an m THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH SIXTH SEVENTH EIGHTH NINTH TENTH ELEVENTH edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771- ten 1777—1784. eighteen 1788—1797. twenty 1801 — 1810. twenty 1815—1817. twenty 1823 — 1824. twenty-one 1830 — 1842. twenty-two 1853 — 1860. twenty-five 1875—1889. ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911* COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR. MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rtfhts reserved THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XIII HARMONY to HURSTMONCEAUX Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street IQIO •E3 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. E. