioude
and Yssingeaux, with 28 cantons and 265 communes.

Haute-Loire forms the diocese of Le Puy and part of the
ecclesiastical province of Bourges, and belongs to the academic
(educational division) of Clermont-Ferrand. Its court of appeal
is at Riom. Le Puy the capital, Brioude and La Chaise-Dieu
the principal towns of the department, receive separate treat-
ment. It has some notable churches, of which those of Chama-
lieres, St Paulien and Sainte-Marie-des-Chazes are Romanesque
in style; Le Monastier preserves the church, in part Romanesque,
and the buildings of the abbey to which it owes its origin.
Arlempdes and Bouzols (near Coubon) have the ruins of large
feudal chateaus. The rocky plateau overlooking Polignac is
occupied by the ruins of the imposing stronghold of the ancient
family of Polignac, including a square donjon of the i4th century.
Interesting Gallo-Roman remains have been found on the site.

HAUTE-MARNE, a department, of north-eastern France, made
up for the most part of districts belonging to the former province
of Champagne (Bassigny, Perthois, Vallage), with smaller
portions of Lorraine and Burgundy, and seme fragments of

HAUTERIVE— HAUTES ALPES

73

Franche-Comt6. Area, 2415 sq. m. Pop. (1906), 221,724. It is
bounded N.E. by Meuse, E. by Vosges, S.E. by Haute-Saone,
S. and S.W. by C6te d'Or, W. by Aube, and N.W. by Marne.
Its greatest elevation (1693 ft.) is in the plateau of Langres in
the south between the sources of the Marne and those of the
Aube; the watershed between the basin of the Rhone on the
south and those of the Seine and Meuse on the north, which is
formed by the plateau of Langres continued north-east by the
Monts Paucities, has an average height of 1500 or 1600 ft. The
country descends rapidly towards the south, but in very gentle
slopes northwards. To the north is Bassigny (the paybas or
low country, as distinguished from the highlands), a district
characterized by monotonous flats of little fertility and extensive
wooded tracts. The lowest level of the department is 361 ft.
Hydrographically Haute-Marne belongs for the most part to
the basin of the Seine, the remainder to those of the Rhone and
the Meuse. The principal river is the Marne, which rises here,
and has a course of 75 m. within the department. Among its
more important affluents are, on the right the Rognon, and on
the left the Blaise. The Saulx, another tributary of the Marne
on the right, also rises in Haute-Marne. Westward the depart-
ment is watered by the Aube and its tributary the Aujon, both
of which have their sources on the plateau of Langres. The Meuse
also rises in the Monts Faucilles, and has a course of 31 m. within
the department. On the Mediterranean side the department
sends to the Sa6ne the Apance, the Amance, the Salon and the
Vingeanne. The climate is partly that of the Seine region,
partly that of the Vosges, and partly that of the Rhone; the
mean temperature is 51° F., nearly that of Paris; the rainfall
is slightly below the average for France.

The agriculture of the department is carried on chiefly by
small proprietors. The chief crops are wheat and oats, which
are more than sufficient for the needs of the inhabitants; potatoes,
lucerne and mangel wurzels are next in importance. Natural
pasture is abundant, especially in Bassigny, where horse and
cattle-raising flourish. The vineyards produce some fair wines,
notably the white wine of Soyers. More than a quarter of the
territory is under wood. The department is rich in iron and
building and other varieties of stone are quarried. The warm
springs of Bourbonne-les-Bains are among the earliest known and
most frequented in France. The leading industry is the metal-
lurgical; its establishments include blast furnaces, foundries,
forges, plate-rolling works, and shops for nailmaking and smith's
work of various descriptions. St Dizier is the chief centre of
manufacture and distribution. The cutlery trade occupies
thousands of hands at Nogent-en-Bassigny and in the neighbour-
hood of Langres. Val d'Osne is well known for its production
of fountains, statues, &c., in metal-work. Flour-milling, glove-
making (at Chaumont), basket-making, brewing, tanning and
other industries are also carried on. The principal import is
coal, while manufactured goods, iron, stone, wood and cereals
are exported. The department is served by the Eastern railway,
of which the line from Paris to Belfort passes through Chaumont
and Langres. The canal from the Marne to the Saone and the
canal of the Haute-Marne, which accompany the Marne, together
cover 99 m.; there is a canal 14 m. long from St Dizier to Wassy.
There are three arrondissements (Chaumont, Langres and Wassy) ,
with 28 cantons and 550 communes. Chaumont is the capital.
The department forms the diocese of Langres; it belongs to the
VII. military region and to the educational circumscription
(academic) of Dijon, where also is its court of appeal. The
principal towns— Chaumont, Langres, St Dizier and Bourbonne-
les-Bains — receive separate notice. At Montier-en-Der the
remains of an abbey founded in the 7th century include a fine
church with nave and aisles of the roth, and choir of the i3th
century. Wassy, the scene in 1562 of the celebrated massacre of
Protestants by the troops of Francis, duke of Guise, has among
its old buildings a church much of which dates from the Roman-
esque period. Vignory has a church of the nth century. Join-
ville, a metallurgical centre, preserves a chateau of the dukes of
Guise in the Renaissance style. Pailly, near Langres, has a fine
chateau of the last half of the i6th century.

HAUTERIVE, ALEXANDRE MAURICE BLANC DE
LANAUTTE, COMTE D' (1754-1830), French statesman and
diplomatist, was born at Aspres (Hautes-Alpes) on the i4th of
April 1754, and was educated at Grenoble, where he became a
professor. Later he held a similar position at Tours, and there
he attracted the attention of the due de Choiseul, who invited
him to visit him at Chanteloup. Hauterive thus came in contact
with the great men who visited the duke, and one of these, the
comte de Choiseul-Goiflier, on his appointment as ambassador
to Constantinople in 1784 took him with him. Hauterive was
enriched for a time by his marriage with a widow, Madame de
Marchais, but was ruined by the Revolution. In 1790 he applied
for and received the post of consul at New York. Under the
Consulate, however, he was accused of embezzlement and re-
called; and, though the charge was proved to be false, was not
reinstated. In 1798, after trying his hand at farming in America,
Hauterive was appointed to a post in the French foreign office.
In this capacity he made a sensation by his L'£tal de la France a
la fin de I' an VIII (1800), which he had been commissioned by
Bonaparte to draw up, as a manifesto to foreign nations, after
the coup d'itat of the i8th Brumaire. This won him the con-
fidence of Bonaparte, and he was henceforth employed in drawing
up many of the more important documents. In 1805 he was
made a councillor of state and member of the Legion of Honour,
and between 1805 and 1813 he was more than once temporarily
minister of foreign affairs. He attempted, though vainly, to use
his influence to moderate Napoleon's policy, especially in the
matter of Spain and the treatment of the pope. In 1805 a
difference of opinion with Talleyrand on the question of the
Austrian alliance, which Hauterive favoured, led to his with-
drawal from the political side of the ministry of foreign affairs,
and he was appointed keeper of the archives of the same depart-
ment. In this capacity he did very useful work, and after the
Restoration continued in this post at the request of the due de
Richelieu, his work being recognized by his election as a member
of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1820. He
died at Paris on the 28th of July 1830.

There is a detailed account of Hauterive, with considerable extracts
from his correspondence with Talleyrand, in the Biographie universelle
by A. F. Artand de Montor, who published a separate life in 1831.
Criticisms of his Etat de la France appeared in Germany and England
by F. von Gentz (Von dem politischen Zustande, 1801). and by
T. B. Clarke (A Hist, and Pol. View ..., 1803).

HAUTES ALPES, a department in S.E. France, formed in
1790 out of the south-eastern portion of the old province of
Dauphine, together with a small part of N. Provence. It is
bounded N. by the department of Savoie, E. by Italy and the
department of the Basses Alpes, S. by the last-named depart-
ment and that of the Dr6me, and W. by the departments of the
Drome and of the Isere. Its area is 2178 sq. m., its greatest
length is 85 m. and its greatest breadth 62 m. It is very moun-
tainous, and includes the Pointe des Ecrins (13,462 ft.), the
loftiest summit in France before the annexation of Savoy in
1860, as well as the Meije (13,081 ft.), the Ailefroide (12,989 ft.)
and the Mont Pelvoux (12,973 ft.), though Monte Viso (12,609 &•)
is wholly in Italy, rising just over the border. The department
is to a large extent made up of the basins of the upper Durance
(with its tributaries, the Guisane, the Gyronde and the Guil), of
the upper Drac and of the Bue'ch — all being to a very large
extent wild mountain torrents in their upper course. The depart-
ment is divided into three arrondissements (Gap, Briancon and
Embrun), 24 cantons and 186 communes. In 1906 its population
was 107,498. It is a very poor department owing to its great
elevation above the sea-level. There are no industries of any
extent, and its commerce is almost wholly of local importance.
The prolonged winter greatly hinders agricultural development,
while the pastoral region has been greatly damaged and the
forests destroyed by the ravages of the Provencal sheep, vast
flocks of which are driven up here in the summer, as the pastures
are leased out to a large extent, and but little utilized by the
inhabitants. It now forms the diocese of Gap (this see is first
certainly mentioned in the 6th century), which is in the ecclesi-
astical province of Aix en Provence; in 1791 there was annexed

74

HAUTE-SAONE— HAUTES-PYRENEES

to it the archiepiscopal see of Embrun, which was then sup-
pressed. There are 114 m. of railway in the department. This
includes the main line from Briancon past Gap towards Grenoble.
About 165 m. W. of Gap is the important railway junction of
Veynes, whence branch off the lines to Grenoble, to Valence by
Die and Livron, and to Sisteron for Marseilles. The chief town
is Gap, while Briancon and Embrun are the only other important
places.

See J. Roman, Dictionnaire lopographique du dep. des Htes-Alpes
(Paris, 1884), Tableau historique du dep. des Htes-Alpes (Paris, 1887-
1890, 2 vols.'), and Repertoire archeologique du dep. des Htes-Alpes
(Paris, 1888); J. C. F. Ladoucette, Histoire, topographic, &c., des
Hautes-Alpes (yd ed., Paris, 1848). (W. A. B. C.)

HAUTE-SAONE, a department of eastern France, formed in
1 790 from the northern portion of Franche Comte. It is traversed
by the river Saone, bounded N. by the department of the Vosges,
E. by the territory of Belfort, S. by Doubs and Jura, and W. by
Cote-d'Or and Haute-Marne. Pop. (1906), 263,890; area, 2075
sq. m. On the north-east, where they are formed by the Vosges,
and to the south along the course of the Ognon the limits are
natural. The highest point of the department is the Ballon de
Servance (3970 ft.), and the lowest the confluence of the Saone
and Ognon (610 ft.). The general slope is from north-east to
south-west, the direction followed by those two streams. In the
north-east the department belongs to the Vosgian formation,
consisting of forest-clad mountains of sandstone and granite,
and is of a marshy nature; but throughout the greater part of its
extent it is composed of limestone plateaus 800 to 1000 ft. high
pierced with crevasses and subterranean caves, into which the
rain water disappears to issue again as springs in the valleys 200
ft. lower down. In its passage through the department the
Saone receives from the right the Amance and the Salon from the
Langres plateau, and from the left the Coney, the Lanterne
(augmented by the Breuchin which passes by Luxeuil), the
Burgeon (passing Vesoul), and the Ognon. The north-eastern
districts are cold and have an annual rainfall ranging from 36
to 48 in. Towards the south-west the climate becomes more
temperate. At Vesoul and Gray the rainfall only reaches 24 in.
per annum.

Haute-Saone is primarily agricultural. Of its total area
nearly half is arable land; wheat, oats, meslin and rye are the
chief cereals and potatoes are largely grown. The vine flourishes
mainly in the arrondissement of Gray. Apples, plums and
cherries (from which the kirsch, for which the department is
famous, is distilled) are the chief fru'ts. The woods which cover
a quarter of the department are composed mainly of firs in the
Vosges and of oak, beech, hornbeam and aspen in the other
districts. The river-valleys furnish good pasture for the rearing
of horses and of horned cattle. The department possesses mines
of coal (at Ronchamp) and rock-salt (at Gouhenans) and stone
quarries are worked. Of the many mineral waters of Haute-
Saone the best known are the hot springs of Luxeuil (q.v.).
Besides iron-working establishments (smelting furnaces, foundries
and wire-drawing mills) , Haute-Saone possesses copper-foundries,
engineering works, steel-foundries and factories at Plancher-les-
Mines and elsewhere for producing ironmongery, nails, pins, files,
saws, screws, shot, chains, agricultural implements, locks, spin-
ning machinery, edge tools. Window-glass and glass wares,
pottery and earthenware are manufactured; there are also
brick and tile-works. The spinning and weaving of cotton, of
which Hericourt (pop. in 1906, 5194) is the chief centre, stand
next in importance to metal working, and there are numerous
paper-mills. Print-works, fulling mills, hosiery factories and
straw-hat factories are also of some account; as well as sugar
works, distilleries, dye-works, saw-mills, starch-works, the
chemical works at Gouhenans, oil-mills, tanyards and flour-
mills. The department exports wheat, cattle, cheese, butter,
iron, wood, pottery, kirschwasser, plaster, leather, glass, &c.
The Saone provides a navigable channel of about 70 m., which
is connected with the Moselle and the Meuse at Corre by the
Canal de 1'Est along the valley of the Coney. Gray is the chief
emporium of the water-borne trade of the Saone. Haute-Sa6ne

is served chiefly by the Eastern railway. There are three arron-
dissements — Vesoul, Gray, Lure — comprising 28 cantons, 583
communes. Haute-Saone is in the district of the VII. army
corps, and in its legal, ecclesiastical and educational relations
depends on Besancon.

Vesoul, the capital of the department, Gray and Luxeuil are
the principal towns. There is an important school of agri-
culture at St Remy in the arrondissement of Vesoul. The'
Roman ruins and mosaics at Membrey in the arrondissement
of Gray and the church (i3th and isth centuries) and abbey
buildings at Faverney, in the arrondissement of Vesoul, are of
antiquarian interest.

HAUTE-SAVOIE, a frontier department of France, formed
in 1860 of the old provinces of the Genevois, the Chablais and
the Faucigny, which constituted the northern portion of the
duchy of Savoy. It is bounded N. by the canton and Lake of
Geneva, E. by the Swiss canton of the Valais, S. by Italy and the
department of Savoie, and W. by the department of the Ain. It
is mainly made up of the river-basins of the Arve (flowing along
the northern foot of the Mont Blanc range, and receiving the
Giffre, on the right, and the Borne and Foron, on the left — the
Arve joins the Rhone, close to Geneva), of the Dranse (with
several branches, all flowing into the Lake of Geneva), of the
Usses and of the Fier (both flowing direct into the Rhone, the
latter after forming the Lake of Annecy) . The upper course of the
Arly is also in the department, but the river then leaves it to fall
into the Isere. The whole of the department is mountainous.
But the hills attain no very great height, save at its south-east
end, where rises the sncwclad chain of Mont Blanc, with many
high peaks (culminating in Mont Blanc, 15,782 ft.) and many
glaciers. That portion of the department is alone frequented by
travellers, whose centre is Chamonix in the upper Arve valley.
The lowest point (945 ft.) in the department is at the junction of
the Fier with the Rhone. The whole of the department is
included in that portion of the duchy of Savoy which was neutral-
ized in 1815. In 1906 the population of the department was
260,617. Its area is 1775 sq. m., and it is divided into four
arrondissements (Annecy, the chief town, Bonneville, St Julien
and Thonon), 28 cantons and 314 communes. It forms the
diocese of Annecy. There are in the department 176 m. of
broad-gauge railways, and 70 m. of narrow-gauge lines.
There are also a number of mineral springs, only three of
which are known to foreigners — the chalybeate waters of
Evian and Amphion, close to each other on the south shore
of the Lake of Geneva, and the chalybeate and sulphurous
waters of St Gervais, at the north-west end of the chain of Mont
Blanc. Anthracite and asphalte mines are numerous, as well as
stone quarries. Cotton is manufactured at Annecy, while Cluses
is the centre of the clock-making industry. There is a well-known
bell foundry at Annecy le Vieux. Thonon (the old capital of the
Chablais) is the most important town on the southern shore of the
Lake of Geneva and, after Annecy, the most populous place in
the department. (W. A. B. C.)

HAUTES-PYRENEES, a department of south-western France,
on the Spanish frontier, formed in 1790, half of it being taken
from Bigorre and the remainder from Armagnac, Nebouzan,
Astarac and Quatre Vallees, districts which all belonged to the
province of Gascony. Pop. (1906), 209,397. Area, 1750 sq. m.
Hautes-Pyrenees is bounded S. by Spain, W. by the department
of Basses-Pyrenees (which encloses on its eastern border five
communes belonging to Hautes-Pyrenees), N. by Gers and E.
by Haute-Garonne. Except on the south its boundaries are
conventional. The south of the department, comprising two-
thirds of its area, is occupied by the central Pyrenees. Some
of the peaks reach or exceed the height of 10,000 ft., the Vigne-
male (10,820 ft.) being the highest in the French Pyrenees. The
imposing cirques (Cirques de Troumouse, Gavarnie and Estaube),
with their glaciers and waterfalls, and the pleasant valleys
attract a large number of tourists, the most noted point being
the Cirque de Gavarnie. The northern portion of the depart-
ment is a region of plains and undulating hills clothed with corn-
fields, vineyards and meadows. To the north-east, however, the

HAUTE- VIENNE

75

cold and wind-swept plateau of Lannemezan (about 2000 ft.),
the watershed of the streams that come down on the French side
of the Pyrenees, presents in its bleakness and barrenness a
striking contrast to the plain that lies below. The department
is drained by three principal streams, the Gave de Pau, the Adour
and the Neste, an affluent of the Garonne. The sources of the
first and third lie close together in the Cirque of Gavarnie and
on the slopes of Troumouse, whence they flow respectively to
the north-west and north-east. An important section of the
Pyrenees, which carries the Massif Neouvielle and the Pic du
Midi de Bigorre (with its meteorological observatory), runs
northward between these two valleys. From the Pic du Midi
descends the Adour, which, after watering the pleasant valley
of Campan, leaves the mountains at Bagneres and then divides
into a multitude of channels, to irrigate the rich plain of Tarbes.
The chief of these is the Canal d'Alaric with a length of 36 m.
Beyond Hautes-Pyrenees it receives on the right the Arros,
which flows through the department from south to north-north-
west; on the left it receives the Gave de Pau. This latter
stream, rising in Gavarnie, is joined at Luz by the Gave de
Bastan from Neouvielle, and at Pierrefitte by the Gave de
Cauterets, fed by streams from the Vignemale. The Gavede Pau,
after passing Argeles, a well-known centre for excursions, and
Lourdes, leaves the mountains and turns sharply from north
to west; it has a greater volume of water than the Adour, but,
being more of a mountain torrent, is regarded as a tributary
of the Adour, which is navigable in the latter part of its course.
The Neste d'Aure, descending from the peaks of Neouvielle
and Troumouse, receives at Arreau the Neste de Louron from
the pass of Clarabide and flows northwards through a beautiful
valley as far as La Barthe, where it turns east; it is important
as furnishing the plateau of Lannemezan with a canal, the Canal
de la Neste, the waters of which are partly used for irrigation
and partly for supplying the streams that rise there and are dried
up in summer — the Gers and the Baise, affluents of the Garonne.
This latter only touches the department. The climate of Hautes-
Pyrenees, though very cold on the highlands, is warm and moist
in the plains, where there are hot summers, fine autumns, mild
winters and rainy springs. On the plateau of Lannemezan,
while the summers are dry and scorching, the winters are very
severe. The average annual rainfall at Tarbes, in the north of
the department, is about 34 in.; at the higher altitudes it is
much greater. The mean annual temperature at Tarbes is
59° Fahr.

Hautes-Pyrenees is agricultural in the plains, pastoral in the
highlands. The more important cereals are wheat and maize,
which is much used for the feeding of pigs and poultry, especially
geese; rye, oats and barley are grown in the mountain districts.
The wines of Madiran and Peyriguere are well known and
tobacco is also cultivated; chestnut trees and fruit trees are
grown on the lower slopes. In the neighbourhood of Tarbes and
Bagneres-de-Bigorre horse-breeding is the principal occupation
and there is a famous stud at Tarbes. The horse of the region
is the result of a fusion of Arab, English and Navarrese blood
and is well fitted for saddle and harness; it is largely used by
light cavalry regiments. Cattle raising is important; the milch-
cows of Lourdes and the oxen of Tarbes and the valley of the
Aure are highly esteemed. Sheep and goats are also reared.
The forests, which occur chiefly in the highlands, contain bears,
boars, wolves and other wild animals. There are at Campan
and Sarrancolin quarries of fine marble, which is sawn and
worked at Bagneres. There is a group of slate quarries at
Labassere. Deposits of lignite, lead, manganese and zinc are
found. The mineral springs of Hautes-Pyrenees are numerous
and much visited. The principal in the valley of the Gave de
Pau are Cauterets (hot springs containing sulphur and sodium),
St Sauveur (springs with sulphur and sodium), and Bareges
(hot springs with sulphur and sodium), and in the valley of the
Adour Bagneres (hot or cold springs containing calcium sulphates,
iron, sulphur and sodium) and Capvern near Lannemezan
(springs containing calcium sulphates).

The department has flour-mills and saw-mills, a large military

arsenal at Tarbes, paper-mills, tanneries and manufactories of
agricultural implements and looms. The spinning and weaving
of wool and the manufacture of knitted goods are carried
on; Bagneres-de-Bigorre is the chief centre of the textile
industry.

Of the passes (ports) into Spain, even the chief, Gavarnie
(7398 ft.), is not accessible to carriages. The department is
served by the Southern railway and is traversed from west to
east by the main line from Bayonne to Toulouse. There are
three arrondissements, those of Tarbes, Argeles and Bagneres-
de-Bigorre, 26 cantons and 480 communes. Tarbes is the capital
of Hautes-Pyrenees, which constitutes the diocese of Tarbes, and
is attached to the appeal court of Pau; it forms part of the region
of the XVHI. army corps. In educational matters it falls within
the circumscription of the academic of Toulouse. Tarbes,
Lourdes, Bagneres-de-Bigorre and Luz-St Sauveur are the prin-
cipal towns. St Savin, in the valley of the Gave de Pau, and
Sarrancolin have interesting Romanesque churches. The church
of Maubourguet built by the Temolars in the i2th century is also
remarkable.

HAUTE-VIENNE, a department of central France, formed in
1790 of Haut-Limousin and of portions of Marche, Poitou and
Berry. Pop. (1906), 385,732. Area, 2144 sq. m. It is bounded
N. by Indre, E. by Creuse, S.E. by Correze, S.W. by Dordogne,
W. by Charente and N.W. by Vienne. Haute- Vienne belongs
to the central plateau of France, and drains partly to the Loire
and partly to the Garonne. The highest altitude (2549 ft.) is
in the extreme south-east, and belongs to the treeless but well-
watered plateau of Millevaches, formed of granite, gneiss and
mica. From that point the department slopes towards the west,
south-west and north. To the north-west of the Millevaches
are the Ambazac and Blond Hills, both separating the valley
of the Vienne from that of the Gartempe, a tributary of the
Creuse. The Vienne traverses the department from east to
west, passing Eymoutiers, St Leonard, Limoges and St Junien,
and receiving on the right the Maude and the Taurion. The Isle,
which flows into the Dordogne, with its tributaries the Auvezere
and the Dronne, and the Tardoire and the Bandiat, tributaries
of the Charente, all rise in the south of the department. The
altitude and inland position of Haute-Vienne, its geological
character, and the northern exposure of its valleys make the
winters long and severe; but the climate is milder in the west
and north-west. The annual rainfall often reaches 36 or 37 in.
and even more in the mountains. Haute-Vienne is on the whole
unproductive. Rye, wheat, buckwheat and oats are the cereals
most grown, but the chestnut, which is a characteristic product
of the department, still forms the staple food of large numbers
of the population. Potatoes, mangolds, hemp and colza are
cultivated. After the chestnut, walnuts and cider-apples are
the principal fruits. Good breeds of horned cattle and sheep are
reared and find a ready market in Paris. Horses for remount
purposes are also raised. The quarries furnish granite and large
quantities of kaolin, which is both exported and used in the
porcelain works of the department. Amianthus, emeralds and
garnets are found. Limoges is the centre of the porcelain industry
and has important liqueur distilleries. Woollen goods, starch,
paper and pasteboard, wooden and leather shoes, gloves, agri-
cultural implements and hats are other industrial products,
and there are flour-mills, breweries, dye-<works, tanneries, iron
foundries and printing works. Wine and alcohol for the liqueur-
manufacture, coal, raw materials for textile industries,
hops, skins and various manufactured articles are among the
imports.

The department is served almost entirely by the Orleans
Railway. It is divided into the arrondissements of Limoges,
Bellac, Rochechouart and St Yrieix (29 cantons and 205 com-
munes), and belongs to the academic (educational division) of
Poitiers and the ecclesiastical province of Bourges. Limoges,
the capital, is the seat of a bishopric and of a court of appeal,
and is the headquarters of the XII. army corps. The other prin-
cipal towns are St Yrieix and St Junien. Solignac, St Leonard
and Le Dorat have fine Romanesque churches. The remains

76

HAUT-RHIN— HAVANA

of the chateau of Chalusset (S.S.E. of Limoges) , the most remark-
able feudal ruins in Limousin, and the chateau of Rochechouart,
which dates from the I3th, isth and i6th centuries, are also of
interest.

HAUT-RHIN, before 1871 a department of eastern France,
formed in 1790 from the southern portion of Alsace. The
name " Haut-Rhin " is sometimes used of the territory of
Belfort (?.».).

HAUY, REN& JUST (1743-1822), French mineralogist,
commonly styled the Abbe Haiiy, from being an honorary
canon of Notre Dame, was born at St Just, in the department
of Oise, on the 28th of February 1743. His parents were in
a humble rank of life, and were only enabled by the kindness of
friends to send their son to the college of Navarre and afterwards
to that of Lemoine. Becoming one of the teachers at the
latter, he began to devote his leisure hours to the study of botany ;
but an accident directed his attention to another field in natural
history. Happening to let fall a specimen of calcareous spar
belonging to a friend, he was led by examination of the fragments
to make experiments which resulted in the statement of the
geometrical law of crystallization associated with his name
(see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). The value of this discovery, the
mathematical theory of which is given by Haiiy in his Traite
de mineralogie, was immediately recognized, and when communi-
cated to the Academy, it secured for its author a place in that
society. Haiiy's name is also known for the observations he
made in pyro-electricity. When the Revolution broke out, he
was thrown into prison, and his life was even in danger, when
he was saved by the intercession of E. Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire.
In 1802, under Napoleon, he became professor of mineralogy
at the museum of natural history, but after 1814 he was deprived
of his appointments by the government of the Restoration.
His latter days were consequently clouded by poverty, but the
courage and high moral qualities which had helped him forward
in his youth did not desert him in his old age; and he lived
cheerful and respected till his death at Paris on the 3rd of June
1822.

The following are his principal works: Essai d'une theorie sur
la structure des cristaux (1784); Exposition raisonnee de la theorie
de I'eleclricM et du magnetisme, d'apres les principes d'Aepinus
(1787); De la structure consideree comme caractere distinctif des
mineraux (1793); Exposition abregee de la theorie de la structure
des cristaux (1793); Extrait d'un traite elementaire de mineralogie
(1797); Traite de mineralogit (4 vols., 1801); Traite elementaire
de physique (2 vols., 1803, 1806); Tableau comparatif des resultats
de la cristallographie, et de I'analyse chimique relativement & la
classification des mineraux (1809); Trnite des pierres precieuses
(1817); Traite de cristallographie (2 vols., 1822). He also contri-
buted papers, of which loo are enumerated in the Royal Society's
catalogue, to various scientific journals, especially the Journal de
physique and the Annals du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle.

HAVANA (the name is of aboriginal origin; Span. Habana
or, more fully, San Cristobal de la Habana), the capital of Cuba,
the largest city of the West Indies, and one of the principal
seats of commerce in the New World, situated on the northern
coast of the island in 23° 9' N. lat. and 82° 22' W. long. Pop.
(1899), 235,981 ; (1907), 297,159. The city occupies a peninsula
to the W. of the harbour, between its waters and those of the
sea. Several small streams, of which the Almendares river is
the largest, empty into the harbour. The pouch-shaped, land-
locked bay is spacious and easy of access. Large merchantmen
and men-of-war can come up and unload along at least a consider-
able part of the water-front. The entrance, which is encumbered
by neither bar nor rock, averages about 260 yds. in width and
is about 1400 yds. long. Within, the bay breaks up into three
distinct arms, Marimalena or Regla Bay, Guanabacoa Bay
and the Bay of Atares. On the left hand of the entrance stands
the lofty lighthouse tower of the Morro. The sewage of the
city and other impurities were for centuries allowed to pollute
the bay, but the extent to which the harbour was thereby filled
up has been exaggerated. Though certainly very much smaller
than it once was, there is a difference of opinion as to whether
the harbour has grown smaller since the end of the i8th century.

From the sea the city presents a picturesque appearance.

The Havana side of the bay has a sea-wall and an excellent
drive. The city walls, begun in 1671 and completed about 1740,
were almost entirely demolished between 1863 and 1880, only
a few insignificant remnants having survived the American
military occupation of 1899-1902; but it is still usual to speak
of the " intramural " and the " extramural " city. The former,
the old city, lying close to the harbour front, has streets as
narrow as is consistent with wheel traffic. Obispo (Pi y Margali
in the new republican nomenclature), O'Reilly and San Rafael
are the finest retail business streets, and the Prado and the
Cerro the handsomest residential streets in the city proper.
The new city, including the suburbs to the W. overlooking the
sea, has been laid out on a somewhat more spacious plan, with
isolated dwellings and wide thoroughfares, some planted with
trees. Most of the houses, and especially those of the planter
aristocracy, are massively built of stone, with large grated
windows, flat roofs with heavy parapets and inner courts. As
the erection of wooden buildings was illegal long after 1772,
it is only in the suburban districts that they are to be seen.
The limestone which underlies almost all the island affords
excellent building stone. The poorer houses are built of brick
with plaster fronts. Three-fourths of all the buildings of the
city are of one very high storey; there are but a few dozen
buildings as high as four storeys. Under Spanish rule, Havana
was reputed to be a city of noises and smells. There was no
satisfactory cleaning of the streets or draining of the sub-soil,
and the harbour was rendered visibly foul by the impurities
of the town. A revolution was worked in this respect during
the United States military occupation of the city, and the
republic continued the work.

Climate. — The general characteristics of the climate of Havana are
described in the article CUBA. A temperature as low as 40° F. is
extraordinary; and freezing point is only reached on extremely
rare occasions, such as during hurricanes or electric storms. The
mean annual temperature is about 25-7° C. (78° F.); that of the
hottest month is about 28-8° C. (84° F.), and that of the coldest,
2 1 ° C. (70° F.). The means of the four seasons are approximately —
for December, January, February and successive quarters — 23°,
27°, 28° and 26* C. (73-4°, 80-6°, 82-4° and 78-8° F.). The mean
relative humidity is between 75 and 80 for all seasons save spring,
when it is least and may be from 65 upward. A difference of 30° C.
(54° F.) at mid-day in the temperature of two spots close together,
one in sun and one in shade, is not unusual. The daily variation of
temperature is also considerable. The depressing effect of the heat
and humidity is greatly relieved by afternoon breezes from the sea,
and the nights are invariably comfortable and generally cool.

Defences. — The principal defences of Havana under Spanish rule,
when the city was maintained as a military stronghold of the first
rank, were (to use the original and unabbreviated form of the names)
the Castillo de San Salvador de la Punta, to the W. of the harbour
entrance; the Castillo de Los Tres Reyes del Morro and San Carlos
de la Cabana, to the E. ; the Santo Domingo de Alarms, at the
head of the western arm of the bay, commanding the city and its
vicinity; and the Castillo del Principe (1767-1780), situated inland
on an eminence to the W. El Morro, as it is popularly called, was
first erected in 1590-1640, and La Punta, a much smaller fort, is of
the same period; both were reconstructed after the evacuation of
the citybythe English in 1763, from which time also date the castles
of Principe, Atares and tlje Cabana. The Cabana, which alone
can accommodate some 6000 men, fronts the bay for a distance of
more than 800 yds., and was long supposed, at least by Spaniards,
to be the strongest fortress of America. Here is the " laurel
ditch " or " dead-line " — commemorated by a handsome bronze
relief set in the wall of the fortress— where scores of Cuban patriots
were shot. To the E. and W. inland are several small forts. The
military establishment of the republic is very small.

Churches. — Of the many old churches in the city, the most note-
worthy is the cathedral. The original building was abandoned
in 1762. The present one, originally the church of the Jesuits, was
erected in 1656-1724. The interior decoration dates largely from
the last decade of the i8th century and the first two decades of the
igth. In the wall of the chancel, a medallion and inscription long
distinguished the tomb of Columbus, whose remains ware removed
hither from Santo Domingo in 1796. In 1898 they were taken to
Spain. Mention may also be made of the churches of Santo Domingo
(begun in 1578), Santa Catalina (1700), San Agustin (1608), Santa
Clara (1644), La Merced (1744, with a collection of oil paintings)
and San Felipe (1693). Monasteries and nunneries were very
numerous until the suppression of the religious orders in 1842,
when many became simple churches. Some of the convents were
successful in conserving their wealth. The former monastery of the
Jesuits, now the Jesuit church of Bel6n (1704), at the corner of Luz

HAVANA

77

and Compostela Streets, is one of the most elegant and richly
ornamented in Cuba.

Public Buildings. — The Palace, which served as a residence for the
captains-general during the Spanish rule, is the home of the city
government and the residence of the president of the republic. It
is a large and handsome stone structure (tinted in white and yellow),
and stands on the site of the original parish church, facing the Plaza
de Armas from the east. It was erected in 1773-1792 and radically
altered in 1835 and 1851. A large municipal gaol (1834-1837),
capable of receiving 500 inmates, with barracks for a regiment, is a
striking object on the Prado. The Castillo del Principe now serves
as the state penitentiary. Among other public buildings are, the
exchange (El Muelle), the custom-house (formerly the church of San
Francisco; begun about 1575, rebuilt in 1731-1737), and the
Maestranza (c. 1723), once the navy yard and the headquarters of
the artillery and now the home of the national library. All these
are in the old city. Some of the older structures — notably the
church of Santo Domingo and the Maestranza — are built of grey
limestone. In the old city also are the Plaza Vieja, dating from the
middle of the i6th century (with the modern Mercado de Cristina,
of 1837— destroyed 1908), the old stronghold La Fuerza, erected by
Hernando de Soto in 1538, once the treasury of the flotas and
galleons, and residence of the governors, with its old watch-tower
(La Vigia); and the Plaza de Armas, with the palace, the Senate
building, a statue of Fernando VII. (1833), and a commemorative
chapel (El Templete, 1828) to mark the supposed spot where mass
was first said at the establishment of the city. Mention must be
made of the large and interesting markets, especially those of
Colon and Tacon. Of the theatres, which until the end of the
Spanish period had to compete with the bull-ring and the cock-
pit, the most important is the Tacon (now " Nacional ") erected
in 1838.

Havana is famous for its promenades, drives and public gardens.
On the city's E. harbour front runs the Paseo (Alameda) de Paula
(1772-1775, improved 1844-1845), an embanked drive, continued
by the Paseo de Rocali and the Cortina de Valdes, with fine views
of the forts and the harbour. On the N., along the sea, beginning
at the Punta fortress and running W. for several miles along the sea-
wall, is a speedway and pleasure-drive, known — from the wall —
as the Malecon. Beginning at the Punta fortress — where a park
was laid out in 1899 in the place of an ugly quarter, with a memorial
to the students judicially murdered by the Spanish volunteers in
1871 — and running along the line of the former city walls, past the
Parque Central, through the Parque de Isabel II. and the Parque de
la India (these two names are now practically abandoned) to the
Parque de Colon or Campo de Marte, is the Prado,1 a wide and hand-
some -promenade and drive, shaded with laurels and lined with fine
houses and clubs. In 1907 a hurricane destroyed the greater part of
the laurels of the Prado and the roVal palms of the Parque de Colon.
Central Park is surrounded by hotels, theatres, caf6s and clubs,
the last including the Centro Asturiano and Casino Espanol. In the
centre is a monument to Jos6 Marti (1853-1895), " the apostle of
independence," and in an adjoining square is the city's fine monu-
ment to the Cuban engineer Francisco de Albear, to whom she owes
her water system. From the Parque de Colon the Calle (or Calzada)
de la Reina — an ordinary, business street, once a promenade and
known as the Alameda de Isabel 1 1 . — with its continuations, the Paseo
de Carlos III. and Paseo de Tacon, runs westward through the city
past the botanical gardens and the Quinta de los Molinos to the
citadel of El Principe (1774-1794). A statue of Charles III. by
Canova (1803), fountains, pavilions and four rows of trees adorn the
PaseodeCarlos III. Thegardcns of Los Molinos, where the captains-
general formerly maintained their summer residence, and the ad-
joining botanical gardens of the university, contain beautiful
avenues of palm trees. Near El Principe is the Columbus cemetery,
with a fine gateway, a handsome monument (1888) to the students
shot in 1871, and another (1897; 75 ft. high) to the firemen lost in a
great fire in 1890, besides many smaller memorials. The Calzada
de la Infanta is a fine street at the W. end of the new city; the
Cerro, in the S.W., is lined with massive residences, once the homes
of Cuban aristocracy.

Suburbs. — In the coral rock of the coast sea-baths are excavated,
so that bathers may run no risk from sharks. On the S. and W. the
city is backed by an amphitheatre of hills, which are crowned in
the W. by the conspicuous fortifications of Castillo del Principe.
On the lower heights near the city lie Vedado, Jesus del Monte,
Luyano and other healthy suburbs. Chorrera, Puentes Grandes,
Marianao (founded 1830; pop. 1907, 9332) and Guanabacoa (with
mineral springs), are attractive places of resort. Regla, just across
the bay (now part of the municipio), has large business interests.

Chanties and Education. — Among the numerous charitable in-
stitutions the most important hospital is the Casa de Beneficencia
y Maternidad (Charity and Maternity Asylum), opened in 1794, and
containing an orphan asylum, a maternity ward, a home for vagrants,
a lunatic asylum and an infirmary. There is also in the city an
immense lazaretto for lepers. The Centro Asturiano, a club with a
membership of some ten or fifteen thousand (not limited to Asturians),

1 Renamed Paseo de Marti by the republic, but the name is never
used.

maintains for the benefit of its members a large and well-managed
sanatorium in spacious grounds in the midst of the city.

Of the schools of the city the most noteworthy is the university
(581 regular students, 1907), founded in 1728. Its quarters were in
the old convent of Santo Domingo until 1900, when the American
military government prepared better quarters for it in the former
Pirotecnica Militar, near El Principe. There are various laboratories
in the city. Other schools are the provincial Institute of Secondary
Education (490 regular students in 1907; library of 12,863 vols.),
a provincial school of arts and trades (opened 1882), a theological
seminary, a boys' technical school, a school of painting and sculpture,
a conservatory of music, normal school, mercantile school and a
military academy. The Jesuit church (Bel6n) has a large college
for boys, laboratories, an observatory, a museum of natural history,
and an historical library. Great progress has been made in educa-
tion, which was extremely backward until after the end of Spanish
rule. The Sociedad Economica de Amigos del Pais, established in
1792, has always had considerable influence. It has a library of
some 42,000 volumes, rich in material for Cuban history. Among
other similar organizations are an Academy of Medical, Physical
and Natural Sciences (1863); a national library, established in 1901,
and having in 1908 about 40,000 volumes, including the finest
collection in the world of materials for Cuban history; an anthropo-
logical society; various medical societies; and a Bar association.
An association of sugar planters is a very important factor in the
economic development of the island.

Of the newspapers of Havana the most notable is the El Diario
de la Marina (established in 1838; under its present name, 1844;
morning and evening), which was almost from its foundation an
official organ of the Spanish government, and generally the mouth-
piece of the most intransigent peninsular opinion in all that con-
cerned the politics of the island. El Ansador Cpmercial (1868;
evening) is devoted almost exclusively to commercial and financial
news. Of the other newspapers the leading ones in 1909 were
La Discusion (1888; evening), La Lucha (1884; evening) and El
Mundo (1902; morning).

Trade.— Havana commands the wholesale trade of all the western
half of the island, and is the centre of commercial and banking
interests. Its foreign trade in the five calendar years 1902-1906
(average imports $57,201,276; exports, $40,563,637) amounted to
68-9% of the imports and 44-6% of the exports of the island.
The average number of vessels entering the port annually in the ten
years from 1864 to 1873 was 1981 (771,196 tons), and the average
entries in the five years 1902-1906 were 3698 of 3,904,906 gross tons
(coast trade alone, 2162 of 333,795 tons).

In spite of high tariffs and civil wars, and the competition of
Matanzas, Cardenas, Cienfuegos and other Cuban ports opened to
foreign trade in modern times, the commerce of Havana has steadily
increased. The chief foreign customers are Great Britain and the
United States. The two staple articles of export are sugar and
tobacco-wares. Other exports of importance are rum, wax and
honey; and of less primary importance, fruits, fine cabinet woods,
oils and starch. The leading imports are grains, flour, lard and
various other foodstuffs, coal, lumber, petroleum and machinery,
all mainly from the United States; wines and olive oil from Spain;
jerked beef from South America; fabrics and other staples from
varied sources. Rice is a principal food of the people; it was
formerly taken from the East Indies, but is now mostly raised in the
island.

The chief manufacturing industry of Havana is that of tobacco.
Of the cigar factories, some of which are in former public and private
palaces, more than a hundred may be reckoned as of the first class.
Besides the making of boxes and barrels and other articles necessarily
involved in its sugar and tobacco trade, Havana also, to some extent,
builds carriages and small ships, and manufactures iron and
machinery; but the weight of taxation during the Spanish period
was always a heavy deterrent on the development of any business
requiring great capital. There are minor manufacturing interests in
tanneries, and in the manufacture of sweetmeats, malt and distilled
liquors, especially rum, besides soaps, candles, starch, perfume, &c.
There is one large and complete petroleum refinery (1905).

Havana has frequent steam-boat communication with New York,
Baltimore, Philadelphia, Tampa, Mobile, New Orleans and other
ports of the United States; and about as frequent with several
ports in England, Spain and France. It is the starting-point of a
railway system which reaches the six provincial capitals between
Pinar del Rio and Santiago, Cardenas, Cienfuegos and other ports.
Telegraphs radiate to all parts of the island; a submarine cable to
Key West forms part of the line of communication between Colon
and New York, and by other cables the island has connexion with
various parts of the West Indies and with South America.

Population and Health. — The population of Havana was reported
as 51,307 in 1791; 96,304 in 1811; 94,023 in 1817; 184,508 in 1841.
In 1899 the American census showed 235,981, of whom about 25%
were foreign (20 % Spanish); and the census of 1907 showed
297,159 (not including the attached country districts) and 302,526
(including these country districts), the last being for the" municipio "
of Havana. The industrial population is very densely crowded.
Owing to this, as well as to the entire lack of proper sanitary customs
among the people, the horrible condition of sewerage and the

78

HAVANT

prevalence of yellow fever (first brought to Havana, it is thought, in
1761, from Vera Cruz), the reputation of the city as regards health
was long very bad. The practical extermination of yellow fever
•during the U.S. military occupation following 1899 was a remarkable
achievement. In 1895-1899, owing to the war, there were few
non-immune persons in the city, and there was no trouble with
the fever, but from the autumn of 1899 a heavy immigration from
Spain began.and a fever epidemic was raging in 1900. TheAmerican
military authorities found that the most extraordinary measures for
cleansing the city — involving repeated house-to-house inspection,
enforced cleanliness, improved drainage and sewerage, the destruc-
tion of various public buildings, and thorough cleansing of the streets
• — although decidedly effective in reducing the general death-rate
of the city (average, 1890-1899, 45-83; 1900, 24-40; 1901, 22-11;
1902, 20-63; general death-rate of U.S. soldiers in 1898, 67-94; 'n
1901-1902, 7-00), apparently did not affect yellow fever at all.
In 1900-1901 Major Walter Reed (1851-1902), a surgeon in the
United States army, proved by experiments on voluntary human
subjects that the infection was spread by the Stegomyia mosquito,1
and the prevention of the disease was then undertaken by Major
William C. Gorgas — all patients being screened and mosquitoes
practically exterminated.2 The number of subsequent deaths from
yellow fever has depended solely on the degree to which the necessary
precautionary measures were taken.

The entire administrative system of the island, when a Spanish
colony, was centred at Havana. Under the republic this remains
the capital and the residence of the president, the supreme court,
Congress when in session and the chief administrative officers.
None of the public services was good in the Spanish period, except
the water-supply, which was excellent. The water is derived from
the Vento springs, 9 m. from Havana, and is conducted through
aqueducts constructed between 1859 and 1894 at a cost of some
$5,000,000. About 40,000,000 gallons are supplied daily. The
system is owned by the municipality. The older Fernando VII.
aqueduct (1831-1835) is still usable in case of need; its supply was
the Almendares river (until long after the construction of this, a
still older aqueduct, opened at the end of the l6th century, was in
use). The sewerage system and conditions of house sanitation
were found extremely inadequate when the American army occupied
the city in 1899. Several public buildings were so foul that they
were demolished and burned. The improvement since the end of
Spanish rule has been steady.

History. — Havana, originally founded by Diego Velasquez
in 1514 on an unhealthy site near the present Batabano (pop.
in 1907, 15,435, including attached country districts), on the
south coast, was soon removed to its present position, was
granted an ayuntamiento (town council), and shortly came to
be considered one of the most important places in the New
World. Its commanding position gained it in 1634, by royal
decree, the title of " Llave del Nuevo Mundo y Antemural
de las Indias Occidentales " (Key of the New World and Bulwark
of the West Indies), in reference to which it bears on its coat
of arms a symbolic key and representations of the Morro, Punta
and Fuerza. In the history of the place in the i6th century
few things stand out except the investments by buccaneers:
in 1537 it was sacked and burned, and in 1555 plundered by
French buccaneers, and in 1586 it was threatened by Drake.
In 1589 Philip II. of Spain ordered the erection of the Punta
and the Morro. In the same year the residence of the governor
of the island was moved from Santiago de Cuba to Havana.
Philip II. granted Havana the title of " ciudad " in 1592. Sugar
plantations in the environs appeared before the end of the
1 6th century. The population of the city, probably about 3000
at the beginning of the I7th century, was doubled in the
years following 1655 by the coming of Spaniards from Jamaica.
In the course of the i7th century the port became the great

1 Dr Carlos Finlay of Havana, arguing from the coincidence
between the climatic limitation of yellow fever and the geographical
limitation of the mosquito, urged (1881 sqq.) that there was some
relation between the disease and the insect. Reed worked from
the observation of D H. R. Carter (U.S. Marine Hospital Service)
that although the incubation of the disease was 5 days, 15 to 20 days
had to elapse before the " infection " of the house, and from Ross's
demonstration of the part played in malaria by the Anopheles.
See H. A. Kelly, Walter Reed and Yellow Fever (New York, 1907).

1 The average number of deaths from yellow fever annually from
1885 (when reliable registration began) to 1898 was 455; maximum
1282 in 1896 (supposed average for 4 years, 1856-1859, being 1489-8
and for 7 years, 1873-1879, 1395-1), minimum 136, in 1898; average
deaths of military, 1885-1898, 278-4 (in 1896-1897 constituting 1966
out of a total of 2140); deaths of American soldiers, 1899—1900,
18 out of 431.

rendezvous for the royal merchant and treasure fleets that mono-
polized trade with America, and the commercial centre of the
Spanish-American possessions. It was blockaded four times
by the Dutch (who were continually molesting the treasure
fleets) in the first half of the i7th century. In 1671 the city
walls were begun; they were completed in 1702. The European
wars of the i7th and i8th centuries were marked by various
incidents in local history. After the end of the Spanish War of
Succession (1713) came a period of comparative prosperity
in slave-trading and general commerce. The creation in 1740
of a monopolistic trading-company was an event of importance
in the history of the island. English squadrons threatened the
city several times in the first half of the i8th century, but it
was not until 1762 than an investment, made by Admiral Sir
George Pocock and the earl of Albemarle, was successful. The
siege lasted from June to August and was attended by heavy
loss to both besiegers and besieged. The British commanders
wrung great sums from the church and the city as prize of war
and price of good order. By the treaty of the loth of February
1763, at the close of the Seven Years' War, Havana was restored
to Spain in exchange for the Floridas. The English turned
over the control of the city on the 6th of July. Their occupation
greatly stimulated commerce, and from it dates the modern
history of the city and of the island (see CUBA). The gradual
removal of obstacles from the commerce of the island from
1766 to 1818 particularly benefited Havana. At the end of the
1 8th century the city was one of the seven or eight great com-
mercial centres of the world, and in the first quarter of the
1 9th century was a rival in population and in trade of Rio
Janeiro, Buenos Aires and New York. In 1789 a bishopric
was created at Havana suffragan to the archbishopric at Santiago.
From the end of the i8th century Havana, as the centre of
government, was the centre of movement and interest. During
the administration of Miguel Tac6n Havana was improved
by many important public works; his name is frequent in the
nomenclature of the city. The railway from Havana to Giiines
was built between 1835 and 1838. Fifty Americans under
Lieut. Crittenden, members of the Bahia Honda filibustering
expedition of Narciso Lopez, were shot at Fort Atares in 1851.
Like the rest of Cuba, Havana has frequently suffered severely
from hurricanes, the most violent being those of 1768 (St
Theresa's), 1810 and 1846. The destruction of the U.S. battle-
ship " Maine " in the harbour of Havana on the isth of
February 1898 was an influential factor in causing the outbreak
of the Spanish-American War, and during the war the city was
blockaded by a United States fleet.

See J. de la Pezuela, Diccionario de la Isla de Cuba, vol. iii. (Madrid,
1863), for minute details of history, administration and economic
conditions down to 1862; J. M. de la Torre, Lo que fuimos y lo
que somos, 6 la Habana antigua y moderna (Habana, 1857); P. J.
Guite'ras, Historia de la conquista de la Habana 1762 (Philadelphia,
1856); J. de la Pezuela, Sitio y rendition de la Habana en 1762
(Madrid, 1859); A. Bachiller y Morales, Monografia historica
(Habana, 1883), minutely covering the English occupation (the
best account) of 1762-1763; Maria de los Mercedes, comtesse de
Merlin, La Havana (3 vols., Paris, 1844) ; and the works cited under
CUBA.

HAVANT, a market-town in the Fareham parliamentary
division of Hampshire, England, 67 m. S.W. from London by
the London & South Western and the London, Brighton &
South Coast railways. Pop. of urban district (.1901), 3837.
The urban district of Warblington, i m. S.E. (pop. 3639), has
a fine church, Norman and later, with traces of pre-Norman
work, and some remains of a Tudor castle. Havant lies in a
flat coastal district, near the head of Langstone Harbour, a wide
shallow inlet of the English Channel. The church of St Faith
was largely rebuilt in 1875, but retains some good Early English
work. There are breweries and tanneries, and the manufacture
of parchment is carried on. Off the mainland near Havant lies
Hayling, a flat island of irregular form lying between the harbours
of Langstone and Chichester. It measures 4 m. in length from
N. to S., and is nearly the same in breadth at the south, but the
breadth generally is about i\ m. It is well wooded and fertile.
A railway serves the village of South Hayling, which is in some

HAVEL— HAVELOCK, SIR HENRY

79

favour as a seaside resort, having a wide sandy beach and good
golf links. The island was in the possession of successive religious
bodies from the Conquest (when it was given to the Benedictines
of Jumieges, near Rouen), until the Dissolution. The church
of South Hayling is a fine Early English building.

HAVEL, a river of Prussia, Germany, having its origin in
Lake Dambeck (223 ft.) on the Mecklenburg plateau, a few
miles north-west of Neu-Strelitz, and after threading several
lakes flowing south as far as Spandau. Thence it curves south-
west, past Potsdam and Brandenburg, traversing another chain
of lakes, and finally continues north-west until it joins the Elbe
from the right some miles above Wittenberge after a total
course of 221 m. and a total fall of only 158 ft. Its banks are
mostly marshy or sandy, and the stream is navigable from the
Mecklenburg lakes downwards. Several canals connect it
with these lakes, as well as with other rivers — e.g. the Finow
canal with the Oder, the Ruppin canal with the Rhin, the Berlin-
Spandau navigable canal (55 m.) with the Spree, and the Plaue-
Ihle canal with the Elbe. The Sakrow-Paretz canal, 1 1 m. long,
cuts off the deep bend at Potsdam. The most notable of the
tributaries is the Spree (227 m. long), which bisects Berlin and
joins the Havel at Spandau. Area of river basin, 10,159 sq.m.

HAVELBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, on the Havel and the railway Glowen-Havel-
berg. Pop. (1905), 5988. The town is built partly on an island
in the Havel, and partly on hills on the right bank of the river,
on one of which stands the fine Romanesque cathedral dating
from the I2th century. The two parts, which are connected
by a bridge, were incorporated as one town in 1875. The
inhabitants are chiefly engaged in tobacco manufacturing,
sugar-refining and boat-building, and in the timber trade.

Otto I. founded a bishopric at Havelberg in 946; the bishop,
however, who was a prince of the Empire, generally resided at
Plattenburg, or Wittstock, a few miles to the north. In 1548
the bishopric was seized by the elector of Brandenburg, who
finally took possession of it fifty years later, and the cathedral
passed to the Protestant Church, retaining its endowments till
the edict of 1810, by which all former ecclesiastical oossessions
were assumed by the crown. The final secularization was delayed
till 1819. Havelberg was formerly a strong fortress, but in the
Thirty Years' War it was taken from the Danish by the imperial
troops in 1627. Recaptured by the Swedes in 1631, a'nd again
in 1635 and 1636, it was in 1637 retaken by the Saxons. It
suffered severely from a conflagration in 1870.

HAVELOCK, SIR HENRY (1795-1857), British soldier, one of
the heroes of the Indian Mutiny, the second of four brothers (all
of whom entered the army), was born at Ford Hall, Bishop-
Wearmouth, Sunderland, on the 5th of April 1795. His parents
were William Havelock, a wealthy shipbuilder in Sunderland,
and Jane, daughter of John Carter, solicitor at Stockton-on-Tees.
When about five years old Henry accompanied his elder brother
William to Mr Bradley's school at Swanscombe, whence at the
age of ten he removed for seven years to Charterhouse school.
In accordance with the desire of his mother, who had died in
1811, he entered the Middle Temple in 1813, studying under
Chitty the eminent special pleader. His legal studies having been
abridged by a misunderstanding with his father, he in 1815
accepted a second lieutenancy in the Rifle Brigade (gsth),
procured for him by the interest of his brother William. During
the following eight years of service in Britain he read extensively
and acquired a good acquaintance with the theory of war. In
1823, having exchanged into the 2ist and thence into the i3th
Light Infantry, he followed his brothers William and Charles
to India, first qualifying himself in Hindustani under Dr Gilchrist,
a celebrated Orientalist.

At the close of twenty-three years' service he was still a
lieutenant, and it was not until 1838 that, after three years'
adjutancy of his regiment, he became captain. Before this,
however, he had held several staff appointments, notably that
of deputy assistant-adjutant-general of the forces in Burma till
the peace of Yandabu, of which he, with Lumsden and Knox,
procured the ratifications at Ava from the " Golden Foot,"

who bestowed on him the " gold leaf " insignia of Burmese
nobility. His first command had been at a stockade capture
in the war, and he was present also at the battles of Napadee,
Patanago and Pagan. He had also held during his lieutenancy
various interpreterships and the adjutancy of the king's troops
at Chinsura. In 1828 he published at Serampore Campaigns in
Ava, and in 1829 he married Hannah Shepherd, daughter of Dr
Marshman, the eminent missionary. About the same time he
became a Baptist, being baptized by Mr John Mack at Serampore.
During the first Afghan war he was present as aide-de-camp to
Sir Willoughby Cotton at the capture of Ghazni, on the 23rd of
July 1839, and at the occupation of Kabul. After a short absence
in Bengal to secure the publication of his Memoirs of the Afghan
Campaign, he returned to Kabul in charge of recruits, and
became interpreter to General Elphinstone. In 1840, being
attached to Sir Robert Sale's force, he took part in the Khurd-
Kabul fight, in the celebrated passage of the defiles of the Ghilzais
(1841) and in the fighting from Tezeen to Jalalabad. Here,
after many months' siege, his column in a sortie en masse defeated
Akbar Khan on the 7th of April 1842. He was now madedeputy
adjutant-general of the infantry division in Kabul, and in
September he assisted at Jagdalak, at Tezeen, and at the release
of the British prisoners at Kabul, besides taking a prominent
part at Istaliff. Having obtained a regimental majority he next
went through the Mahratta campaign as Persian interpreter
to Sir Hugh (Viscount) Gough, and distinguished himself at
Maharajpore in 1843, and also in the Sikh campaign at Moodkee,
Ferozeshah and Sobraon in 1845. For these services he was
made deputy adjutant-general at Bombay. He exchanged from
the I3th to the 39th, then as second major into the 53rd at the
beginning of 1849, and soon afterwards left for England, where
he spent two years. In 1854 he became quartermaster-general,
then full colonel, and lastly ajdutant-general of the troops in
India.

In 1857 he was selected by Sir James Outram for the command
of a division in the Persian campaign, during which he was present
at the actions of Muhamra and Ahwaz. Peace with Persia set
him free just as the Mutiny broke out; and he was chosen to
command a column " to quell disturbances in Allahabad, to
support Lawrence at Lucknow and Wheeler at Cawnpore, to
disperse and utterly destroy all mutineers and insurgents." At
this time Lady Canning wrote of him in her diary: " General
Havelock is not in fashion, but all the same we believe that he
will do well. No doubt he is fussy and tiresome, but his little
old stiff figure looks as active and fit for use as if he were made of
steel." But in spite of this lukewarm commendation Havelock
proved himself the man for the occasion, and won the reputation
of a great military leader. At Fatehpur, on the i2th of July,
at Aong and Pandoobridge on the isth, at Cawnpore on the
i6th, at Unao on the 2gth, at Busherutgunge on the 2gth and
again on the 5th of August, at Boorhya on the i2th of August,
and at Bithur on the i6th, he defeated overwhelming forces.
Twice he advanced for the relief of Lucknow, but twice prudence
forbade a reckless exposure of troops wasted by battle and
disease in the almost impracticable task. Reinforcements arriv-
ing at last under Outram, he was enabled by the generosity of his
superior officer to crown his successes on the 25th of September
1857 by the capture of Lucknow. There he died on the 24th of
November 1857, of dysentery, brought on by the anxieties and
fatigues connected with his victorious march and with the
subsequent blockade of the British troops. He lived long enough
to receive the intelligence that he had been created K.C.B. for
the first three battles of the campaign; but of the major-general-
ship which Vas shortly afterwards conferred he never knew.
On the 26th of November, before tidings of his death had reached
England, letters-patent were directed to create him a baronet
and a pension of £1000 a year was voted at the assembling of
parliament. The baronetcy was afterwards bestowed upon his
eldest son; while to his widow, by royal order, was given the
rank to which she would have been entitled had her husband
survived and been created a baronet. To both widow and son
pensions of £1000 were awarded by parliament.

8o

HAVELOK THE DANE— HAVERFORDWEST

See Marshman, Life of Havelock (1860) ; L. J. Trotter, The Bayard
of India (1903); F. M. Holmes, Four Heroes of India; G. B. Smith,
Heroes of the Nineteenth Century (1901); and A. Forbes, Havelock
(" English Men of Action " series, 1890).

HAVELOK THE DANE, an Anglo-Danish romance. The hero,
under the name of CUHERAN or CUARAN, was a scullion-jongleur
at the court of Edelsi (Alsi) or Godric, king of Lincoln and
Lindsey. At the same court was brought up Argentine or
Goldborough, the orphan daughter of Adelbrict, the Danish
king of Norfolk, and his wife Orwain, Edelsi's sister; and
Edelsi, to humiliate his ward, married her to the scullion Cuaran.
But, inspired by a vision, Cuaran and Goldborough set out for
Grimsby, where Cuaran learned that Grim, his supposed father,
was dead. His foster-sister, moreover, told him that his real
name was Havelok, that he was the son of Gunter (or Birkabeyn),
king of Denmark, and had been rescued by Grim, who though
a poor fisherman was a noble in his own country, when Gunter
perished by treason. The hero then wins back his own and
Goldborough's kingdoms, punishing traitors and rewarding the
faithful. The story exists in two French versions: as an inter-
polation between Geffrei Gaimar's Brut and his Estorie des
Engles (c. 1150) and in the Anglo-Norman Lai d' Havelok (i2th
century). The English Havelok (c. 1300) is written in a Lincoln-
shire dialect and embodies abundant local tradition. A short
version of the tale is interpolated in the Lambeth MS. of Robert
Mannyng's Handlyng Synne. The story reappears more than
once in English literature, notably in the ballad of " Argentille
and Curan " in William Warner's Albion's England. The name
of Havelok (Habloc, Abloec, Abloyc) is said to correspond in
Welsh to Anlaf or Olaf. Now the historical Anlaf Curan was the
son of a Viking chief Sihtric, who was king of Northumbria in
925 and died in 927. Anlaf Sihtricson was driven into exile by
his stepmother's brother ^Ethelstan, and took refuge in Scotland
at the court of Constantine II., whose daughter he married.
He was defeated with Constantine1 at Brunanburh (937), but
was nevertheless for two short periods joint ruler in Northumbria
with his cousin Anlaf Godfreyson. He reigned in Dublin till 980,
when he was defeated. He died the next year as a monk at lona.
Round the name of Anlaf Curan a number of legends rapidly
gathered, and the legend of the Danish hero probably filtered
through Celtic channels, as the Welsh names of Argentille and
Orwain indicate. The close similarity between the Havelok
saga and the story of Hamlet (Amlethus) as told by Saxo Gram-
maticus was pointed out long ago by Scandinavian scholars.
The individual points they have in common are found in other
legends, but the series of coincidences between the adventurous
history of Anlaf Curan and the life of Amlethus can hardly be
fortuitous. Interesting light is thrown on the whole question by
Professor I. Gollancz (Hamlet in Iceland, 1898) by the identifica-
tion of Amhlaide — who is said by Queen Gormflaith2 in the
Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters to have slain Niall
Glundubh— with Anlaf's father Sihtric. The exploits of father
and son were likely to be confused.

The mythical elements in the Havelok story are numerous.
Argentille, as H. L. Ward points out, is a disguised Valkyrie.
Like Svava she inspired a dull and nameless youth, and as Hild
raised the dead to fight by magic, so Argentille in Havelok and
Hermuthruda in Amlelh prop up dead or wounded men with
stakes to bluff the enemy. Havelok's royal lineage is betrayed
by his flame breath when he is asleep, a phenomenon which has
parallels in the history of Servius Tullius and of Dietrich of Bern.
Part of the Havelok legend lingers in local tradition. Havelok
destroyed his enemies in Denmark by casting down great stones
upon them from the top of a tower, and Grim is said to have
1 H. L. Ward (Cat. of Romances, i. 426) suggests that it was the
mention of Constantine in the Havelock legend which led Gaimar
to place the tale in the 6th century in the days of the Constantine
who succeeded King Arthur. Gaimar voices more than once an
Anglo-Danish legend of a Danish dynasty in Britain anterior to the
Saxon invasion.

JA different person from the second wife of Anlaf Curan, alsi
Gormflaith, who forms another link with Amlethus, as she was a
woman of the Hermuthruda type and married her husband'
conqueror.

licked three of the turrets from the church tower in his efforts to
destroy the enemy's ships. John Weever (Antient Funerall
Monuments, 1631, p. 749) says that the privilege of the town in
ilsinore, where its merchants were free from toll, was due to the
nterest of Havelok, the Danish prince, and the common seal of
he town of Grimsby represents Grim, with " Habloc " on his
ight hand and Goldeburgh on his left.

The English MS. of Havelok (MSS. Laud Misc. 108) in the Bodleian
ibrary is unique. It was edited for the Roxburghe Club by Sir
r. Madden in 1828. This edition contains, besides the English text,
he two French versions. There are subsequent editions by W. W.

ikeat (1868) for the E.E. Text Society, by F. Holthausen (London,

Mew York and Heidelberg, 1901), and by W. W. Skeat (Clarendon
Vess, Oxford, 1902, where further bibliographical references will
ie found) ; and a modern English version by Miss E. Hickey (London,

-902). Gaimar's text and the French lai are edited by Sir T. D.
lardy and C. F. Martin in Rerum Brit. med. aev. scriptores, vol. i.
1888). See also the account of the saga by H. L. Ward (Cat._of
Romances, i. 423-446); for the identification of Havelok with

Anlaf Curan see G. Storm, Englische Studien (1880), iii. 533, a
eprint of an earlier article ; E. K. Putnam, The Lambeth Version of
'iavelok (Baltimore, 1900).

HAVERFORDWEST (Welsh Hwlfordd, the English name
)eing perhaps a corruption of the Scandinavian Hafna-Fjord),
he chief town of Pembrokeshire, S. Wales, a contributory
parliamentary and municipal borough, and a county of itself
with its own lord-lieutenant. Pop. (1901), 6007. It is pictur-
esquely situated on the slopes overlooking the West Cleddau river,
which is here crossed by two stone bridges. It has a station on
the Great Western Railway on the east side of the river, and
when viewed from this point the town presents an imposing
appearance with its castle-keep and its many ancient buildings.
The river is tidal and navigable for vessels of not more than
150 tons. Coal, cattle, butter and grain are exported, but the
commercial importance of the place has greatly declined, as the
many ruined warehouses near the river plainly testify. The
old walls and fortifications have almost disappeared, but Haver-
iordwest is still rich in memorials of its past greatness. The huge
castle-keep, which dominates the town, was probably built by
Gilbert de Clare, early in the I2th century; formerly used as
the county gaol, it now serves as the police-station. The large
church of St Mary, at the top of the steep High Street, has fine
clerestory windows, clustered columns and an elaborate carved-
oak ceiling of the isth century; it contains several interesting
monuments of the I7th and i8th centuries, some of which
commemorate'members of the family of Philipps of Picton Castle.
At the N. corner of the adjacent churchyard stands an ancient
building with a vaulted roof, once the record office, but now used
as a fish-market. St Martin's, with a low tower and spire, close
to the castle, is probably the oldest church in the town, but has
been much modernized. Near St Thomas's church on the Green
stands an old Moravian chapel which is closely associated with
the great scholar and divine, Bishop John Gambold (1711-1771).
In a meadow on the W. bank of the river are the considerable
remains of the Augustinian Priory of St Mary and St Thomas,
built by Robert de Hwlfordd, lord of Haverford, about the year
. joo. On the E. bank are the suburbs of Cartlet and Prender-
gast, the latter of which contains the ancient parish church of
St David and the ruins of a large mansion originally built by
Maurice de Prendergast (i2th century) and subsequently the
seat of the Stepney family. A little to the S. of the town are the
remains of Haroldstone, once the residence of the powerful
Perrot family. The charities belonging to the town, which
include John Perrot's bequest (i579)> yielding about £350
annually for the improvement of the town, and Tasker's charity
school (1684), are very considerable.

Haverfordwest owes its origin to the advent of the Flemings,
who were permitted by Henry I. to settle in the hundred of
Roose, or Rhos, in the years 1106-1108, in mi, and again in
1156. English is exclusively spoken in the town and district,
and its inhabitants exhibit their foreign extraction by their
language, customs and appearance. Haverfordwest is, in fact,
the capital of that English-speaking portion of Pembrokeshire,
which has been nicknamed " Little England beyond Wales."

HAVERGAL— HAVERSACK

81

This new settlement of intruding foreigners had naturally to be
protected against the infuriated natives, and the castle was
accordingly built c. 1113 by Gilbert de Clare, first earl of Pem-
broke, who subsequently conferred the seignory of Haverford
on his castellan, Richard Fitz-Tancred. On the death of Robert
de Hwlfordd, the benefactor and perhaps founder of the priory
of St Mary and St Thomas, in 1213, the lordship of the castle
reverted to the Crown, and was purchased for 1000 marks from
King John by William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, who gave
various privileges to the town. Of the numerous charters the
earliest known (through an allusion found in a document of
Bishop Houghton of St Davids, c. 1370) is one from Henry II.,
who therein confirms all former rights granted by his grand-
father, Henry I. John in 1207 gave certain rights to the town
concerning the Port of Milford, while William Marshal II., earl
of Pembroke, presented it with three charters, the earliest of
which is dated 1219. An important charter of Edward V., as
prince of Wales and lord of Haverford, enacted that the town
should be incorporated under a mayor, two sheriffs and two
bailiffs, duly chosen by the burgesses. In 1536, under Henry
VIII., Haverfordwest was declared a town and county of itself
and was further empowered to send a representative burgess to
parliament.

The town long played a prominent part in South Welsh
history. In 1220 Llewelyn ap lorwerth, prince of North
Wales, during the absence of William Marshal II., earl of
Pembroke, attacked and burnt the suburbs, but failed to reduce
the castle by assault. Several of the Plantagenet kings visited
the town, including Richard II., who stopped here some time
on his return from Ireland in 1299, and is said to have performed
here his last regal act — the confirmation of the grant of a
burgage to the Friars Preachers. Oliver Cromwell spent some
days here on his way to Ireland, and his original warrant to the
mayor and council for the demolition of the castle is still
preserved in the council chamber. The prosperity and local im-
portance of Haverfordwest continued unimpaired throughout the
i7th and iSth centuries, and Richard Fenton, the historian of
Pembrokeshire, describes it in 1810, as " the largest town in the
county, if not in all Wales." With the rise of Milford, however,
the shipping trade greatly declined, and Haverfordwest has now
the appearance of a quiet country town.

HAVERGAL, FRANCES RIDLEY (1836-1879), English hymn-
writer, daughter of the Rev. William Henry Havergal, was born
at Astley, Worcestershire, on the i4th of December 1836. At
the age of seven she began to write verse, most of it of a religious
character. As a hymn-writer she was particularly successful,
and the modern English Church collections include several of her
compositions. Her collected Poetical Works were published in
1884. She died at Caswell Bay, Swansea, on the 3rd of June
1879.

See Memorials of Frances Ridley Havergal (1880), by her sister.

HAVERHILL, a market town of England, in the Sudbury
parliamentary division of Suffolk, and the Saffron Walden
division of Essex. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4862. It is
55 m. N.N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway, on
the Long Melford-Cambridge branch, and is the terminus of
the Colne Valley railway from Chappel in Essex. The church
of St Mary is Perpendicular, but extensively restored. There
. are large manufactures of cloth, silk, matting, bricks, and boots
and shoes, and a considerable agricultural trade.

HAVERHILL, a city of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
situated on the Merrimac river, at the head of tide and navigation,
and on the Boston & Maine railway, 33 m. N. of Boston. Pop.
(1880) 18,472; (1890) 27,412; (1900) 37,175, of whom 8530
were foreign-born (including 2403 French Canadians, 1651
English Canadians and 2144 Irish), and 15,077 were of foreign
parentage (both parents foreign-bom); (1910 census) 44,115.
The city, 3 m. wide and 10 m. long, lies for its entire length
along the Merrimac river, from which it rises picturesquely,
its surface being undulating, with several detached round hills
(maximum 339 ft.). Like all old New England cities, it is
irregularly laid out. A number of lakes within its limits are the

source of an abundant and excellent water supply. There are
fifteen public parks, the largest of which, Winnikenni Park
(214 acres), contiguous to Lake Kenoza, is of great natural
beauty. The city has three well-equipped hospitals, the beautiful
Pentucket club house, a children's home, an old ladies' home
and numerous charitable organizations. The schools of the
city, both public and private, are of high standing; they include
Bradford Academy (1803) for girls and the St James School
(Roman Catholic). The public library is generously endowed,
and in 1908 had about 90,000 volumes. Almost from the
beginning of its history Haverhill was active industrially.
Thomas Dustin, the husband of Hannah Dustin, manufactured
bricks, and this industry has been carried on in the same locality
for more than two hundred years. The large Stevens woollen
mills are the outgrowth of mills established in 1835. The
manufacture of woollen hats, established in the middle of the
i8th century, is one of the prominent industries. There are
large morocco factories. By far the leading industry of the
city is the manufacture of boots, shoes and slippers, chiefly
of the finer kinds, of which it is one of the largest producers in
the world. In 1905 Haverhill ranked fourth among the cities
of the United States in the product value of this manufacture,
which was 4-8% of the total value of boots and shoes made in
the United States. This industry began about 1795. In 1905
Haverhill's manufacturing establishments produced goods valued
at $24,446,594, 83-9% of this output being represented by
boots and shoes or their accessories. One of the largest sole-
leather manufactories in the world is here.

Haverhill was settled in June 1640 by a small colony from
Newbury and Ipswich, and its Indian name, Pentucket, was
replaced by that of Haverhill in compliment to the first minister,
Rev. John Ward, who was born at Haverhill, England. In its
earlier years this frontier town suffered severely from the forays
of the Indians, and in 1690 the abandonment of the settlement
was contemplated. Two Indian attacks are particularly
noteworthy — one in 1698, in which Hannah Dustin, her new-
born babe, and her nurse were carried away to the vicinity of
Penacook, now Concord, New Hampshire. Here in the night
Mrs Dustin, assisted by her nurse and by a captive English boy,
tomahawked and scalped ten Indians (two men, the others
children and women) and escaped down the river to Haverhill;
a monument to her stands in City Hall Park. In 1708 250
French and Indians attacked the village, killing 40 of its
inhabitants. In 1873 a destructive fire caused the loss of 35
places of business, and on the i7th of February 1882 almost the
entire shoe district (consisting of 10 acres) was burned, with a
loss of more than $2,000,000; but a greater business district
was built on the ruins of the old. Haverhill was the birthplace
of Whittier, who lived here in 1807-1836, and who in his poem
Haverhill, written for the 25oth anniversary of the town in 1890,
and in many of his other poems, gave the poet's touch to the
history, the legends and the scenery of his native city. His
birthplace, the scene of Snow-Bound in the eastern part of the
city, is owned by the Whittier Association and is open to
visitors. A petition from Haverhill to the national House of
Representatives in 1842, praying for a peaceable dissolution
of the Union, raised about J. Q. Adams, its presenter, perhaps
the most violent storm in the long course of his defence of the
right of petition. Haverhill was incorporated as a town in
1645 and became a city in 1869. Bradford, a town (largely
residential) lying on the opposite bank of the river, became
a part of the city in 1897. In October 1908, by popular vote,
the city adopted a new charter providing for government by
commission.

HAVERSACK, or HAVRESACK (through the French from
Ger. Habersack, an oat-sack, a nose-bag, Hafer or Haver, oats),
the bag in which horsemen carried the oats for their horses.
In Scotland and the north of England haver, meaning oats, is
still used, as haver-meal or haver-bread. Haversack is now
used for the strong bag made of linen or canvas, in which soldiers,
sportsmen or travellers, carry their personal belongings, or more
usually the provisions for the day.

HAVERSTRAW— HAVRE

HAVERSTRAW, a village of Rockland county, New York,
U.S.A., in a township of the same name, 32 m. N. of New York
City, and finely situated on the W. shore of Haverstraw Bay,
an enlargement of the Hudson river. Pop. of the village (1890),
5070; (1900) 5935, of whom 1231 were foreign-born and 568
were negroes; (1905, state census) 6182; (1910) 5669; of the town-
ship (1910) 9335. Haverstraw is served by the West Shore,
the New Jersey & New York (Erie), and the New York, Ontario
& Western railways, and is connected by steamboat lines with
Peekskill and Newburgh. The village lies at the N. base of
High Tor (83 2 ft.). It has a public library, founded by the King's
Daughters' Society in 1895 and housed in the Fowler library
building. Excellent clay is found in the township, and Haver-
straw is one of the largest brick manufacturing centres in the
world; brick-machines also are manufactured here. The
Minesceongo creek furnishes water power for silk mills, dye
works and print works. Haverstraw was settled by the Dutch
probably as early as 1648. Near the village of Haverstraw
(in the township of Stony Point), in the Joshua Hett Smith
House, or " Old Treason House," as it is generally called,
Benedict Arnold and Major Andre met before daylight on the
22nd of September 1780 to arrange plans for the betrayal of
West Point. In 1826 a short-lived Owenite Community (of
about 80 members) was established near West Haverstraw and
Garnerville (in the township of Haverstraw). The members
of the community established a Church of Reason, in which
lectures were delivered on ethics, philosophy and science.
Dissensions soon arose in the community, the experiment was
abandoned within five months, and most of the members joined
in turn the Coxsackie Community, also in New York, and the
Kendal Community, near Canton, Ohio, both of which were
also short-lived. The village of Haverstraw was originally
known as Warren and was incorporated under that name in
1854; in 1873 it became officially the village of Haverstraw —
both names had previously been used locally. The village of
West Haverstraw (pop. in 1890, 180; in 1900, 2079; and in 1910,
2369), also in Haverstraw township, was founded in 1830, was
long known as Samsondale, and was incorporated under its
present name in 1883.

See F. B. Green, History of Rockland County (New York, 1886).

HAVET, EUGENE AUGUSTE ERNEST (1813-1889), French
scholar, was born in Paris on the nth of April 1813. Educated
at the Lycee Saint-Louis and the Ecole Normale, he was for
many years before his death on the 2ist of December 1889
professor of Latin eloquence at the College de France. His two
capital works were a commentary on the works of Pascal, Pensees
de Pascal publiees dans leur texte aulhenlique aiiec un commentaire
suivi (1852; 2nd ed. 2 vols., 1881), and Le Christianisme et ses
origines (4 vols., 1871-1884), the chief thesis of which was that
Christianity owed more to Greek philosophy than to the writings
of the Hebrew prophets. His elder son, Pierre Antoine Louis
Ha vet (b. 1849), was professor of Latin philology at the College
de France and a member of the Institute. The younger, Julien,
is separately noticed.

HAVET, JULIEN (PIERRE EUGENE) (1853-1893), French
historian, was born at Vitry-sur-Seine on the 4th of April 1853,
the second son of Ernest Havet. He early showed a remarkable
aptitude for learning, but had a pronounced aversion for pure
rhetoric. His studies at the Ecole des Charles (where he took
first place both on entering and leaving) and at the Ecole des
Hautes Etudes did much to develop his critical faculty, and the
historical method taught and practised at these establishments
brought home to him the dignity of history, which thenceforth
became his ruling passion. His valedictory thesis at the Ecole
des Chart es, Serie chronologique des gardiens et seigneurs des lies
Normandes (1876), was a definitive work and but slightly affected
by later research. In 1 878 he followed his thesis by a study called
Les Cours royales dans les lies Normandes. Both these works were
composed entirely from the original documents at the Public
Record Office, London, and the archives of Jersey and Guernsey.
On the history of Merovingian institutions, Havet's conclusions
were widely accepted (see La Formule N. rex Francor., v. M.,

1885). His first work in this province was Du sens du mot
" romain " dans les loisfranques (1876), a critical study on a theory
of Fustel de Coulanges. In this he showed that the status of the
homo Romanus of the barbarian laws was inferior to that of the
German freeman; that the Gallo-Romans had been subjected
by the Germans to a state of servitude; and, consequently,
that the Germans had conquered the Gallo-Romans. He aimed
a further blow at Fustel's system by showing that the Prankish
kings had never borne the Roman title of vir inluster, and that
they could not therefore be considered as being in the first place
Roman magistrates; and that in the royal diplomas the king
issued his commands as rex Francorum and addressed his
functionaries as viri inlwslres. His attention having been drawn
to questions of authenticity by the forgeries of Vrain Lucas, he
devoted himself to tracing the spurious documents that en-
cumbered and perverted Merovingian and Carolingian history.
In his A propos des decoutiertes de Jerome Vignier (1880), he
exposed the forgeries committed in the i7th century by this
priest. He then turned his attention to a group of documents
relating to ecclesiastical history in the Carolingian period and
bearing on the question of false decretals, and produced Les
Charles de Si-Calais (1887) and Les Actes de Vbieche du Mans
(1894). On the problems afforded by the chronology of Gerbert's
(Pope Silvester II.) letters^and by the notes in cipher in the MS.
of his letters, he wrote L'Ecriture secrete de Gcrbert (1877), which
may be compared with his Notes tironiennes dans les dipldmes
merovingiens (1885). In 1889 he brought out an edition of
Gerbert's letters, which was a model of critical sagacity. Each
new work increased his reputation, in Germany as well as France.
At the Bibliotheque Nationale, where he obtained a post, he
rendered great service by his wide knowledge of foreign languages,
and read voraciously everything that related, however remotely,
to his favourite studies. He was finally appointed assistant
curator in the department of printed books. He died pre-
maturely at St Cloud on the igth of August 1893.

After his death his published and unpublished writings were
collected and published (with the exception of Les Cours royales des
lies Normandes and Lettres de Gerbert) in two volumes called Questions
merovingiennes and Opuscules inedits (1896), containing, besides
important papers on diplomatic and on Carolingian and Merovingian
history', a large number of short monographs ranging over a great
variety of subjects. A collection of his articles was published
by his friends under the title of Melanges Havet (1895), pre-
fixed by a bibliography of his works compiled by his friend Henri
Omont. (C. B.*)

HAVRE, LE, a seaport of north-western France, in the depart-
ment of Seine-Inferieure, on the north bank of the estuary of the
Seine, 143 m. W.N.W. of Paris and 55 m. W. of Rouen by the
Western railway. Pop. (1906), 129,403. The greater part of the
town stands on the level strip of ground bordering the esluary,
but on the N. rises an eminence, la Cote, covered by the gardens
and villas of the richer quarter. The central point of the town
is the Place de 1'hotel de ville in which are the public gardens.
It is crossed by the Boulevard de Strasbourg, running from the
sea on the west to the railway station and the barracks on the
east. The rue de Paris, the busiest street, starts at the Grand
Quai, overlooking the outer harbour, and, intersecting the Place
Gambetta, runs north and enters the Place de 1'hotel de ville on
its southern side. The docks start immediately to the east of this
street and extend over a large area to the south and south-east
of the town. Apart from the church of Notre-Dame, dating
from the i6th and i7th centuries, the chief buildings of Havre,
including the h6tel de ville, the law courts, and the exchange,
are of modern erection. The museum contains a collection of
antiquities and paintings. Havre is the seat of a sub-prefect,
and forms part of the maritime arrondissement of Cherbourg.
Among the public institutions are a tribunal of first instance, a
1 ribunal of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a tribunal of
maritime commerce, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the
Bank of France. There are lycees for boys and girls, schools of
commerce and other educational establishments. Havre, which is
a fortified place of the second class, ranks second to Marseilles
among French seaports. There are nine basins (the oldest of which

HAWAII

dates back to i66g) with an area of about 200 acres and more
than 8 m. of quays. They extend to the east of the outer
harbour which on the west opens into the new outer harbour,
formed by two breakwaters converging from the land and leaving
an entrance facing west. The chief docks (see DOCK for plan)
are the Bassin Bellot and the Bassin de 1'Eure. In the latter
the mail-steamers of the Compagnie Generale Transatlantique are
berthed; and the Tancarville canal, by which river-boats unable
to attempt the estuary of the Seine can make the port direct,
enters the harbour by this basin. There are, besides, several
repairing docks and a petroleum dock for the use of vessels carry-
ing that dangerous commodity. The port, which is an important
point of emigration, has regular steam-communication with
New York (by the vessels of the Compagnie Generale Trans-
atlantique) and with many of the other chief ports of Europe,
North, South and Central America, the West Indies and Africa.
Imports in 1907 reached a value of £57,686,000. The chief were
cotton, for which Havre is the great French market, coffee,
copper and other metals, cacao, cotton goods, rubber, skins and
hides, silk goods, dye-woods, tobacco, oil-seeds, coal, cereals and
wool. In the same year exports were valued at £47,130,000, the
most important being cotton, silk and woollen goods, coffee, hides,
leather, wine and spirits, rubber, tools and metal ware, earthen-
ware and glass, clothes and millinery, cacao and fancy goods.
In 1907 the total tonnage of shipping (with cargoes) reached its
highest point, viz. 5,671,975 tons (4018 vessels) compared with
3,816,340 tons (3832 vessels) in 1898. Forty-two per cent of
this shipping sailed under the British flag. France and Germany
were Great Britain's most serious rivals. Havre possesses oil
works, soap works, saw mills, flour mills, works for extracting
dyes and tannin from dye-woods, an important tobacco manu-
factory, chemical works and rope works. It also has metal-
lurgical and engineering works which construct commercial and
war-vessels of every kind as well as engines and machinery,
cables, boilers, &c.

Until 1516 Havre was only a fishing village possessing a
chapel dedicated to Notre-Dame de Grace, to which it owes
the name, Havre (harbour) de Grace, given to it by Francis I.
when he began the construction of its harbour. The town in
1562 was delivered over to the keeping of Queen Elizabeth
by Louis I., prince de Conde, leader of the Huguenots, and the
command of it was entrusted to Ambrose Dudley, earl of Warwick ;
but the English were expelled in 1563, after a most obstinate
siege, which was pressed forward by Charles IX. and his mother,
Catherine de' Medici, in person. The defences of the town
and the harbour-works were continued by Richelieu and com-
pleted by Vauban. In 1694 it was vainly besieged by the
English, who also bombarded it in 1759, 1794 and 1795. It
was a port of considerable importance as early as 1572, and
despatched vessels to the whale and cod-fishing at Spitsbergen
and Newfoundland. In 1672 it became the entrep6t of the
French East India Company, and afterwards of the Senegal
and Guinea companies. Napoleon I. raised it to a war harbour
of the first rank, and under Napoleon III. works begun by Louis
XVI. were completed.

See A. E. Borely, Histoire de la mile du Havre (Le Havre, 1880-
1881).

HAWAII (HAWAIIAN or SANDWICH ISLANDS), a Territory of
the United States of America, consisting of a chain of islands
in the North Pacific Ocean, eight inhabited and several unin-
habited. The inhabited islands lie between latitudes 18° 54'
and 22° 15' N., and between longitudes 154° 50' and 160° 30' W.,
and extend about 380 m. from E.S.E. to W.N.W.; the unin-
habited ones, mere rocks and reefs, valuable only for their
guano deposits and shark-fishing grounds, continue the chain
several hundred miles farther W.N.W. From Honolulu, the
capital, which is about 100 m. N.W. of the middle of the inhabited
group, the distance to San Francisco is about 2100 m.; to
Auckland, New Zealand, about 3810 m.; to Sydney, New South
Wales, about 4410 m. ; to Yokohama, about 3400 m.; to
Hong- Kong, about 4920 m.; to Manila, about 4890 m. The
total area of the inhabited islands is 6651 sq. m., distributed as

follows: Hawaii, 4210; Maui, 728; Oahu, about 600; Kauai,
547; Molokai, 261; Lanai, 139; Niihau, 97; Kahoolawe, 69.

All the islands are of volcanic origin, and have been built up by
the eruptive process from a base about 15,000 ft. below the sea to a
maximum height (Mauna Kea) on the largest island (Hawaii) of
13,823 ft. above the sea; altogether there are forty volcanic peaks.
Evidence of slight upheaval is occasionally afforded by an elevated
coral-reef along the shore, and evidence of the subsidence of the S.
portion of Oahu for several hundred feet has been discovered by
artesian borings through coral-rock. In some instances, notably
the high and nearly vertical wall along the N. shore of the E. half
of Molokai, there is evidence of a fracture followed by the sub-
mergence of a portion of a volcano. With the exception of the coral
and a small amount of calcareous sandstone, the rocks are entirely
volcanic and range from basalt to trachyte, but are mainly basalt.
Cinder cones and tufa cones abound, but one of the most distinguish-
ing features of the Hawaiian volcanoes is the great number of
craters of the engulfment type, i.e. pit-craters which enlarge slowly
by the breaking off and falling in of their walls, and discharge vast
lava-flows with comparatively little violence. The age of the several
inhabited islands, or at least the time since the last eruptions on
them, decreases from W. to E., and on the most easterly (Hawaii)
volcanic forces are still in operation. That those to the westward
have long been inactive is shown by the destruction of craters by
denudation, by deep ravines, valleys and tall cliffs eroded on the
mountain sides, especially on the windward side, by the depth of
soil formed from the disintegrated rocks, and by the amount as well
as variety of vegetable life.

Hawaii Island, from which the group and later the Territory
was named, has the shape of a rude triangle with sides of 90 m.,
75 m. and 65 m. Its coast, unlike that of the other islands of
the archipelago, has few coral reefs. Its surface consists mainly
of the gentle slopes of five volcanic mountains which have
encroached much upon one another by their eruptions.

Mauna Loa (" Great Mountain "), on the S., is by far the largest
volcano in the world ; from a base measuring at sea-level about 75 m.
from N. to S. and 50 m. from E. to W., it rises gradually to a height
of 13,675 ft. On its E.S.E. side, at an elevation of 4000 ft. above
the sea (300 ft. above the adjoining plain on the W.) is Kilauea,
from whose lava-flows the island has been extended to form its S.E.
angle. To the N.N.E. ot Mauna Loa, and blending with it in an
intervening plateau, is Mauna Kea (" White Mountain," so named
from the snow on its summit), with a much smaller base but with
steeper slopes and a crowning cinder cone 13,823 ft. above the sea,
the maximum height in the Pacific Ocean; blending with Mauna
Loa on the N.N.W. is Mauna Hualalai, 8269 ft. in height; and rising
abruptly from the extreme N.W. shore are the remains of the oldest
mountains of the island, the Kohala, with a summit 5505 ft. in height.
On the land side the Kohala Mountains have been covered with lava
from Mauna Kea, and form the broad plains of Kohala, having a
maximum elevation of about 3000 ft. ; on the ocean side, wherever
this lava has not extended, erosion has gone on until bluffs 1000 ft.
in height face the sea and the enormous gorges of Waipio and
Waimanu, with nearly perpendicular walls as much as 3000 ft.
high and extending inland 5-6 m., have been formed. Mauna Kea
is not nearly so old as the Kohala Mountains, but there is no record
of its eruption, nor have its lavas a modern aspect. The last eruption
of Mauna Hualalai was in 1801. Mauna Loa and Kilauea are still
active. Cinder cones are the predominant type of craters on both
Mauna Kea and the Kohala Mountains, and they are also numerous
on the upper slopes of Mauna Hualalai; but the more typically
Hawaiian pit or engulfment craters also abound on Mauna Hualalai
and Mokuaweoweo, crowning the summit of Mauna Loa, as well as
Kilauea, to the S.E. of it, are prominent representatives of this type.
Kilauea is the largest active crater in the world (8 m. in circum-
ference) and is easily accessible. - Enclosed by a circular wall from
200 to 700 ft. in height is a black and slightly undulating plain
having an area of 4-14 sq. m., and within this plain is a pit, Hale-
maumau, of varying area (about 2000 ft. in diameter in 1905), now
full of boiling lava, now empty to a depth of perhaps 1000 ft. When
most active, Halemaumau affords a grand spectacle, especially at
night : across the crust run glowing cracks, the crust is then broken
into cakes, the cakes plunge beneath, lakes of liquid lava are forme'd,
over whose surface play fire-fountains 10 to 50 ft. in height, the
surface again solidifies and the process is repeated.1 According to
an account of the natives, a violent eruption of Kilauea occurred in
1789, or about that time, and deposits of volcanic sand, large stones,
sponge-like scoria (pumice) and ashes for miles around are evidence
of such an eruption. Since the Rev. William Ellis and a party of
American missionaries first made the volcano known to the civilized

1 Among the minor phenomena of Hawaiian volcanoes are the
delicate glassy fibres called Pele's hair by the Hawaiians, which are
spun by the wind from the rising and falling drops of liquid lava,
and blown over the edge or into the crevices of the crater. Pele in
idolatrous times was the dreaded goddess of Kilauea.

84

HAWAII

D

HAWAII

Scale, 1:3,500,000

English Miles
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

County Seats ©

Railways, -^.

Lave, flows _ 3SB

&fg%s ^s~d$Sjg&Z'

LanaiQ^

•malaDau Harb.) ^-*V>

70* West 165' Long. 160'

160'

B

Longitude West 158" of Greenwich

Emtry Wjlktf 1C.

world in 1823, the eruptions have consisted mainly in the quiet
discharge of lava through a subterranean passage into the sea. In
the eruptions of 1823, 1832, 1840 and 1868 the floor of the crater
rose on the eve of an eruption and then sank, sometimes hundreds
of feet, with the discharge of lava; but since 1868 (in 1879, 1886,
1891, 1894 and 1907; and once, before 1868, in 1855) this action
has been confined to Halemaumau and such other pits as at the time
existed.

Mokuaweoweo, on the flat top of Mauna Loa, is a pit crater with
a floor 3-7 sq. m. in area and sunk 500-600 ft. within walls that
are almost vertical and that measure 9-47 m. in circumference.
Formerly, on the eve of a great eruption of Mauna Loa, this crater
often spouted forth great columns of flame and emitted clouds of
vapour, but in modern times this action has usually been followed
by a fracture of the mountain side from the summit down to a point
1000 ft. or more below where the lava was discharged in great
streams, the action at the summit diminishing or wholly ceasing
when this discharge began. The first recorded eruption of Mauna
Loa was in 1832; since then there have been eruptions in 1851,
1852, 1855, 1859, 1868, 1880-1881, 1887, 1896, 1899 and 1907. The
eruptions of 1868, 1887 and 1907 were attended by earthquakes;
in 1868 huge sea waves, 40 ft. in height, were raised, and, as they
broke on the S. shore, they destroyed the villages of Punaluu,
Ninole, Kawaa and Honuapo. But the eruptions of Mauna Loa
have consisted mainly in the quiet discharge of enormous flows of
lava: in 1859 the lava-stream, which began to run on the 23rd of
January, flowed N.W., reached the sea, 33 m. distant, eight days
later, and continued to flow into it until the 25th of November;
and the average length of the flows from seven other eruptions is
nearly 14 m. The surface of the upper slopes of Mauna Loa is
almost wholly of two widely different kinds of barren lava-flows,
called by the Hawaiians the pahoehoe and the aa. The pahoehoe
has a smooth but billowy or hummocky surface, and is marked by
lines which show that it cooled as it flowed. The aa is lava broken
into fragments having sharp and jagged edges. As the same stream
sometimes changes abruptly from one kind to the other, the two
kinds must be due to different conditions affecting the flow, and
among the conditions which may cause a stream to break up into
the aa have been mentioned the greater depth of the stream, a
sluggish current, impediments in its course just as it is granulating,
and, what is more probable, subterranean moisture which causes it
to cool from below upward instead of from above downward as in
the pahoehoe. The natives are in the habit of making holes in the aa,
and planting in them banana shoots or sweet-potato cuttings, and
though the holes are simply filled with stones or fern leaves, the

plants grow and in due time are productive. Another curious feature
of Mauna Loa, and to some extent of other Hawaiian volcanoes, is
the great number of caves, some of them as much as 60 to 80 ft. in
height and several miles in length ; they were produced by the
escape of lava over which a crust had formed. In the midst of
barren wastes to the S.E. and S.W. of Kilauea are small channels
with steam cracks, along which appears the only vegetation of the
region.

Maui, lying 26 m. N.W. of Hawaii, is composed of two
mountains connected by an isthmus, Wailuku, 7 or 8 m. long,
about 6 m. across, and about 160 ft. above the sea in its
highest part.

Mauna Haleakala, on the E. peninsula, has a height of 10,032 ft.,
and forms a great dome-like mass, with a circumference at the base
of 90 m. and regular slopes of only 8° or 9°. It has numerous cinder
cones on its S.W. slope, is well wooded on the N. and E. slopes,
and has on its summit an extinct pit-crater which is one of the
largest in the world. This crater is 7-48 m. long, 2-37 m. wide,
and covers 19 sq. m.; the circuit of its walls, which are composed of
a hard grey clinkstone much fissured, is 20 m.; its greatest depth
is 2720 ft. At opposite ends are breaks in the walls a mile or more
in width — one about 1000 ft., the other at least 3000 ft. in depth —
through which poured the lava of probably the last great eruption.
From the floor of the crater rise sixteen well-preserved cinder-cones,
which range from more than 400 ft. to 900 ft. in height. Along the
N. base of the mountain are numerous ravines (several hundred feet
deep), to the bottom of which small streams of water fall in long
cascades, but elsewhere on the eastern mountain there is littleerosion
or other mark of age. That the mountainous mass of western Maui
is much older is shown by the destruction of its crater, by its sharp
ridges and by deeply eroded gorges or valleys. Its highest peak,
Puu Kukui, rises 5788 ft. above the sea, and directly under this
is the head of lao Valley, 5 m. long and 2 m. wide, which has been cut
in the mountain to a depth of 4000 ft. This and the smaller valleys
are noted for the beauty of their tropical scenery.

Kahoolawe is a small island 6 m. S.W. of Maui. It is 14 m.
long by 6 m. wide. Its mountains, which rise to a height of
1472 ft., are rugged and nearly destitute of verdure, but the
intervening valleys afford pasturage for sheep.

Lanai is another small island, 7 m. W. of Maui, about 18 m.
long and 12 m. wide. It has a mountain- range which rises to a

HAWAII

maximum height, S.E. of its centre, of about 3480 ft. The N.E.
slope is cut by deep gorges, and at the bottom of one of these,
which is 2000 ft. deep, is the only water-supply on the island.
On the S. side is a rolling table-land affording considerable
pasturage for sheep, but over the whole N.W. portion of the
island the trade winds, driving through the channel between
Maui and Molokai, sweep the rocks bare. Kahoolawe and Lanai
are both privately owned.

Molokai, 8 m. N.W. of Maui, extends 40 m. from E. to W.
and has an average width of nearly 7 m. From the S.W. ex-
tremity of the island rises the backbone of a ridge which extends
E.N.E. about 10 m., where it culminates in the round-topped
hill of Mauna Loa, 1382 ft. above the sea. Both the northern
and southern slopes of this ridge are cut by ravines and gulches,
and along the N. shore is a steep sea-cliff. At the E. extremity
of the ridge there is a sudden drop to a low and gently rolling
plain, but farther on the surface rises gradually towards a range
of mountains which comprises more than one-half the island
and attains a maximum height of 4958 ft. in the peak of Kama-
kou. The S. slope of this range is gradual but is cut by many
straight and narrow ravines, in some instances to a great depth.
The N. slope is abrupt, with precipices from 1000 to 4000 ft.
in height. Extending N. from the foot of the precipice, a little
E. of the centre of the island, is a comparatively low peninsula
(separated from the mainland by a rock wall 2000 ft. high),
on which is a famous leper settlement. The peninsula forms a
separate county, Kalawao.

Oahu, 23 m. N.W. of Molokai, has an irregular quadrangular
form. It is traversed from S.E. to N.W. by two roughly parallel
ranges of hill separated by a plain that is 20 m. long and in some
parts 9 to 10 m. wide. The highest point in the island is Mauna
Kaala, 4030 ft., in the Waianae or W. range; but the Koolau
or E. range is much longer than the other, and its ridge is very
much broken; on the land side there are many ravines formed
by lateral spurs, but to the sea for 30 m. it presents a nearly
vertical wall without a break. The valleys are remarkable for
beautiful scenery, — peaks, cliffs, lateral ravines, cascades and
tropical vegetation. There are few craters on the loftier heights,
but on the coasts there are several groups of small cones with
craters, some of lava, others of tufa. The greater part of the
coast is surrounded by a coral reef, often half a mile wide; in
several localities an old reef upheaved, sometimes 100 ft. high,
forms part of the land.

Kauai, 63 m. W.N.W. of Oahu, has an irregularly circular
form with a maximum diameter of about 25 m. On the N.W.
is a precipice 2000 ft. or more in height and above this is a
mountain plain, but elsewhere around the island is a shore
plain, from which rises Mount Waialeale to a height of 5250 ft.
The peaks of the mountain are irregular, abrupt and broken;
its sides are deeply furrowed by gorges and ravines; the shore
plain is broken by ridges and by broad and deep valleys; no
other island of the group is so well watered on all sides by large
mountain streams; and it is called " garden isle."

Niihau, the most westerly of the inhabited islands, is 18 m.
W. by S. of Kauai. It is 16 m. longand 6 m. wide. The western
two-thirds consists of a low plain, composed of an uplifted
coral reef and matter washed down from the mountains; but
on the E. side the island rises precipitously from the sea and
attains a maximum height of 1304 ft. at Paniau. There are
large salt lagoons on the southern coast.

Climate. — The climate is cooler than that of other regions in the
same latitude, and is very healthy. The sky is usually cloudless
or only partly cloudy. The N.E. trades blow with periodic varia-
tions from March to December; and the leeward coast, being pro-
tected by high mountains, is refreshed by regular land and sea
breezes. During January, February and a part of March the wind
blows strongly from the S. or S.W. ; and at this season an unpleasant
hot, damp wind is sometimes felt. More rain falls from January to
May than during the other months; very much more falls on the
windward side of the principal islands than on the leeward ; and the
amount increases with the elevation also up to about 4000 ft. The
greatest recorded extremes of local rainfall for a year within the larger
islands range from 12 to 300 in. For Honolulu the mean annual
rainfall (1884-1899) was 28-18 in.; the maximum 49-82; and the

minimum 13-46. At sea level the daily average temperature for
July is 76-4° F., for December 70-7° F. ; the mean annual tempera-
ture is about 73° F. — 68° during the night, 80° during the day —
and for each 200 ft. of elevation the temperature falls about 1° F.,
and snow lies for most of the time on the highest mountains.

Flora.— The Hawaiian Islands have a peculiar flora. As a result
of their isolation, the proportion of endemic plants is greater here
than in any other region, and the great elevation of the mountains,
with the consequent variation in temperature, moisture and baro-
metric pressure, has multiplied the number of species. Towards the
close of the igth century William Hillebrand found 365 genera and
999 species, and of this number of species 653 were peculiar to this
part of the Pacific. The number of species is greatest on the older
islands, particularly Kauai and Oahu, and the total number for the
group has been constantly increasing, some being introduced, others
possibly being produced by the varying climatic conditions from
those already existing. Among the peculiar dicotyledonous plants
there is not a single annual, and by far the greater number ar* per-
ennial and woody. Hawaiian forests are distinctly tropical, and are
composed for the most part of trees below the medium height. They
are most common between elevations of 2000 and 8000 ft. ; there
are only a few species below 2000 ft., and above 8000 ft. the growth
is stunted. The destruction of considerable portions of the forests
by cattle, goats, insects, fire and cutting has been followed by re-
foresting, the planting of hitherto barren tracts, the passage of severe
forest fire laws, and the establishment of forest reserves, of which
the area in 1909 was 545,746 acres, of which 357,180 were govern-
ment land. In regions of heavy rainfall the ohia-lehua (Metrosideros
polymorpha), a tree growing from 30 to 100 ft. in height, is predomi-
nant, and on account of the dense undergrowth chiefly of ferns
and climbing vines, forms the most impenetrable of the forests;
its hard wood is used chiefly for fuel. The koa (Acacia koa), from
the wood of which the natives used to make the bodies of their canoes,
and the only tree of the islands that furnishes much valuable lumber
(a hard cabinet wood marketed as " Hawaiian mahogany "), forms
extensive forests on Hawaii and Maui between elevations of 2000 and
4000 ft. The mamane (Sophora chrysophytta) , which furnishes the
best posts, grows principally on the high slopes of Mauna Kea and
Hualalai. Posts and railway ties are also made from ohia-ha
(Eugenia sandwicensis). In many districts between elevations of
2000 and 6000 ft., where there is only a moderate amount of moisture,
occur mixed forests of koa, koaia (Acacia koaia), kopiko (Straussia
oncocarpa and 5. hawaiiensis) , kolea (Myrsine kauaiensis and
M. lanaiensis), naio or bastard sandalwood (Myoporum sandwicense)
and pua (Olea sandwicensis); of these the koaia furnishes a hard
wood suitable for the manufacture of furniture, and out of it the
natives formerly made spears and fancy paddles. The wood of
the naio when dry has a fragrance resembling that of sandalwood,
and is used for torches in fishing. The kukui (Aleurites triloba) and
the algaroba (Prosopis juliflora) are the principal species of forest
trees that occur below elevations of 2000 ft. The kukui grows along
streams and gulches; from its nuts, which are very oily, the natives
used to make candles, and it is still frequently called the candlenut
tree. On the leeward side, from near the sea level to elevations
of 1500 ft., and on ground that was formerly barren, the algaroba
tree has formed dense forests since its introduction in 1837. Forests
of iron-wood and blue gum have also been planted. Sandalwood
(Sanlalum album or freycinetianum) was once abundant on rugged
and rather inaccessible heights, but so great a demand arose for it in
China,1 where it was used for incense and for the manufacture of
fancy articles, that the supply was nearly exhausted between 1802
and 1836; since then some young trees have sprung up, but the
number is relatively small. Other peculiar trees prized for their
wood are: the kauila (Alphitonia ponderosa), used for making
spears, mallets and other tools; the kela (Mezoneuron kauaiense),
the hard wood of which resembles ebony; the halapepe (Dracaena
OMreo), out of the soft wood of which the natives carved many of
their idols; and the wiliwili (Erythrina monosperma), the wood of
which is as light as cork and is used for outriggers. In 1909, on six
large rubber plantations, mostly on the windward side of the island of
Maui, there were planted 444,450 ceara trees, 66,700 hevea trees, and
600 castilloa trees. About the only indigenous fruit-bearing plants
are the Chilean strawberry (Fragaria chilensis) and the ohelo berry
(Vaccinium reticulatum) , both of which grow at high elevations on
Hawaii and Maui. The ohelo berry is famous in song and story, and
formerly served as a propitiatory offering to Pele. The number of
fruit-bearing trees, shrubs and plants that have been introduced and
are successfully cultivated or grow wild is much greater; among
them are the mango, orange, banana, pineapple, coconut, palm, grape,
fig, strawberry, litchi (Nephelium litchi) — the favourite fruit of the
Chinese — avocado or alligator pear (Persea gratissima), Sapodilla pear
(Achras sapota), loquat or mespilus plum (Eriobotrya japonica) , Cape
gooseberry (Physalis peruviana), tamarind (Tamarindus indica),
papaw (Carica papaya), resembling in appearance the cantaloupe,
granadilla (Passiflora quadrangularis) and guava (Psidiumguajava).
Most of the native grasses are too coarse for grazing, and some of

1 The Chinese name for the Hawaiian Islands means " Sandalwood
Islands."

86

HAWAII

them, particularly the hilo grass (Paspalum conjugatum) , which forms
a dense mat over the ground, prevent the spread of forests. The pili
grass (Heteropogon contortus) is also noxious, for its awns get badly
entangled in the wool of sheep. The native manienie (Slenotaphrum
americanum) and kukai (Panicum pruriens), however, are relished
by stock and are found on all the inhabited islands; the Bermuda
grass (Cynodon dactylon), a June grass (Poa annua), and Guinea grass
(Panicum iumentorum) have also been successfully introduced.
The Paspalum orbiculare is the large swamp grass with which the
natives covered their houses. On the island of Niihau is a fine
grass (Cyperus laevigatus) , out of which the beautiful Niihau mats
were formerly made; it is used in making Panama hats. Mats
were also made of the leaves of the hala tree (Pandanus odoratissi-
mus). The wauke plant (Broussonetia papyrifera), and to a less
extent the mamake (Pipturus albidus) and Boehmeria stipularis,
furnished the bark out of which the famous kapa cloth was made,
while theolopa ( Cheirodendron gaudichaudi i) and the koolea (Myrsine
lessertiana) furnished the dyes with which it was coloured. From
several species of Cibotium is obtained a glossy yellowish wool,
used for making pillows and mattresses. Ferns, of which there are
about 130 species varying' from a few inches to 30 ft. in height,
form a luxuriant undergrowth in the ohia-lehua and the koa forests,
and the islands are noted for the profusion and beautiful colours
of their flowering plants. Kalo (Colocasia antiquorum, var., escu-
lenta), which furnishes the principal food of the natives, and sugar
cane (Saccharum officinaruni), the cultivation of which has become
the chief industry of the islands, were introduced before the discovery
of the group by Captain Cook in 1778. Sisal hemp has been intro-
duced, and there is a large plantation of it W. of Honolulu.

Over seventy varieties of seaweeds, growing in the fresh-water
pools and in the waters near the coast, are used by the natives
as food. These limus, as they are called by the Kanakas, are
washed, salted, broken and eaten as a relish or as a flavouring
for fish or other meat. The culture of such algae may prove of eco-
nomic importance; gelatine, glue and agar-agar would be valuable
by-products.

Fauna. — A day-flying bat, whales and dolphins are about the only
indigenous mammals ; hogs, dogs and rats had been introduced before
Cook's discovery. Fish in an interesting variety of colours and
shapes abound in the sea and in artificial ponds along the coasts.1
There are some fine species of birds, and the native avifauna is so
distinctive that Wallace argued from it that the Hawaiian Archi-
pelago had long been separated from any other land. There were
native names for 89 varieties. The most typical family is the
Drepanidae, so named for the stout sickle-shaped beak with which
the birds extract insects from heavy-barked trees; Gadow con-
siders the family American in its origin, and thinks that the Moho,1
a family of honey-suckers, were later comers and from Australia.
The mamo (Drepanis pacifica) has large golden feathers on its back ;
it is now very rare, and is seldom found except on Mauna Loa,
Hawaii, about 4000 ft. above the sea. The smaller yellow feathers,
once used for the war cloaks of the native chiefs, were furnished by
the oo (Moho_ nobilis) and the aa (Moho braccatus), now found only
occasionally in the valleys of Kauai near Hanalei, on the N. side of
the island ; scarlet feathers for similar mantles were taken from the
iiwi (Vestiaria coccinea), a black-bodied, scarlet-winged song-bird,
which feeds on nectar and on insects found in the bark of the koa
and ohia trees, and from the Fringilla coccinea. In the old times
birds were protected by the native belief that divine messages were
conveyed by bird cries, and by royal edict forbidding the killing
of species furnishing the material for feather cloaks, contributions
towards which were long almost the. only taxes paid. Thus the
downfall of the monarchy and of the ancient cults nave been nearly
fatal to some of the more beautiful birds; feather ornaments,
formerly worn only by nobles, came to be a common decoration;
and many species (for example the Hawaiian gallinule, Gallinula
sandwicensis, which, because of its crimson frontal plate and bill,
was said by the natives to have played the part of Prometheus,
burning its head with fire stolen from the gods and bestowed on
mortals) have been nearly destroyed by the mongoose, or have
been driven from their lowland homes to the mountains, such being
the fate of the mamo, mentioned above, and of the Sandwich Island
goose (Bernicla sandwicensis}, which is here a remarkable example of
adaptation, as its present habitat is quite arid. This goose has
been introduced successfully into Europe. A bird called moho,
but actually of a different family, was the Pennula ecaudata or
millsi, which had hardly any tail, and had wings so degenerate
that it was commonly thought wingless. The turnstone (Strepsilas
interpres) arrives in the islands in August after breeding in Alaska.
There are no parrots. The only reptiles are three species of skinks
and four of the gecko ; the islands are famed for their freedom from

1 Partly described by T. S. Streets, Contributions to the Natural
History of the Hawaiian and Fanning Islands, Bulletin 7 of U.S.
National Museum (Washington, 1877). Several new species are
described in U.S. Bureau of Fisheries Document, No. 623 (Washing-
ton, 1907).

2 So Lesson called the family from the native name in 1831;
Cabanis (1847) suggested Acrulocercus.

snakes. Land-snails, mostly A chatinellidae, are remarkably frequent
and diverse; over 300 varieties exist. Insects are numerous, and
of about 500 species of beetle some 80% are not known to exist
elsewhere; cockroaches and green locusts are pests, as are, also,
mosquitoes,3 wasps, scorpions, centipedes and white ants, which
have all been introduced from elsewhere.

Soil. — The soil of the Territory is almost wholly a decomposition
of lava, and in general differs much from the soils of the United
States, particularly in the large amount of nitrogen (often more
than 1-25% in cane and coffee soil, and occasionally 2-2%) and
iron, and in the high degree of acidity. High up on the windward
side of a mountain it is thin, light red or yellow, and of inferior
quality. Low down on the leeward side it is dark red and fertile,
but still too pervious to retain moisture well. In the older valleys
on the islands of Kauai, Oahu and Maui, as well as on the jowland
plain of Molokai, the soil is deeper and usually, too, the moisture is
retained by a heavy clay. In some places along the coast there is a
narrow strip of decomposed coral limestone ; often, too, a coral reef
has served to catch the sediment washed down the mountain
side until a deep sedimentary soil has been deposited. On the still
lower levels the soil is deepest and most productive.

Agriculture. — The tenure by which lands were held before 1838
was strictly feudal, resembling that of Germany in the nth century,
and lands were sometimes enfeoffed to the seventh degree. But
in the " Great Division " which took place in 1848 and forms the
foundation of present land titles, about 984,000 acres, nearly one-
fourth of the inhabited area, were set apart for the crown, about
1,495,000 acres for the government, and about 1,619,000 acres for
the several chiefs; and the common people received fee-simple
titles 4 for their house lots and the pieces of land which they culti-
vated for themselves, about 28,600 acres, almost entirely in isolated
patches of irregular shape hemmed in by the holdings of the crown,
the government or the great chiefs. Generally the chiefs ran into
debt; many died without heirs; and their lands passed largejy
into the hands of foreigners. At the abolition of the monarchy in
1893, the crown domains were declared to be public lands, and,
with the other government lands, were by the terms of annexation
turned over to the United States in 1898. They had been offered for
sale or lease in accordance with land acts (of 1884 and 1895 — the
latter corresponding generally to the land laws of New Zealand)
designed to promote division into small farms and their immediate
improvement. In 1909 the area of the public land was about
1,700,000 acres. In 1900 there were in the Territory 2273 farms, of
which 1209 contained less than 10 acres, 785 contained between 10
and loo acres, and 116 contained 1000 acres or more. The natives
seldom cultivate more than half an acre apiece, and the Portuguese
settlers usually only 25 or 30 acres at most. Of the total area of
the Territory only 86,854 acres, or 2-77%, were under cultivation
in 1900, and of this 65,687 acres, or 75-6%, were divided into 170
farms and planted to sugar-cane. In 1909 it was estimated that
213,000 acres (about half of which was irrigated) were planted to sugar,
one half being cropped each year. The average yield per acre of
cane-sugar is the greatest in the world, 30 to 40 tons of cane being
an average per acre, and as much as ioj tons of sugar having been
produced from a single acre under irrigation. The cultivation of the
cane was greatly encouraged by the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875,
which established practically free trade between the islands and the
United States, and since 1879 it has been widely extended by means
of irrigation, the water being obtained both by pumping from
numerous artesian wells and by conducting surface water through
canals and ditches. The sugar farms are mostly on the islands
of Hawaii, Oahu, Maui and Kauai, at the bases of mountains; those
on the leeward side have the better soil, but require much more
irrigating. The product increased from 26,072,429 Ib in 1876
to 259,789,462 ID in 1890, 542,098,500 ft in 1899 and about
1,060,000,000 Ib (valued at more than 840,000,000) in 1909. Nearly
all of it is exported to the United States. Rice was the second
product in importance until competition with Japan, Louisiana and
Texas made the crop a poor investment; improved culture and
machinery may restore rice culture to its former importance. It is
grown almost wholly by Japanese and Chinese on small low farms
along the coasts, mostly on the islands of Kauai and Oahu. In
1899 the product amounted to 33,442,400 ft; in 1907 about 12,000
acres were planted, and the crop was estimated to be worth 82,500,000.
Coffee of good quality is grown at elevations ranging between 1000
to 3000 ft. above the sea; the Hawaiian product is called Kona
coffee — from Kona, a district of the S. side of Hawaii island, where
much of it is grown. In 1909 about 4500 acres were in coffee,
the value of the crop was $350,000; and 1,763,119 ft of coffee,
valued at $211,535, were exported from Hawaii to the mainland of
the United States. A few bananas and (especially from Oahu)
pineapples of fine quality are exported; since 1901 the canning of

3 The entomological department of the Hawaii Experiment
Station undertakes " mosquito control," and in 1905-1906 imported
top-minnows (Poeciliidae) to destroy mosquito larvae.

4 These and other title-holders received corresponding rights to
the use of irrigation ditches, and to fish in certain sea areas adjacent
to their holdings.

HAWAII

87

pineapples has been successfully carried on, and in the year ending
May 31, 1907, 186,700 cases were exported, being packed in nine
canneries. Oranges, lemons, limes, figs, mangoes, grapes and
peaches, besides a considerable variety of vegetables, are raised
in small quantities for local consumption. In 1909 the exports of
fruits and nuts to the continental United States were valued at
$1,457,644. An excellent quality of sisal is grown. Rubber trees
have been planted with some success, particularly on the eastern
part of the island of Maui; they were not tapped for commercial
use until 1909. In 1907 there were vanilla plantations in the islands
of Oahu and Hawaii. Tobacco of a high grade, especially for
wrappers, has been grown at the Agricultural Experiment Station's
farm at Hamakua, on the island of Hawaii, where the tobacco is
practically " shade grown " under the afternoon fogs from Mauna
Kea. Cotton and silk culture have been experimented with on the
islands; and the work of the Hawaiian Agricultural Experiment
Station is of great value, in introducing new crops, in improving
old, in studying soils and fertilizers and in entomological research.
Honey is a crop of some importance; in 1908 the yield was about
950 tons of honey and 15 tons of wax. The small islands of Lanai,
Niihau and Kahoolawe are devoted chiefly to the raising of sheep
and cattle — Niihau is one large privately owned sheep-ranch.
There are large cattle-ranches on the islands supplying nearly all
the meat for domestic consumption, and cattle-raising is second in
importance to the sugar industry. It -was estimated in 1908 that
there were about 130,500 cattle and about 99,500 sheep on the
islands. The " native " cattle, descended from those left on the
islands by early navigators, are being improved by breeding with
imported Hereford, Shorthorn, Angus and Holstein bulls, the Here-
fords being the best for the purpose. In the fiscal year 1908,
359,413 ft of wool (valued at 858,133) and 928,599 ft of raw hides
(valued at $87,599) were shipped from the Territory to the United
States.

Minerals. — The islands have large (unworked) supplies of pumice,
sandstone, sulphur, gypsum, alum and mineral-paint ochres, and
some salt, kaolin and sal-ammoniac, but otherwise they are without
mineral wealth other than lava rocks for building purposes.

Manufactures. — The manufactures are chiefly sugar, fertilizers,
and such products of the foundry and machine shop as are required
for the machinery of the sugar factories. Most of the manufacturing
industries, indeed, are maintained for supplying the local market,
there being only three important exceptions — the manufacture of
sugar, the cleaning of coffee and the cleaning and polishing of rice.
The manufacture of sugar, which began between 1830 and 1840,
has long been much the most important of the manufacturing in-
dustries: thus in 1900 the value of the sugar production was
$19,254,773, and the total value of all manufactures, including
custom work and repairing, was only $24,992,068. Next to sugar,
fertilizers were the most important manufactured product, their value
being $1,150,625; the products of the establishments for the
polishing and cleaning of rice were valued at $664,300. Of the total
product in 1900, only 18-5% (by value) is to be credited to the city
of Honolulu. The growth of manufacturing is much hampered by
the lack of labour. Excellent water power is utilized on the island
of Kauai in an electric plant.

Communications. — There are good wagon roads on the islands,
some of them macadamized, built of the hard blue lava rock.
Hawaii had in 1909 about 200 m. of railway, of which the principal
line is that of the Oahu Railway & Land Company (about 89 m.),
extending from Honolulu W. and N. along the coast to Kahuku
about one-half the distance around Oahu; another line from
Kahuku Mill, the most northerly point of the island, S.E. to Hono-
lulu, was projected in 1905; on the island of Hawaii is the Hilo
Railroad (about 46 m.), carrying sugar, pineapples, rubber and
lumber; other railways are for the most part short lines on sugar
estates and in coffee-producing sections of the islands of Hawaii
and Maui. Each of the larger islands has one or more ports which a
local steamboat serves regularly, and Honolulu has the regular
service of seven trans-Pacific lines (the American-Hawaiian Steamship
Co., the Canadian-Australian Steamship Co., the Matson Navigation
Co., the Oceanic Steamship Co., the Pacific Mail Steamship Co., the
Mexican Oriental and the Toyo Kisen Kaisha); it is a midway
station for vessels between the United States (mainland) and Australia
and Southern Asia. In 1908 five steamship companies were engaged
in traffic between island ports and the mainland (including Mexico).
Honolulu has cable connexion with San Francisco and the East, and
the several islands of the group are served by wireless telegraph.

Commerce. — The position of the archipelago, at the " cross-roads "
of the North Pacific, has made it commercially important since the
days of the whale fishery, and it has a practical monopoly of coaling,
watering and victualling. Its main disadvantage is the lack of
harbours — Honolulu and Pearl Harbor are the only ones in the archi-
pelago; but under the River and Harbour Act of 1905 examinations
and surveys were made to improve Hilo Bay on the island of Hawaii.
Pearl Harbor is the U.S. naval station, and a great naval dock,
nearly 1200 ft. long, was projected for the station in 1908. Within
recent years commerce has grown greatly in volume; it has always
been almost entirely with the United States. In 1880 the value of
imports from the United States was $2,086,000, that of exports
to the United States was $4,606,000; in 1907 the value of shipments

of domestic merchandise from the United States to Hawaii was
$I5.357t9°7> .and the value of shipments of domestic merchandise
from Hawaii to the United States was $31,984,433, of which
1^0,111,524 was the value of brown sugar, $133,133 the value of
rice, $601,748 the value of canned fruits, $124,146 the value of
green, ripe or dried fruits, $117,403 the value of hides and skins,
and $105,515 the value of green or raw coffee. The shipments of
foreign merchandise each way are relatively insignificant. In the
fiscal year 1908 the exports from Hawaii to foreign countries were
valued at $597,640, ten times as much as in 1905 ($59,541); the
imports into Hawaii from foreign countries were valued at $4,682,399
in the fiscal year 1908, as against $3,014,964 in 1905.

Population. — The total population of the islands in 1890 was
89,990; in 1900 it was 154,001, an increase within the decade
of 71-13%; in 1910 it was 191,909. In 1908 there were about
72,000 Japanese, 18,000 Chinese, 5000 Koreans, 23,000 Portu-
guese, 2000 Spanish, 2000 Porto Ricans, 35,000 Hawaiians and
part Hawaiians and 12,000 Teutons. Of the total for 1900
there were 61,111 Japanese, 25,767 Chinese and 233 negroes;
of the same total there were 90,780 foreign-born, of whom
56,234 were natives of Japan, and 6512 were natives of Portugal.
There were in all in 1900, 106,369 males (69-1%; a preponder-
ance due to the large number of Mongolian labourers, whose
wives are left in Asia) and only 47,632 females. About three-
fifths of the Hawaiians and nearly all of American, British or
North European descent are Protestants. Most of the Portuguese
and about one-third of the native Hawaiians are Roman Catholics.
The Mormons claim more than 4000 adherents, whose principal
settlement is at Laie, on the north-east shore of Oahu; the first
Mormon missionaries came to the islands in 1850. The popula-
tion of 1910 was distributed among the several islands as follows:
Oahu, 82,028; Hawaii, 55,382; Kauai and Niihau, 23,952; Kalawao,
785; and Maui, Lanai, Kahoolawe and Molokai, 29,762. The
population of Honolulu district , the entire urban population of the
Territory, was 22,907 in 1890, 39,306 in 1900, and 52,183 in 1910.

The aboriginal Hawaiians (sometimes called Kanakas, from
a Hawaiian word kanaka, meaning " man ") belong to the
Malayo-Polynesian race; they probably settled in
Hawaii in the loth century, having formerly lived in %*pula-
Samoa, and possibly before that in Tahiti and the tion.
Marquesas. Their reddish-brown skin has been com-
pared in hue to tarnished copper. Their hair is dark brown or
black, straight, wavy or curly; the beard is thin, the face broad,
the profile not prominent, the eyes large and expressive, the
nose somewhat flattened, the lips thick, the teeth excellent in
shape and of a pearly whiteness. The skull is sub-brachycephalic
in type, with an index of 82-6 from living " specimens " and 79
from a large collection of skulls; it is never prognathous. Most
of the people are of moderate stature, but the chiefs and the
women of their families have been remarkable for their height,
and 400 pounds was formerly not an unusual weight for one of
this class. This corpulence was due not alone to over-feeding but
to an almost purely vegetable diet; stoutness was a part of the
ideal of feminine beauty. The superiority in physique of the
nobles to the common people may have been due in part to a
system of massage, the lomi-lomi; it is certainly contrary
to the belief in the bad effects of inbreeding — among the upper
classes marriage was almost entirely between near relatives.

The Rev. William Ellis, an early English missionary, described
the natives as follows: " The inhabitants of these islands are,
considered physically, amongst the finest races in the Pacific,
bearing the strongest resemblance to the New Zealanders in
stature, and in their well-developed muscular limbs. The tattoo-
ing of their bodies is less artistic than that of the New Zealanders,
and much more limited than among some of the other islanders.
They are also more hardy and industrious than those living
nearer the equator. This in all probability arises from their
salubrious climate, and the comparative sterility of their soil
rendering them dependent upon the cultivation of the ground
for the yam, the arum, and the sweet potato, their chief articles
of food. Though, like all undisciplined races, the Sandwich
Islanders [Hawaiians] have proved deficient in firm and steady
perseverance, they manifest considerable intellectual capability.
Their moral character, when first visited by Europeans, was not

88

HAWAII

superior to that of other islanders; and excepting when improved
and preserved by the influence of Christianity, it has suffered
much from the vices of intemperance and licentiousness
introduced by foreigners. Polygamy prevailed among the chiefs
and rulers, and women were subject to all the humiliations of
the tabu system, which subjected them to many privations, and
kept them socially in a condition of inferiority to the other sex.
Infanticide was practised to some extent, the children destroyed
being chiefly females. Though less superstitious than the
Tahitians, the idolatry of the Sandwich Islanders was equally
barbarous and sanguinary, as, in addition to the chief objects
of worship included in the mythology of the other islands, the
supernatural beings supposed to reside in the volcanoes and
direct the action of subterranean fires rendered the gods objects
of peculiar terror. Human sacrifices were slain on several
occasions, and vast offerings presented to the spirits supposed to
preside over the volcanoes, especially during the periods of
actual eruptions. The requisitions of their idolatry were severe
and its rites cruel and bloody. Grotesque and repulsive wooden
figures, animals and the bones of chiefs were the objects of
worship. Human sacrifices were offered whenever a temple
was to be dedicated, or a chief was sick, or a war was to be under-
taken; and these occasions were frequent. The apprehensions
of the people with regard to a future state were undefined, but
fearful. The lower orders expected to be slowly devoured by
evil spirits, or to dwell with the gods in burning mountains.
The several trades, such as that of fisherman, the tiller of the
ground, and the builder of canoes and houses, had each their pre-
siding deities. Household gods were also kept, which the natives
worshipped in their habitations. One merciful provision,
however, had existed from time immemorial, and that was
[the puuhonuas] sacred inclosures, places of refuge, into which
those who fled in time of war, or from any violent pursuer,
might enter and be safe. To violate their sanctity was one of
the greatest crimes of which a man could be guilty." The native
religion was an admixture of idolatry and hero-worship, of some
ethical hut little moral force. The king was war chief, priest and
god in 'one, and the shocking licence at the death of a king was
probably due to the feeling that all law or restraint was annulled
by the death of the king — incarnate law. The mythic and
religious legends of the people were preserved in chants, handed
down from generati9n to generation; and in like poetic form
was kept the knowledge of the people of botany, medicine and
other sciences. Name-songs, written at the birth of a chief,
gave his genealogy and the deeds of his ancestors; dirges and
love-songs were common. These were without rhyme or rhythm,
but had alliteration and a parallelism resembling Hebrew poetry.
Drums, gourd and bamboo flutes,and a kind of guitar, were known
before Cook's day.

When the islands first became known to Europeans, the
Hawaiian family was in a stage including both polyandry
and polygyny, and, according to Morgan, older than either:
two or more brothers, with their wives, or two or more sisters
with their husbands, cohabited with seeming promiscuity.
This system called punalua (a word which in the modern verna-
cular means merely " dear friend ") was first brought to the
attention of ethnologists in 1871 by Lewis H. Morgan (who
was incorrect in many of his premises) and was made the basis
of his second stage, the punaluan, in the evolution of the family.
These conditions did not last long after the coming of the mission-
aries. Descent was more commonly traced through the female
line. As regard cannibalism, it appears that the heart and liver
of the human victims offered in the temples were eaten as a
religious rite, and that the same parts of any prominent warrior
slain in battle were devoured by the victor chiefs, who believed
that they would thereby inherit the valour of the dead man.
Under taboo as late as 1819 women were to be put to death if they
ate bananas, cocoa-nuts, pork, turtles or certain fish. In the
days of idolatry the only dress worn by the men was a narrow
strip of cloth wound around the loins and passed between the
legs. Women wore a short petticoat made of kapa cloth (already
referred to), which reached from the waist to the knee. But now

the common class of men wear a shirt and trousers; the better
class are attired in the European fashion. The women are clad
in the holoka, a loose white or coloured garment .with sleeves,
reaching from the neck to the feet. A coloured handkerchief
is twisted around the head or a straw hat is worn. Both sexes
delight in adorning themselves with garlands (Ids) of flowers and
necklaces of coloured seeds. The Hawaiians are a good-tempered,
light-hearted and pleasure-loving race. They have many games
and sports, including boxing, wrestling (both in and out of water),
hill-sliding, spear-throwing, and a game of bowls played with
stone discs. Both sexes are passionately fond of riding. They
delight to be in the water and swim with remarkable skill and
ease. In the exciting sport of surf-riding, which always astonishes
strangers, they balance themselves lying, kneeling or standing
on a small board which is carried landwards on the curling crest
of a great roller. All games were accompanied by gambling.
Dances, especially the indecent hula, " danse du ventre," were
favourite entertainments.

Even at the time when they were first known to Europeans,
they had stone and lava hatchets, shark's-tooth knives, hard-
wood spades, kapa cloth or paper, mats, fans, fish-hooks and nets,
woven baskets, &c., and they had introduced a rough sort ol
irrigation of the inland country with long canals from highlands
to plains. They derived their sustenance chiefly from pork
and fish (both fresh and dried), from seaweed (limu), and from
the kalo (Colocasia antiquorum, var. esculenta), the banana,
sweet potato, yam, bread-fruit and cocoa-nut. From the root
of the kalo is made the national dish called poi; after having been
baked and well beaten on a board with a stone pestle it is made
into a paste with water and then allowed to ferment for a few
days, when it is ready to be eaten. One of the table delicacies
of former days was a particular breed of dog which was fed
exclusively on poi before it was killed, cooked and served. Like
other South Sea Islanders they made an intoxicating drink,
awa or kava, from the roots of the Macropiper latifolium or
Piper methyslicum; in early times this could be drunk only by
nobles and priests. The native dwellings are constructed of
wood, or occasionally are huts thatched with grass at the sides
and top. What little cooking is undertaken among the poorer
natives is usually done outside. The oven consists of a hole
in the ground in which a fire is lighted and stones made hot;
and the fire having been removed, the food is wrapped up in
leaves and placed in the hole beside the hot stones and covered
up until ready; or else, as is now more common, the cooking
is done in an old kerosene-oil can over a fire.

The Hawaiian language is a member of the widely-diffused
Malayo-Polynesian group and closely resembles the dialect of
the Marquesas; Hawaiians and New Zealanders, although
occupying the most remote regions north and south at which
the race has been found, can understand each other without
much difficulty. Various unsuccessful attempts have been made
to prove the language Aryan in its origin. It is soft and har-
monious, being highly vocalic in structure. Every syllable is
open, ending in a vowel sound, and short sentences may be
constructed wholly of vocalic sounds. The only consonants are
k, I, m, n and p, which with the gently aspirated h, the five vowels,
and the vocalic w, make up all the letters in use. The letters r
and / have been discarded in favour of I and k, as expressing
more accurately the native pronunciation, so' that, for example,
taro, the former name of the Colocasia plant, is now kalo. The
language was not reduced to a written form until after the
arrival of the missionaries. A Hawaiian spelling book was
printed in 1822; in 1834 two newspapers were founded; and in
1839 the first translation of the Bible was published.

In spite of moral and material progress — indeed largely because
of changes in their food, clothing, dwellings and of other " advan-
tages " of civilization — the race is probably dying out. Captain
Cook estimated the number of natives at 400,000, probably an
over-estimate; in 1823 the American missionaries estimated
their number at 142,000; the census of 1832 showed the popula-
tion to be 130,313; the census of 1878 proved that the number
of natives was no more than 44,088. In 1890 they numbered

HAWAII

89

34,436; in 1900, 29,834, a decrease of 4602 or 13-3% within
the decade. To account for this it is said that the blood of the
race has become poisoned by the introduction of foreign dis-
eases. The women are much less numerous than the men; and
the married ones have few children at the most; two out of
three have none. Moreover, the mothers appear to have little
maternal instinct and neglect their offspring. It is, however,
thought by some that these causes are now diminishing in force,
and that the " fittest " of the race may survive. The part-
Hawaiians, the offspring of intermarriage between Hawaiian
women and men of other races, increased from 3420 in 1878 to
6186 in 1890 and 7835 in 1900.

The pressing demand for labour created by the Reciprocity Treaty
of 1875 with the United States led to great changes in the population
of the Hawaiian Islands. It became the policy of the
Immlgra- government to assist immigrants from different countries.
Uoa- In 1877 arrangements were made for the importation of

Portuguese families from the Azores and Madeira, and during the
next ten years about 7000 of these people were brought to the
islands; in 1906-1907 there was a second immigration from the
Azores and Madeira of 1325 people. In 1900 the total number of
Portuguese in the islands, including those born there, was not far
from 1 6,000, about 2400 of whom were employed in sugar plantations.
They have shown themselves to be industrious, thrifty and law-
abiding. In 1907 2201 Spanish immigrants from the sugar district
about Malaga arrived in Hawaii, and about the same number of
Portuguese immigrated in the same year. The Board of Immigration,
using funds contributed by planters, was very active in its efforts to
encourage the immigration of suitable labourers, but the general im-
migration law of 1907 prohibited the securing of such immigration
through contributions from corporations. Persistent efforts have
also been made to introduce Polynesian islanders, as being of a
cognate race with the Hawaiians, but the results have been wholly
unsatisfactory. About 2000, mainly from the Gilbert Islands,
were brought in at the expense of the government between 1878 and
1884; but they did not give satisfaction either as labourers or as
citizens, and most of them have been returned to their homes.
There never existed any treaty or labour convention between Hawaii
and China. In early days a limited number of Chinese settled in
the islands, intermarried with the natives and by their industry
and economy generally prospered. About 750 of them were natural-
ized under the monarchy. The first importation of Chinese labourers
was in 1852. In 1878 the number of Chinese had risen to 5916.
During the next few years there was such a steady influx of Chinese
free immigrants that in the spring of 1881 the Hawaiian government
sent a despatch to the governor of Hong Kong to stop this invasion.
Again, in April 1883, it was suddenly renewed, and within twenty
days five steamers arrived from Hong Kong bringing 2253 Chinese
passengers, followed the next month by noo more, with the news
that several thousand more were ready to embark. Accordingly,
the Hawaiian government sent another despatch to the governor of
Hong Kong, refusing to permit any further immigration of male
Chinese from that port. Various regulations restricting Chinese
immigration were enacted from time to time, until in 1886 the
landing of any Chinese passenger without a passport was prohibited.
The number of Chinese in the islands had then risen to 21,000.
The consent of the Japanese government to the immigration of its
subjects to Hawaii was obtained with difficulty in 1884, and in 1886
a labour convention was ratified. Subsequently the increase of
the Japanese element in the population was rapid. It rose from 1 16
in 1884 to 12,360 in 1890 and 24,400 in 1896. Most of these were
recruited from the lowest classes in Japan. Unlike the Chinese, they
show no inclination to intermarry with the Hawaiians. The effect
of making Hawaii a Territory of the United States was to put an
end to all assisted immigration, of whatever race, and to exclude
all Chinese labourers. No Chinese labourer is allowed to enter any
other Territory of the Union from Hawaii; and the act of Congress
of the 26th of February 1885, " to prohibit the importation and
migration of foreigners and aliens under contract or agreement to
perform labour in the United States, its Territories and the District
of Columbia," and the amending and supplementary acts, are
extended to it. But in the treaty of 1894 between the United States
and Japan there is nothing to limit the free immigration of Japanese ;
and several companies have been formed to promote it. The system
of contract labour, which was abolished by the act of Congress in
1900, and under which labourers had been restrained from leaving
their work before the end of the contract term, concerned few
labourers except the Japanese. Various methods of co-operation
or profit-sharing are in successful operation on some plantations.

An interesting sociological problem is raised by the presence of
the large Asiatic element in the population. The Japanese and
Koreans, and in less measure the Chinese, act as domestic servants,
work under white contractors on irrigating ditches and reservoirs,
do most of the plantation labour and compete successfully with
whites and native islanders in all save skilled urban occupations,
such as printing and the manufacture of machinery. The ' Yellow

Peril " is considered less dangerous in Hawaii than formerly, although
it was used as a political cry in the campaign for American annexa-
tion. No success met the apparently well-meaning efforts of the
Central Japanese League which was organized in November and
December 1903 to promote the observance of law and order by the
Japanese in the islands, who assumed a too independent attitude and
felt themselves free from governmental control whether Japanese
or American; indeed, after the League had been in operation
for a year or more, it almost seemed that it contributed to industrial
disorders among the Japanese. At about the same time Japanese
immigration to Hawaii fell off upon the opening of now fields for
colonization by the Russo-Japanese War, and Korean immigration
was promoted by employers on the islands. From the first of
January 1903 to the 3Oth of June 1905 Japanese immigrants num-
bered 18,027; Koreans 7388 (four Koreans to every ten Japanese);
but in the last twelve months of this same period there were 4733
Koreans to 5941 Japanese (eight Koreans to every ten Japanese).
Another fact which is possibly contributing to the solution of the
problem is that the Japanese are leaving the islands in large numbers
as compared with the Koreans. The Japanese leaving Hawaii
between the I4th of June 1900 and the jist of December 1905
numbered 42,313, o: 4284 more than the number of Japanese
immigrants arriving during the same period. The corresponding
figures for Koreans during the same period are as follows: number
leaving between the I4th of June 1900 and the 3lst of December
1905, 721, or 6673 less than the Korean immigrants for the same
period. The acceleration of the departure of the Japanese is shown
by the fact that in the eighteen months (July 1904 to January 1906)
occurred 19,114 of the 42,313 departures in the sixty-six months
from July 1900 to January 1906.' After 1906, owing to restrictions
by the Japanese government, immigration to Hawaii greatly de-
creased. At the same time the number of departures was decreasing
rapidly. The change in the character of the immigration of Japanese
is shown by the fact that in the fiscal year 1906-1907 the ratio of
female immigrants to males was as I to 8, in the fiscal year 1907-
1908 it was as I to 2, and in the latter year, of 4593 births in the
Territory, 2445 were Japanese.

Administration. — The Hawaiian Islands are governed under
an Act of Congress, signed by the president on the 30th of April
1900, which first organized them as a Territory of the United
States. The legislature, which meets biennially at Honolulu,
consists of a Senate of 1 5 members holding office for four years,
and a House of Representatives of 30 members holding office
for two years. In order to vote for Representatives or Senators,
the elector must be a male citizen of the United States who has
attained the age of twenty-one years, has lived in the Territory
not less than one year preceding, and is able to speak, read and
write the English or Hawaiian language. No person is allowed
to vote by reason of being in or attached to the army or navy.
The executive power is vested in a governor, appointed by the
president and holding office for four years. He must not be
less than thirty-five years of age and must be a citizen of the
Territory. The secretary of the Territory is appointed in like
manner for a term of the same length. The governor appoints,
by and with the consent of the Senate of the Territory, an
attorney-general, treasurer, commissioner of public lands,
commissioner of agriculture and forestry, superintendent of
public works, superintendent of public instruction, commissioners
of public instruction, auditor and deputy-auditor, surveyor,
high sheriff, members of the board of health, board of prison
inspectors, board of registration, inspectors of election, &c.
All such officers are appointed for four years except the com-
missioners of public instruction and the members of the said

1 Large numbers of Japanese immigrants have used the Hawaiian
Islands merely as a means of gaining admission at the mainland
ports of the United States. For, as the Japanese government
would issue only a limited number of passports to the mainland but
would quite readily grant passports to Honolulu, the latter were
accepted, and after a short stay on some one of the islands the im-
migrants would depart on a " coastwise " voyage to some mainland
port. The increasing numbers arriving by this means, however,
provoked serious hostility in the Pacific coast states, especially in
San Francisco, and to remedy the difficulty Congress inserted a
clause in the general immigration act of the 2Oth of February 1907
which provides that whenever the president is satisfied that passports
issued by any foreign government to any other country than the
United States, or to any of its insular possessions, or to the Canal
Zone, " are being used for the purpose of enabling the holders to
come to the continental territory of the United States to the detri-
ment of labour conditions therein," he may refuse to admit them.
This provision has been successful in reducing the number of Japanese
coming to the mainland from Hawaii.

9°

HAWAII

boards, whose terms are as provided by the laws of the Territory ;
all must be citizens of the Territory. The judicial power is
vested in a supreme court, 5 circuit courts, and 29 district
courts, each having a jurisdiction corresponding to similar
courts in each state in the Union; and, entirely distinct from
these territorial courts, Hawaii has a United States district
court. A Supplementary Act of the 3rd of March 1905 provides
that writs of error and appeals may be taken from the Supreme
Court of Hawaii to the Supreme Court of the United States
" in all cases where the amount involved exclusive of costs or
value exceeds the sum of five thousand dollars." The Territory
was without the forms of local government common to the
United States until 1905, when the Territorial legislature divided
it into five counties1 without, however, giving to them the
usual powers of taxation. Each county has the following
officers: a board of supervisors, a clerk, a treasurer, an auditor,
an assessor and tax-collector, a sheriff and coroner, and an
attorney. The members (from five to nine) of the board of
supervisors are elected by districts into which the county is
divided, usually only one from each. All county officers are
elected for a term of two years. The act of 1900 provides for
the election of a delegate to Congress, and prescribes that the
delegate shall have the qualifications necessary for membership
in the Hawaiian Senate, and shall be elected by voters qualified
to vote for members of the House of Representatives of Hawaii.
As usual, the delegate has a right to take part in the debates in
the national House of Representatives, but may not vote.

Charities. — The principal public charity of the Territory is the leper
asylum on a peninsula almost 10 sq. ra. in area on the N. side of the
island of Molokai. A steep precipice forms a natural wall between
it and the rest of the island. The place became an asylum for lepers
and the caring for them began to be a charity under government
charge in 1866; but conditions here were at first unspeakably
unhygienic, their improvement being largely due to Father Damien,
who devoted himself to this work in 1873. The patients are almost
exclusively native Hawaiians, and their number is slowly but steadily
decreasing; in 1908 they numbered 791, and there were at Molokai
46 non-leprous helpers and 27 officers and assistants, including the
Roman Catholic brothers and sisters in charge of the homes. In
1905 the United States government appropriated $100,000 for a
hospital station and laboratory " for the study of the methods of
transmission, cause and treatment of leprosy," and $50,000 a year
for their maintenance; the station and laboratory to be established
when the territorial government should have ceded to the United
States a tract of I sq. m. on the leper reservation. The cession was
made soon afterward by the territorial government. In 1907-1908
a home for non-leprous boys of leprous parents was established at
Honolulu. Another public charity of Hawaii is the general free
dispensary maintained by the territorial government at Honolulu.

Education. — Education is universal, compulsory and free. Every
child between the ages of six and fifteen must attend either a public
school or a duly authorized private school. Consequently the per-
centage of illiteracy is extremely low. The school system is essenti-
ally American in its text -books and in its methods, thanks to the
foundations laid by American missionaries. Between 1820 and 1824
the missionaries taught about 2000 natives to read. Several im-
portant schools were founded before 1840, when the first written
laws were published. Among these was a law providing for com-
pulsory education, and decreeing that no illiterate born after the
beginning of Liholiho's reign should hold office, and that no illiterate
man or woman, born after the same date, could marry. The first
Hawaiian minister of public instruction was the Rev. William
Richards (1792-1847), who held office from 1843 to 1847, and was
followed by Richard Armstrong (1805-1860), an American Presby-
terian missionary, the father of General S. C. Armstrong. He laid
stress on the importance of manual and industrial training during
his term of office (1847-1855), and was succeeded by a board of
education (1855-1865), of which he was first president; then an
inspector-general of schools was appointed, Judge Abraham For-
nander being the first inspector; in 1896 an executive department
was created under a minister of public instruction and six com-

1 These are: the county of Hawaii, consisting of the island of the
same name; the county of Maui, including the islands of Maui,
Lanai and Kahoolawe, and the greater part of Molokai; the county
of Kalawao, being the leper settlement on Molokai; the city and
county of Honolulu (created from the former county of Oahu by
an act of 1907, which came into effect in 1909), consisting of the
island of Oahu and various small islands, of which the only ones of
any importance are the Midway Islands, 1232 m. from Honolulu,
a Pacific cable relay station and a post of the U.S. navy marines;
and the county of Kauai, including Kauai and Niihau islands.

missioners; in 1900 a superintendent of public instruction was
first appointed. English is by law the medium of instruction in all
schools, both public and private, although other languages may be
taught in addition. Formal instruction in Hawaiian ceased in 1898.
The schools are in session forty weeks during the year. In 1908 there
were 154 public schools with 18,564 pupils (27-06% of whom were
Japanese, 20-89% Hawaiian, I3'54% part Hawaiian, 18-72%
Portuguese and 10-63% Chinese) and 51 private schools with
4881 pupils. A normal school has been established at Honolulu,
with a practice school attached to it. The territorial legislature of
1907 established the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts of the
Territory of Hawaii, and also founded a public library. The Hono-
lulu high school does excellent work and has beautiful buildings and
grounds. The Lahainaluna Seminary on west Maui, founded in
1831 as a training school for teachers, furnishes instruction to
Hawaiian boys in agriculture, carpentry, printing and mechanical
drawing. The boys in the industrial school (1902) at Waialee,
on the island of Oahu, are taught useful trades. The teaching of
sewing in the public schools has met with great success, and a simple
form of the Swedish sloid was introduced into many of the schools
in 1894. Lace work was introduced into the public schools in 1903.
But the best industrial instruction is furnished by the independent
schools, among which the Kamehameha schools take the first place.
They were founded by Mrs Bernice Pauahi Bishop (1831-1884),
the last lineal descendant of Kamehameha I., who left her* extensive
landed estates in the hands of trustees for their support. They furnish
a good manual and technical training to Hawaiian boys and girls,
in addition to a primary and grammar school course of study, and
exert a strong religious influence. There are six boarding schools for
Hawaiian girls, supported by private resources. The most advanced
courses of study are offered by Oahu College, which occupies a
beautiful site near the beach just E. of Honolulu; it was founded
in 1841 as the Punahou School for missionaries' children, and was
chartered as Oahu College in 1852. It is well equipped with build-
ings and apparatus, and has an endowment of about 8300,000.

Finance. — The revenue of the Territory for the fiscal year ending
the 3Oth of June 1908 amounted to $2,669,748-32, of which
$640,051-42 was the proceeds of the tax on real estate, $635,265-81
was the proceeds of the tax on personal property ; and among the
larger of the remaining items were the income tax ($266,241-74),
waterworks ($141,898-04), public lands (sales, $37,585-75; revenue,
$122,541-71) and licences ($206,374-28). On the 3Oth of June 1908
the bonded debt of the Territory was $3,979,000; there was on hand
net cash, without floating debt, $677,648-48.

History. — The history of the islands before their discovery
by Captain James Cook, in 1778, is obscure.2 This famous
navigator, who named the islands in honour of the earl of Sand-
wich, was received by the natives with many demonstrations
of astonishment and delight; and offerings and prayers were
presented to him by their priest in one of the temples; and
though in the following year he was killed by a native when he
landed in Kealakekua Bay in Hawaii, his bones were preserved
by the priests and continued to receive offerings and homage
from the people until the abolition of idolatry. At the time of
Cook's visit the archipelago seems to have been divided into
three distinct kingdoms: Hawaii; Oahu and Maui; and Lanai
and Molokai. On the death of the chief who ruled Hawaii at
that time there succeeded one named Kamehameha (1736-1819),
who appears to have been a man of quick perception and great
force of character. When Vancouver visited the islands in 1792,
he left sheep and neat cattle,3 protected by a ten years' taboo,
and laid down the keel of a European ship for Kamehameha.
Ten or twelve years later Kamehameha had 20 vessels (of 25
to 50 tons), which traded among the islands. He afterwards
purchased others from foreigners. Having encouraged a warlike
spirit in his people and having introduced firearms, Kamehameha
attacked and overcame the chiefs of the other kingdoms one after
another, until (in 1795) he became undisputed master of the whole
group. He made John Young (c. 1775-1835) and Isaac Davis,
Americans from one of the ships of Captain Metcalf which visited
the island in 1789, his advisers, encouraged trade with foreigners,

2 Their discovery in the i6th century (in 1542 or 1555 by Juan
Gaetan, or in 1528 when two of the vessels of Alvaro de Saavedra
were shipwrecked here and the captain of one, with his sister, sur-
vived and intermarried with the natives) seems probable, because
there are traces of Spanish customs in the islands; and they are
marked in their correct latitude on an English chart of 1687, which
is apparently based on Spanish maps; a later Spanish chart (1743)
gives a group of islands 10° E. of the true position of the Hawaiian
Islands.

• The first horses were left by Captain R. J. Cleveland in 1803.

HAWAII

and derived from its profits a large increase of revenue as well
as the means of consolidating his power. He died in 1819, and
was succeeded by his son, Lilohilo, or Kamehameha II., a mild
and well-disposed prince, but destitute of his father's energy.
One of the first acts of Kamehameha II. was, for vicious and
selfish reasons, to abolish taboo and idolatry throughout the
islands. Some disturbances were caused thereby, but the
insurgents were defeated.

On the 3ist of March 1820 missionaries of the American Board
of Commissioners for Foreign Missions — two clergymen, two
teachers, a physician, a farmer, and a printer, each with his
wife — and three Hawaiians educated in the Cornwall (Con-
necticut) Foreign Missionary School, arrived from America
and began their labours at Honolulu. A short time afterwards
the British government presented a small schooner to the king,
and this afforded an opportunity for the Rev. William Ellis,
the well-known missionary, to visit Honolulu with a number
of Christian natives from the Society Islands. Finding the
language of the two groups nearly the same, Mr Ellis, who had
spent several years in the southern islands, was able to assist
the American missionaries in reducing the Hawaiian language
to a written form. In 1825 the ten commandments were recog-
nized by the king as the basis of a code of laws. In the years
1830-1845 the educational work of the American missionaries
was so successful that hardly a native was unable to read and
write. A law prohibiting drunkenness (1835) was followed in
1838 by a licence law and in 1839 by a law prohibiting the
importation of spirits and taxing wines fifty cents a gallon; in
1840 another prohibitory law was enacted; but licence laws
soon made the sale of liquor common. Missionary effort was
particularly fruitful in Hilo, where Titus Coan (1801-1882), sent
out in 1835 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions, worked in repeated revivals, induced most of his
church members to give up tobacco even, and received prior to
1880 more than 12,000 members into a church which became
self-supporting and sent missions to the Gilbert Islands and the
Marquesas. In 1823 Keopuolani, the king's mother, was baptized;
and on a single Sunday in 1838 Coan baptized 1705 converts at
Hilo. In 1864 the American Board withdrew its control of
evangelical work.

In 1824 the king and queen of the Hawaiian Islands paid a
visit to England, and both died there of measles. His successor,
Kamehameha III. ruled from 1825 to 1854. In 1839 Kame-
hameha III. signed a Bill of Rights and in 1840 he promulgated
the first constitution of the realm; in 1842 a code of laws was
proclaimed; by 1848 the feudal system of land tenure was
completely abolished; the first legislature met in 1845 and full
suffrage was granted in 1852, but in 1864 suffrage was restricted.
Progress was at times interrupted by the conduct of the officers
of foreign powers. On one occasion (July 1839) French officers
abrogated the laws (particularly against the importation of
liquor), dictated treaties, extorted $20,000 and by force of arms
procured privileges for Roman Catholic 1 priests in the country;
and at another time (February 1843) a British officer, Captain
Paulet of the " Carysfort," went so far as to take possession of
Oahu and establish a commission for its government. The act
of the British officer was disavowed by his superiors as soon as
known.

These incidents led to a representation on the part of the
native sovereign to the governments of Great Britain, France
and the United States, and the independence of the islands
(recognized by the United States in 1842) was recognized in
1844 by France and Great Britain. In 1844 John Ricord, an
American lawyer, became the first minister of foreign affairs.
A new constitution came into effect in 1852. It was the aim
of Kamehameha III. and his advisers to combine the native
and the foreign elements under one government; to make
the king the sovereign not of one race or class, but of all; and to
extend equal and impartial laws over all inhabitants of the

1 The first Roman Cathojic priests came in 1827 and were banished
in 1831, but returned in 1837. An edict of toleration in 1839 shortly
preceded the visit of the " Artemise."

country. Kamehameha IV. and his queen, Emma, ruled from
1855 to 1863 and were succeeded by his brother, Kamehameha
V., who died in 1872, and in whose reign a third (and a re-
actionary) constitution went into effect in 1864, by mere royal
proclamation. Lunalilor a grandson of Kamehameha I., was
king for two years, and in 1874, backed by American influence,
Kalakaua was elected his successor, in preference to Queen
Emma, a member of the Anglican Church and the candidate
of the pro-British party. Kalakaua considered residents of
European or American descent as alien invaders, and he aimed
to restore largely the ancient system of personal government,
under which he should have control of the public treasury. On
the 2nd of July 1878, and again on the I4th of August 1880,
he dismissed a ministry without assigning any reason, after
it had been triumphantly sustained by a test vote of the legis-
lature. On the latter occasion he appointed C. C. Moreno,
who had come to Honolulu in the interest of a Chinese steam-
ship company, as Premier and minister of foreign affairs. This
called forth the protest of the representatives of Great Britain,
France and the United States, and aroused such opposition
on the part of both the foreigners and the better class of natives
that the king was obliged, after four days of popular excitement,
to remove the obnoxious minister. During the king's absence
on a tour round the world in 1881, his sister, Mrs Lydia Dominis
(b. 1838), also styled Liliuokalani, acted as regent. After his
return the contest was renewed between the so-called National
party, which favoured absolution, and the Reform party, which
sought to establish parliamentary gcjvernment. The king took
an active part in the elections, and used his patronage to the
utmost to influence legislation. For three successive sessions
a majority of the legislature was composed of office-holders,
dependent on the favour of the executive. Among the measures
urged by the king and opposed by the Reform party were the
project of a ten-million dollar loan, chiefly for military purposes;
the removal of the prohibition of the sale of alcoholic liquor to
Hawaiians, which was carried in 1882; the licensing of the sale
of opium; the chartering of a lottery company; the licensing
of kahunas, or medicine men, &c. Systematic efforts were
made to turn the constitutional question into a race issue, and
the party cry was raised of " Hawaii for Hawaiians." Adroit
politicians flattered the king's vanity, defended his follies and
taught him how to violate the spirit of the constitution while
keeping the letter of the law. From 1882 till 1887 his prime
minister was Walter Murray Gibson (1823-1888), a singular and
romantic genius, a visionary adventurer and a shrewd politician,
who had been imprisoned by the Dutch government in Batavia
in 1852 on a charge of inciting insurrection in Sumatra, and had
arrived at Honolulu in 1861 with the intention of leading a
Mormon colony to the East Indies. To exalt his royal dignity,
which was lowered, he thought, by his being only an elected
king, Kalakaua caused himself to be crowned with imposing
ceremonies on the ninth anniversary of his election (Feb. 12,
1883).

Kalakaua was now no longer satisfied with being merely
king of Hawaii, but aspired to what was termed the " Primacy
of the Pacific." Accordingly Mr Gibson addressed a protest to
the great powers, deprecating any further annexation of the
islands of the Pacific Ocean, and claiming for Hawaii the ex-
clusive right " to assist them in improving their political and
social condition." In pursuance of this policy, two commissioners
were sent to the Gilbert Islands in 1883 to prepare the way for
a Hawaiian protectorate. On the 23rd of December 1886 Mr
J. E. Bush was commissioned as minister plenipotentiary to the
king of Samoa, the king of Tonga and the other independent
chiefs of Polynesia. He arrived in Samoa on the 3rd of January
1887, and remained there six months, during which time he
concluded a treaty of alliance with Malietoa, which was ratified
by his government. The " Explorer," a steamer of 170 tons,
which had been employed in the copra trade, was purchased for
$20,000, and refitted as a man-of-war, to form the " nest-egg "
of the future Hawaiian navy. She was renamed the " Kaim-
iloa," and was despatched to Samoa on the i7th of May 1887

HAWAII

to strengthen the hands of the embassy. As R. L. Stevenson
wrote: " The history of the ' Kaimiloa ' is a story of debauchery,
mutiny and waste of government property." At length the
intrigues of the Hawaiian embassy gave umbrage to the German
government, and it was deemed prudent to recall it to Honolulu
in July 1887. Meanwhile a reform league had been formed to
stop the prevailing misrule and extravagance; it was supported
by a volunteer military force, the " Honolulu Rifles." The
king carried through the legislature of 1886 a bill for an opium
licence, as well as a Loan Act, under which a million dollars were
borrowed in London. Under his influence the Hale Naua
Society was organized in 1886 for the spread of idolatry and
king-worship; and in the same year a "Board of Health"
was formed which revived the vicious practices of the kahunas
or medicine-men.

The king's acceptance of two bribes — one of $75,000 and
another of $80,000 for the assignment of an opium licence —
precipitated the revolution of 1887. An immense mass meeting
was held on the 30th of June, which sent a committee to the
king with specific demands for radical reforms. Finding himself
without support, he yielded without a struggle, dismissed his
ministry and signed a constitution on the 7th of July 1887,
revising that of 1864, and intended to put an end to personal
government and to make the cabinet responsible only to
the legislature; this was called the " bayonet constitution,"
because it was so largely the result of the show of force made by
the Honolulu Rifles. By its terms office-holders were made
ineligible for seats in the legislature, and no member of the
legislature could be appointed to any civil office under the
government during the term for which he had been elected.
The members of the Upper House, instead of being appointed
by the king tor life, were henceforth to be elected for terms of
six years by electors possessing a moderate property qualification.
The remainder of Kalakaua's reign teemed with intrigues
and conspiracies to restore autocratic rule. One of these
came to a head on the 3oth of July 1889, but this " Wilcox
rebellion," led by R. W. Wilcox, a half-breed, educated in
Italy, and a friend of the king and of his sister, was promptly
suppressed. Seven of the insurgents were killed and a large
number wounded. For his health the king visited California
in the United States cruiser " Charleston " in November 1890,
and died on the 2Oth of January 1891 in San Francisco. On
the zgth of January at noon his sister, the regent, took the oath
to maintain the constitution of 1887, and was proclaimed queen,
under the title of Liliuokalani.

The history of her reign shows that it was her constant purpose
to restore autocratic government. The legislative session of

1892, during which four changes of ministry took place, was
protracted to eight months chiefly by her determination to
carry through the opium and lottery bills and to have a pliable
cabinet. She had a new constitution drawn up, practically
providing for an absolute monarchy, and disfranchising a large
class of citizens who had voted since 1887; this constitution
(drawn up, so the royal party declared, in reply to a petition
signed by thousands of natives) she undertook to force on the
country after proroguing the legislature on the i4th of January

1893, but her ministers shrank from the responsibility of so
revolutionary an act, and with difficulty prevailed upon her to
postpone the execution of her design. An uprising similar to
that of 1887 declared the monarchy forfeited by its own act.
A third party proposed a regency during the minority of the
heir-apparent, Princess Kaiulani, but in her absence this scheme
found few supporters. A Committee of Safety was appointed
at a public meeting, which formed a provisional government
and reorganized the volunteer military companies, which had
been disbanded in 1890. Its leading spirits were the " Sons of
Missionaries " (as E. L. Godkin styled them), who were accused
of using their knowledge of local affairs and their inherited
prestige among the natives for private ends — of founding a
" Gospel Republic " which was actually a business enterprise.
The provisional government called a mass meeting of citizens,
which met on the afternoon of the 6th and ratified its action.

The United States steamer " Boston," which had unexpectedly
arrived from Hilo on the I4th, landed a small force on the
evening of the i6th, at the request of the United States minister,
Mr J. L. Stevens, and a committee of residents, to protect the
lives and property of American citizens in case of riot or in-
cendiarism. On the 1 7th the Committee of Safety took possession
of the government building, and issued a proclamation declaring
a monarchy to be abrogated, and establishing a provisional
government, to exist " until terms of union with the United
States of America shall have been negotiated and agreed upon."
Meanwhile two companies of volunteer troops arrived and
occupied the grounds. By the advice of her ministers, and to
avoid bloodshed, the queen surrendered under protest, in view
of the landing of United States troops, appealing to the govern-
ment of the United States to reinstate her in authority. A
treaty of annexation was negotiated with the United States
during the next month, just before the close of President
Benjamin Harrison's administration, but it was withdrawn
on the gth of March 1893 by President Harrison's successor,
President Cleveland, who then despatched James H. Blount
1837-1903) of Macon, Georgia, as commissioner paramount,
to investigate the situation in the Hawaiian Islands. On
receiving Blount's report to the effect that the revolution had
been accomplished by the aid of the United States minister
and by the landing of troops from the " Boston," President
Cleveland sent Albert Sydney Willis (1843-1897) of Kentucky
to Honolulu with secret instructions as United States minister.
Willis with much difficulty and delay obtained the queen's
promise to grant an amnesty, and made a formal demand on the
provisional government for her reinstatement on the igth of
December 1893. On the 23rd President Sanford B. Dole sent
a reply to Wiliis, declining to surrender the authority of the
provisional government to the deposed queen. The United
States Congress declared against any further intervention by
adopting on the 3 ist of May 1894 the Turpie Resolution. On the
3oth of May 1894 a convention was held to frame a constitution
for the republic of Hawaii, which was proclaimed on the ath of
July following, with S. B. Dole as its first president. Toward
the end of the same year a plot was formed to overthrow the
republic and to restore the monarchy. A cargo of arms and
ammunition from San Francisco was secretly landed at a point
near Honolulu, where a company of native royalists were
collected on the 6th of January 1895, intending to capture the
government buildings by surprise that night, with the aid of
their allies in the city. A premature encounter with a squad
of police alarmed the town and broke up their plans. There
were several other skirmishes during the following week, resulting
in the capture of the leading conspirators, with most of their
followers. The ex-queen, on whose premises arms and am-
munition and a number of incriminating documents were
found, was arrested and was imprisoned for nine months in the
former palace. On the 24th of January 1895 she formally
renounced all claim to the throne and took the oath of allegiance
to the republic. The ex-queen and forty-eight others were
granted conditional pardon on the 7th of September, and on
the following New Year's Day the remaining prisoners were
set at liberty.

On the inauguration of President McKinley, in March 1897,
negotiations with the United States were resumed, and on the
1 6th of June a new treaty of annexation was signed at Washington.
As its ratification by the Senate had appeared to be uncertain,
extreme measures were taken: the Newlands joint resolution,
by which the cession was "accepted, ratified and confirmed,"
was passed by the Senate by a vote of 42 to 21 and by the
House of Representatives by a vote of 209 to 91, and was
signed by the president on the 7th of July 1898. The formal
transfer of sovereignty took place on the i2th of August 1898,
when the flag of the United States (the same flag hauled down
by order of Commissioner Blount) was raised over the Executive
Building with impressive ceremonies.

The sovereigns of the monarchy, the president of the republic
and the governors of the Territory up to 1910 were as follows:

HAWARDEN— HAWES, STEPHEN

93

Sovereigns: Kamehameha I., 1795-1819; Kamehameha II.,
1819-1824; Kaahumanu (regent), 1824-1832; Kamehameha
III., 1832-1854; Kamehameha IV., 1855-1863; Kamehameha
V., 1863-1872; Lunalilo, 1873-1874; Kalakaua, 1874-1891;
Liliuokalani, 1891-1893. President: Sanford B. Dole, 1893-
1898. Governors: S. B. Dole, 1898-1904; George R. Carter,
1904-1907; W. F. Frear, 1907.

AUTHORITIES. — Consult the bibliography in Adolf Marcuse, Die
hawaiischen Inseln (Berlin, 1894); A. P. C. Griffen, List of Books
relating to Hawaii (Washington, 1898); C. E. Dutton, Hawaiian
Volcanoes, in the fourth annual report of the United States Geological
Survey (Washington, 1884); J. D. Dana, Characteristics of Volcanoes
with Contribution of Facts and Principles from the Hawaiian Islands
(New York, 1890); W. H. Pickering, Lunar and Hawaiian Physical
Features compared (1906) ; C. H. Hitchcock, Hawaii and its Volcanoes
(Honolulu, 1909); Augustin Kramer, Hawaii, Ostmikronesien
und Samoa (Stuttgart, 1906); Sharp, Fauna (London, 1899);
Walter Maxwell, Lavas and Soils of the Hawaiian Islands
(Honolulu, 1898); W. Hillebrand, Flora of the Hawaiian Islands
(London, 1888); G. P. Wilder, Fruits of the Hawaiian Islands
(3 vols., Honolulu, 1907); H. W. Henshaw, Birds of the Hawaiian
Islands (Washington, 1902); A. Fornander, Account of the Poly-
nesian Race and the Ancient History of the Hawaiian People to the
Times of Kamehameha I. (3 vols., London, 1878-1885); W. D.
Alexander, A Brief History of the Hawaiian People (New York,
1899) ; C. H.Forbes-Lindsay, American Insular Possessions (Phila-
delphia, 1906) ; Jos6 de Olivares, Our Islands and their People (New
York, 1899); J. A. Owen, Story of Hawaii (London, 1898); E. J.
Carpenter, America in Hawaii (Boston, 1899); W. F. Blackman,
The Making of Hawaii, a Study in Social Evolution (New York,
1899), with bibliography; T. G. Thrum, Hawaiian Almanac and
Annual (Honolulu); Lucien Young, The Real Hawaii (New York,
1899), written by a lieutenant of the " Boston," an ardent defender
of Stevens; Liliuokalani, Hawaii's Story (Boston, 1898); C. T.
Rodgers, Education in the Hawaiian Islands (Honolulu, 1897);
Henry E. Chambers, Constitutional History of Hawaii (Baltimore,
1896), in Johns Hopkins University Studies; W. Ellis, Tour Around
Hawaii (London, 1829); J. J. Jarves, History of the Sandwich Islands
(Honolulu, 1847); H. Bingham, A Residence of Twenty-one Years
in the Sandwich Islands (Hartford, 1848); Isabella Bird, Six Months
in the Sandwich Islands (New York, 1881); Adolf Bastian, Zur
Kenntnis Hawaiis (Berlin, 1883) ; the annual Reports of the governor
of Hawaii, of the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, of the
Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Experiment Station, of the Board of
Commissioners on Agriculture and Forestry, and of the Hawaii
Promotion Committee; and the Papers of the Hawaiian Historical
Society.

HAWARDEN (pronounced Harden, Welsh Penarldg), a
market-town of Flintshire, North Wales, 6 m. W. of Chester,
on a height commanding an extensive prospect; connected
by a branch with the London & North- Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 5372. It lies in a coal district, with clay beds near.
Coarse earthenware, draining tiles and fire-clay bricks are the
chief manufactures. The Maudes take the title of viscount
from the town. Hawarden castle— built in 1752, added to and
altered in the Gothic style in 1814 — stands in a fine wooded
park near the old castle of the same name, which William the
Conqueror gave to his nephew, Hugh Lupus. It was taken in
1282 by Dafydd, brother of Llewelyn, prince of Wales, destroyed
by the Parliamentarians in the Civil War, and came into the
possession of Sergeant Glynne, lord chief justice of England
under Cromwell. The last baronet, Sir Stephen R. Glynne,
dying in 1874, Castell Penarlag passed to his brother-in-law,
William Ewart Gladstone. St Deiniol church, early English,
was restored in 1857 and 1878. There are also a grammar
school (1606), a Gladstone golden-wedding fountain (1889), and
St Deiniol's Hostel (with accommodation for students and an
Anglican clerical warden); west of the church, on Truman's
hill, is an old British camp.

HAWAWIR (HAUHAUIN), an African tribe of Semitic origin,
dwelling in the Bayuda desert, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. They
are found along the road from Debba to Khartum as far as
Bir Gamr, and from Ambigol to Wadi Bishara. They have
adopted none of the negro customs, such as gashing the cheeks
or elaborate hairdressing. They own large herds of oxen, sheep
and camels.

HAWEIS, HUGH REGINALD (1838-1901), English preacher
and writer, was born at Egham, Surrey, on the 3rd of April
1838. On leaving Trinity College, Cambridge, he travelled in

Italy and served under Garibaldi in 1860. On his return to-
England he was ordained and held various curacies in London,
becoming in 1866 incumbent of St James's, Marylebone. His
unconventional methods of conducting the service, combined
with his dwarfish figure and lively manner, soon attracted
crowded congregations. He married Miss M. E. Joy in 1866,
and both he and Mrs Haweis (d. 1898) contributed largely to
periodical literature and travelled a good deal abroad. Haweis
was Lowell lecturer at Boston, U.S.A., in 1885, and represented
the Anglican Church at the Chicago Parliament of Religions in
1893. He was much interested in music, and wrote books on
violins and church bells, besides contributing an article to the
gth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica on bell-ringing.
His best-known book was Music and Morals (3rd ed., 1873);
and for a time he was editor of Cassell's Magazine. He also
wrote five volumes on Christ and Christianity (a popular church
history, 1886-1887). Other writings include Trawl and Talk
(1896), and similar chatty and entertaining books. He died on
the 29th of January 1901.

HAWES, STEPHEN (fl. 1502-1521), English poet, was probably
a native of Suffolk, and, if his own statement of his age may be
trusted, was born about 1474. He was educated at Oxford,
and travelled in England, Scotland and France. On his return
his various accomplishments, especially his " most excellent
vein " in poetry, procured him a place at court, He was groom
of the chamber to Henry VII. as early as 1502. He could repeat
by heart the works of most of the English poets, especially the
poems of John Lydgate, whom he called his master. He was
still living in 1521, when it is stated in Henry VIII. 's household
accounts that £6, 135. 4d. was paid " to Mr Hawes for his
play," and he died before 1530, when Thomas Field, in his
" Conversation between a Lover and a Jay," wrote " Yong
Steven Hawse, whose soule God pardon, Treated of love so
clerkly and well." His capital work is The Passetyme of Pleasure,
or the History of Graunde Amour and la Bel Pucel, conteining
the knowledge of the Seven Sciences and the Course of Man's Life
in this Worlde, printed by Wynkyn de Worde, 1509, but finished
three years earlier. It was also printed with slightly varying
titles by the same printer in 1517, by J. Wayland in 1554, by
Richard Tottel and by John Waley in 1555. Tottel's edition
was edited by T. Wright and reprinted by the Percy Society
in 1845. The poem is a long allegory in seven-lined stanzas of
man's life in this world. It is divided into sections after the
manner of the Morte Arthur and borrows the machinery of
romance. Its main motive is the education of the knight,
Graunde Amour, based, according to Mr W. J. Courthope
{Hist, of Eng. Poetry, vol. i. 382), on the Marriage of Mercury and
Philology, by Martianus Capella, and the details of the description
prove Hawes to have been well acquainted with medieval systems
of philosophy. At the suggestion of Fame, and accompanied
by her two greyhounds, Grace and Governance, Graunde Amour
starts out in quest of La Bel Pucel. He first visits the Tower of •
Doctrine or Science where he acquaints himself with the arts of
grammar, logic, rhetoric and arithmetic. After a long dis-
putation with the lady in the Tower of Music he returns to his
studies, and after sojourns at the Tower of Geometry, the Tower
of Doctrine, the Castle of Chivalry, &c., he arrives at the Castle
of La Bel Pucel, where he is met by Peace, Mercy, Justice,
Reason and Memory. His happy marriage does not end the
story, which goes on to tell of the oncoming of Age, with the
concomitant evils of Avarice and Cunning. The admonition
of Death brings Contrition and Conscience, and it is only when
Remembraunce has delivered an epitaph chiefly dealing with
the Seven Deadly Sins, and Fame has enrolled Graunde Amour's
name with the knights of antiquity, that we are allowed to part
with the hero. This long imaginative poem was widely read
and esteemed, and certainly exercised an influence on the genius
of Spenser.

The remaining works of Hawes are all of them bibliographical
rarities. The Conversyon of Swerers (1509) and A Joyfull Medy-
tacyon to all Englonde, a coronation poem (1509), was edited by
David Laing for the Abbotsford Club (Edinburgh, 1865). A

94

HA WES, WILLIAM— HAWK

Compendyous Story . . . called the Example of Vertu (pr. 1512) and
the Comfort of Lovers (not dated) complete the list of his extant
work.

See also G. Saintsbury, The Flourishing of Romance and the Rise of
Allegory (Edin. and Lond., 1897) ; the same writer's Hist, of English
Prosody (vol. i. 1906); and an article by W. Murison in the Cam-
bridge History of English Literature (vol. ii. 1908).

HAWES, WILLIAM (1785-1846), English musician, was born
in London in 1785, and was for eight years (1793-1801) a chorister
of the Chapel Royal, where he. studied music chiefly under Dr
Ayrton. He subsequently held various musical posts, being in
1817 appointed master of the children of the Chapel Royal.
He also carried on the business of a music publisher, and was
for many years musical director of the Lyceum theatre, then
devoted to English opera. In the last-named capacity (July
23rd, 1824), he introduced Weber's Der Freischiitz for the first
time in England, at first slightly curtailed, but soon afterwards
in its entirety. Winter's Interrupted Sacrifice, Mozart's Cosi
fan tulle, Marschner's Vampyre and other important works
were also brought out under his auspices. Hawes also wrote
or compiled the music for numerous pieces. Better were his
glees and madrigals, of which he published several collections.
He also superintended a new edition of the celebrated Triumph
of Oriana. He died on the i8th of February 1846.

HAWFINCH, a bird so called from the belief that the fruit
of the hawthorn (Crataegus Oxyacantha) forms its chief food,
the Loxia coccolhraustes of Linnaeus, and the Coccothraustes
vulgaris of modern ornithologists, one of the largest of the finch
family (Fringillidae), and found over nearly the whole of Europe,
in Africa north of the Atlas and in Asia from Palestine to Japan.
It was formerly thought to be only an autumnal or winter-
visitor to Britain, but later experience has proved that, though
there may very likely be an immigration in the fall of the year,
it breeds in nearly all the English counties to Yorkshire, and
abundantly in those nearest to London. In coloration it bears
some resemblance to a chaffinch, but its much larger size and
enormous beak make it easily recognizable, while on closer
inspection the singular bull-hook form of some of its wing-feathers
will be found to be very remarkable. Though not uncommonly
frequenting gardens and orchards, in which as well as in woods
it builds its nest, it is exceedingly shy in its habits, so as seldom
to afford opportunities for observation. (A. N.)

HAWICK, a municipal and police burgh of Roxburghshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1891), 19,204; (1901), 17,303. It is situated
at the confluence of the Slitrig (which flows through the town)
with the Teviot, 10 m. S.W. of Jedburgh by road and 52! m.
S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. The name
has been derived from the O. Eng. heaih-wic, " the village on the
flat meadow," or haga-wic, " the fenced-in dwelling," the Gadeni
being supposed to have had a settlement at this spot. Hawick is
a substantial and flourishing town, the prosperity of which dates
from the beginning of the igth century, its enterprise having
won for it the designation of " The Glasgow of the Borders."
The municipal buildings, which contain the free library and
reading-room, stand on the site of the old town hall. The
Buccleuch memorial hall, commemorating the 5th duke of
Buccleuch, contains the Science and Art Institute and a museum
rich in exhibits illustrating Border history. The Academy
furnishes both secondary and technical education. The only
church of historical interest is that of St Mary's, the third of
the name, built in 1763. The first church, believed to have been
founded by St Cuthbert (d. 687), was succeeded by one dedicated
in 1214, which was the scene of the seizure of Sir Alexander
Ramsay of Dalhousie in 1342 by Sir William Douglas. The
modern Episcopal church of St Cuthbert was designed by Sir
Gilbert Scott. The Moat or Moot hill at the south end of the
town — an earthen mound 30 ft. high and 300 ft. in circumference
— is conjectured to have been the place where formerly the court
of the manor met; though some authorities think it was a
primitive form of fortification. The Baron's Tower, founded in
11 55 by the Lovels, lords of Branxholm and Hawick, and after-
wards the residence of the Douglases of Drumlanrig, is said to
have been the only building that was not burned down during

the raid of Thomas Radcliffe, 3rd earl of Sussex, in April 1570.
At a later date it was the abode of Anne, duchess of Buccleuch
and Monmouth, after the execution of her husband, James,
duke of Monmouth in 1585, and finally became the Tower Hotel.
Bridges across the Teviot connect Hawick with the suburb of
Wilton, in which a public park has been laid out, and St Leonard's
Park and race-course are situated on the Common, 2 m. S.W.
The town is governed by a provost, bailies and council, and
unites with Selkirk and Galashiels (together known as the
Border burghs) to send a member to parliament. The leading
industries are the manufacture of hosiery, established in 1771,
and woollens, dating from 1830, including blankets, shepherd's
plaiding and tweeds. There are, besides, tanneries, dye works,
oil-works, saw-mills, iron-founding and engineering works,
quarries and nursery gardens. The markets for live stock and
grain are also important.

In 1537 Hawick received from Sir James Douglas of Drum-
lanrig a charter which was confirmed by the infant Queen Mary
in 1545, and remained in force until 1861, when the corporation
was reconstituted by act of parliament. Owing to its situation
Hawick was often imperilled by Border warfare and maraud-
ing freebooters. Sir Robert Umfraville (d. 1436), governor of
Berwick, burned it about 1417, and in 1562 the regent Moray
had to suppress the lawless with a strong hand. Neither of
the Jacobite risings aroused enthusiasm. In 1715 the dis-
contented Highlanders mutinied on the Common, 500 of them
abandoning their cause, and in 1745 Prince Charles Edward's
cavalry passed southward through the town. In 1514, the year
after the battle of Flodden, in which the burghers had suffered
severely, a number of young men surprised an English force at
Hornshole, a spot on the Teviot 2 m. below the town, routed
them and bore away their flag. This event is celebrated every
June in the ceremony of " Riding the Common " — in which a
facsimile of the captured pennon is carried in procession to the
accompaniment of a chorus " Teribus, ye Teri Odin," supposed
to be an invocation to Thor and Odin — a survival of Northum-
brian paganism. Two of the most eminent' natives of the burgh
were Dr Thomas Somerville (1741-1830), the historian, and James
Wilson (1805-1860), founder of the Economist newspaper and
the first financial member of the council for India.

Minto House, 5 m. N.E., is the seat of the earl of Minto. Denholm,
about midway between Hawick and Jedburgh, was the birthplace
of John Leyden the poet. The cottage in which Leyden was born
is now the property of the Edinburgh Border Counties Association,
and a monument to his memory has been erected in the centre of
Denholm green. Cavers, nearer Hawick, was once the home of
a branch of the Douglases, and it is said that in Cavers House are
still preserved the pennon that was borne before the Douglas at
the battle of Otterburn (Chevy Chase), and the gauntlets that were
then taken from the Percy (1388). Two m. S.W. of Hawick is the
massive peel of Goldielands — the " watch-tower of Branxholm," a
well-preserved typical Border stronghold. One mile beyond it,
occupying a commanding site on the left bank of the Teviot, stand?
Branxholm Castle, the Branksome Hall of The Lay of the Last
Minstrel, once owned by the Lovels, but since the middle of the I5th
century the property of the Scotts of Buccleuch, and up to 1756
the chief seat of the duke. It suffered repeatedly in English in-
vasions and was destroyed in 1570. It was rebuilt next year, the
peel, finished five years later, forming part of the modern mansion.
About 3 m. W. of Hawick, finely situated on high ground above
Harden Burn, a left-hand affluent of Borthwick Water, is Harden,
the home of Walter Scott (1550-1629), an ancestor of the novelist.

HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word,
cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, fiaf-, to hold,
cf. Lat. accipiter, from caper e), a word of somewhat indefinite
meaning, being often used to signify all diurnal birds-of-prey
which are neither vultures nor eagles, and again more exclusively
for those of the remainder which are not buzzards, falcons,
harriers or kites. Even with this restriction it is comprehensive
enough, and will include more than a hundred species, which have
been arrayed in genera varying in number from a dozen to above
a score, according to the fancy of the systematizer. Speaking
generally, hawks may be characterized by possessing compara-
tively short wings and long legs, a bill which begins to decurve
directly from the cere (or soft bare skin that covers its base),
and has the cutting edges of its maxilla (or upper mandible)

HAWKE, BARON

95

sinuated1 but never notched. To these may be added as
characters, structurally perhaps of less value, but in other
respects quite as important, that the sexes differ very greatly in
size, that in most species the irides are yellow, deepening with
age into orange or even red, and that the immature plumage is
almost invariably more or less striped or mottled with heart-
shaped spots beneath, while that of the adults is generally much
barred, though the old males have in many instances the breast
and belly quite free from markings. Nearly all are of small
or moderate size — the largest among them being the gos-hawk
(q.v.) and its immediate allies, and the male of the smallest,
Accipiter tinus, is not bigger than a song-thrush. They are all
birds of great boldness in attacking a quarry, but if foiled in
the first attempts they are apt to leave the pursuit. Thoroughly
arboreal in their habits, they seek their prey, chiefly consisting
of birds (though reptiles and small mammals are also taken),
among trees or bushes, patiently waiting for a victim to shew

European Sparrow-Hawk (Male and Female).

itself, and gliding upon it when it appears to be unwary with a
rapid swoop, clutching it in their talons, and bearing it away to
eat it in some convenient spot.

Systematic ornithologists differ as to the groups into which
the numerous forms known as hawks should be divided. There is
at the outset a difference of opinion as to the scientific name
which the largest and best known of these groups should bear—
some authors terming it Nisus, and others, who seem to have the
most justice on their side, Accipiter. In Europe there are two
species — first, A. nisus, the common sparrow-hawk, which has a
wide distribution from Ireland to Japan, extending also to
northern India, Egypt and Algeria, and secondly, A. brevipcs
(by some placed in the group Micronisus and by others called
an Astur), which only appears in the south-east and the adjoining
parts of Asia Minor and Persia. In North America the place of
the former is taken by two very distinct species, a small one,
A.fuscus, usually known in Canada and the United States as the
sharp-shinned hawk, and Stanley's or Cooper's hawk, A. cooperi
(by some placed in another genus, Cooperastur) , which is larger
and has not so northerly a range. In South America there are
four or five more, including A. tinus, before mentioned as the
smallest of all, while a species not much larger, A. minullus,
together with several others of greater size, inhabits South
Africa. Madagascar and its neighbouring islands have three
or four species sufficiently distinct, and India has A. badlus.
A good many more forms are found in south-eastern Asia,
in the Indo-Malay Archipelago, and in Australia three or four
species, of which A. cirrhocephalus most nearly represents the
sparrow-hawk of Europe and northern Asia, while A. radiatus
and A. approximans show some affinity to the gos-hawks (Astur)

1 In one form, Nisoides, which on that account has been generically
separated, they are said to be perfectly straight.

with which they are often classed. The differences between all
the forms above named and the much larger number here
unnamed are such as can be only appreciated by the specialist.
The so-called " sparrow-hawk " of New Zealand (Hieracidea)
does not belong to this group of birds at all, and by many
authors has been deemed akin to the falcons. For hawking
see FALCONRY. (A. N.)

HAWKE, EDWARD HAWKE, BARON (1705-1781), British
admiral, was the only son of Edward Hawke, a barrister. On
his mother's side he was the nephew of Colonel Martin Bladen
(1680-1746), a politician of some note, and was connected with
the family of Fairfax. Edward Hawke entered the navy on the
2oth of February 1720 and served the time required to qualify
him to hold a lieutenant's commission on the North American
and West Indian stations. Though he passed his examination
on the 2nd of June 1725, he was not appointed to a ship to act in
that rank till 1729, when he was named third lieutenant of the
" Portland " in the Channel. The continuance of peace allowed
him no opportunities of distinction, but he was fortunate in
obtaining promotion as commander of the " Wolf " sloop in
1733, and as post captain of the " Flamborough " (20) in 1734.
When war began with Spain in 1739, he served as captain of the
" Portland " (50) in the West Indies. His ship was old and rotten.
She nearly drowned her captain and crew, and was broken up
after she was paid off in 1742. In the following year Hawke was
appointed to the " Berwick " (70), a fine new vessel, and was
attached to the Mediterranean fleet then under the command
of Thomas Mathews. The " Berwick " was manned badly, and
suffered severely from sickness, but in the ill-managed battle of
Toulon on the nth of January 1744 Hawke gained great dis-
tinction by the spirit with which he fought his ship. The only
prize taken by the British fleet, the Spanish " Poder " (74),
surrendered to him, and though she was not kept by the admiral,
Hawke was not in any degree to blame for the loss of the only
trophy of the fight. His gallantry attracted the attention of
the king. There is a story that he was dismissed the service for
having left the line to engage the " Poder," and was restored
by the king's order. The legend grew not unnaturally out of the
confusing series of courts martial which arose out of the battle,
but it has no foundation. There is better reason to believe that
when at a later period the Admiralty intended to pass over
Hawke's name in a promotion of admirals, the king, George II.,
did insist that he should not be put on the retired list.

He had no further chance of making his energy and ability
known out of the ranks of his own profession, where they were
fully realized, till 1747. In July of that year he attained flag
rank, and was named second in command of the Channel fleet.
Owing to the ill health of his superior he was sent in command of
the fourteen ships detached to intercept a French convoy on its
way to the West Indies. On the i4th of October 1747 he fell in
with it in the Bay of Biscay. The French force, under M. Desher-
biers de 1'Etenduere, consisted of nine ships, which were, how-
ever, on the average larger than Hawke's. He attacked at once.
The French admiral sent one of his liners to escort the merchant
ships on their way to the West Indies, and with the other eight
fought a very gallant action with the British squadron. Six
of the eight French ships were taken. The French admiral did
for a time succeed in saving the trading vessels under his charge,
but most of them fell into the hands of the British cruisers in
the West Indies. Hawke was made a knight of the Bath for
this timely piece of service, a reward which cannot be said to
have been lavish.

In 1747 Hawke had been elected M.P. for Portsmouth, which
he continued to represent for thirty years, though he can seldom
have been in his place, and it does not appear that he often spoke.
A seat in parliament was always valuable to a naval officer at
that time, since it enabled him to be useful to ministers, and
increased his chances of obtaining employment. Hawke had
married a lady of fortune in Yorkshire, Catherine Brook, in 1737,
and was able to meet the expenses entailed by a seat in parlia-
ment, which were considerable at a time when votes were openly
«paid for by money down. In the interval between the war of

96

HAWKE, BARON

the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War, Hawke was
almost always on active service. From 1748 till 1752 he was
in command at home, and he rehoisted his flag in 1755 as admiral
in command of the Western Squadron. Although war was not
declared for some time, England and France were on very hostile
terms, and conflicts between the officers of the two powers in
America had already taken place. Neither government was
scrupulous in abstaining from the use of force while peace was
still nominally unbroken. Hawke was sent to sea to intercept a
French squadron which had been cruising near Gibraltar, but
a restriction was put on the limits within which he might cruise,
and he failed to meet the French. The fleet was much weakened
by ill-health. In June 1756 the news of John Byng's retreat
from Minorca reached England and aroused the utmost indigna-
tion. Hawke was at once sent out to relieve him in the Mediter-
ranean command, and to send him home for trial. He sailed
in the "Antelope," carrying, as the wits of the day put it, "a
cargo of courage " to supply deficiencies in that respect among
the officers then in the Mediterranean. Minorca had fallen,
from want of resources rather than the attacks of the French,
before he could do anything for the assistance of the garrison of
Fort St Philip. In winter he was recalled to England, and he
reached home on the I4th of January 1757. On the 24th of
February following he was promoted full admiral.

It is said, but on no very good authority, that he was not
on good terms with Pitt (afterwards earl of Chatham) , and it is
certain that when Pitt's great ministry was formed in June
1757, he was not included in the Board of Admiralty. Yet as
he was continued in command of important forces in the Channel,
it is obvious that his great capacity was fully recognized. In
the late summer of 1757 he was entrusted with the naval side
of an expedition to the coast of France. These operations,
which were scoffingly described at the time as breaking windows
with guineas, were a favourite device of Pitt's for weakening
the French and raising the confidence of the country. The
expedition of 1757 was directed against Rochefort, and it
effected nothing. Hawke, who probably expected very little
good from it, did his own work as admiral punctually, but he
cannot be said to have shown zeal, or any wish to inspirit the
military officers into making greater efforts than they were
disposed naturally to make. The expedition returned to Spit-
head by the 6th of October. No part of the disappointment of
the public, which was acute, was visited on Hawke. During
the end of 1757 and the beginning of 1758 he continued cruising
in the Channel in search of the French naval forces, without
any striking success. In May of that year he was ordered to
detach a squadron under the command of Howe to carry out
further combined operations. Hawke considered himself as
treated with a want of due respect, and was at the time in bad
humour with the Admiralty. He somewhat pettishly threw
up his command, but was induced to resume it by the board,
which knew his value, and was not wanting in flattery. He re-
tired in June for a time on the ground of health, but happily
for his own glory and the service of the country he was able to
hoist his flag in May 1759, the " wonderful year " of Garrick's
song.

France was then elaborating a scheme of invasion which bears
much resemblance to the plan afterwards formed by Napoleon.
An army of invasion was collected at the Morbihan in Brittany,
and the intention was to transport it under the protection of a
powerful fleet which was to be made up by uniting the squadron
at Brest with the ships at Toulon. The plan, like Napoleon's,
had slight chance of success, since the naval part of the invading
force must necessarily be brought together from distant points
at the risk of interruption by the British squadrons. The
naval forces of England were amply sufficient to provide what-
ever was needed to upset the plans of the French government.
But the country was not so confident in the capacity of the
navy to serve as a defence as it was taught to be in later genera-
tions. It had been seized by a most shameful panic at the
beginning of the war in face of a mere threat of invasion. There-
fore the anxiety of Pitt to baffle the schemes of the French

decisively was great, and the country looked on at the develop-
ment of the naval campaign with nervous attention. The
proposed combination of the French fleet was defeated by the
annihilation of the Toulon squadron on the coast of Portugal by
Boscawen in May, but the Brest fleet was still untouched and
the troops were still at Morbihan. It was the duty of Hawke
to prevent attack from this quarter. The manner in which he
discharged his task marks an epoch in the history of the navy.
Until his time, or very nearly so, it was still believed that there
was rashness in keeping the great ships out after September.
Hawke maintained his blockade of Brest till far into November.
Long cruises had always entailed much bad health on the crews,
but by the care he took to obtain fresh food, and the energy he
showed in pressing the Admiralty for stores, he was able to keep
his men healthy. Early in November a series of severe gales
forced him off the French coast, and he was compelled to anchor
in Torbay. His absence was brief, but it allowed the French
admiral, M. de Conflans (i69o?-i777), time to put to sea,
and to steer for the Morbihan. Hawke, who had left Torbay
on the ijth of November, learnt of the departure of the French
at sea on the i7th from a look-out ship, and as the French
admiral could have done nothing but steer for the Morbihan, he
followed him thither. The news that M. de Conflans had got to sea
spread a panic through the country, and for some days Hawke
was the object of abuse of the most irrational kind. There was
in fact no danger, for behind Hawke's fleet there were ample
reserves in the straits of Dover, and in the North Sea. Following
his enemy as fast as the bad weather, a mixture of calms and
head winds would allow, the admiral sighted the French about
40 m. to the west of Belleisle on the morning of the 2oth of
November. The British fleet was of twenty-one sail, the French
of twenty. There was also a small squadron of British ships
engaged in watching the Morbihan as an inshore squadron,
which was in danger of being cut off. M. de Conflans had a
sufficient force to fight in the open sea without rashness, but
after making a motion to give battle, he changed his mind and
gave the signal to his fleet to steer for the anchorage at Quiberon.
He did not believe that the British admiral would dare to follow
him, for the coast is one of the most dangerous in the world,
and the wind was blowing hard from the west and rising to a
storm. Hawke, however, pursued without hesitation, though
it was well on in the afternoon before he caught up the rear of
the French fleet, and dark by the time the two fleets were in the
bay. The action, which was more a test of seamanship than of
gunnery, or capacity to manoeuvre in order, ended in the destruc-
tion of the French. Five ships only were taken or destroyed,
but others ran ashore, and the French navy as a whole lost all
confidence. Two British vessels were lost, but the price was
little to pay for such a victory. No more fighting remained to be
done. The fleet in Quiberon Bay suffered from want of food,
and its distress is recorded in the lines: —

" Ere Hawke did bang
Mounseer Conflang

You sent us beef and beer;
Now Mounseer's beat
We've nought to eat,

Since you have nought to fear."

Hawke returned to England in January 1760 and had no
further service at sea. He was not made a peer till the 2oth of
May 1776, and then only as Baron Hawke of Towton. From
1776 to 1771 he was first lord of the Admiralty. His administra-
tion was much criticized, perhaps more from party spirit than
because of its real defects. Whatever his relations with Lord
Chatham may have been he was no favourite with Chatham's
partizans. It is very credible that, having spent all his life at
sea, his faculty did not show in the uncongenial life of the shore.
As an admiral at sea and on his own element Hawke has had
no superior. It is true that he was not put to the test of having
to meet opponents of equal strength and efficiency, but then
neither has any other British admiral since the Dutch wars of
the 1 7th century. On his death on the I7th of October 1781
his title passed to his son, Martin Bladen (1744-1805), and it is

HAWKER— HAWKESWORTH

97

still held by his descendants, the 7th Baron (b. 1860) being
best known as a great Yorkshire cricketer.

There is a portrait of Hawke in the Painted Hall at Greenwich.
His Life by Montagu Burrows (1883) has superseded all other
authorities; it is supplemented in a few early particulars by Sir
J. K. Laughton's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. (1891).

HAWKER, ROBERT STEPHEN (1803-1874), English anti-
quary and poet, was born at Stoke Damerel, Devonshire,
on the 3rd of December 1803. His father, Jacob Stephen
Hawker, was at that time a doctor, but afterwards curate and
vicar of Stratton, Cornwall. Robert was sent to Liskeard
grammar school, and when he was about sixteen was apprenticed
to a solicitor. He was soon removed to Cheltenham grammar
school, and in April 1823 matriculated at Pembroke College,
Oxford. In the same year he married Charlotte I'Ans, a lady
much older than himself. On returning to Oxford he migrated
to Magdalen Hall, where he graduated in 1828, having already
won the Newdigate prize for poetry in 1827. He became
vicar of Morwenstow, a village on the north Cornish coast,
in 1834. Hawker described the bulk of his parishioners as a
" mixed multitude of smugglers, wreckers and dissenters of
various hues." He was himself a high churchman, and carried
things with a high hand in his parish, but was much beloved
by his people. He was a man of great originality, and numerous
stories were told of his striking sayings and eccentric conduct.
He was the original of Mortimer Collins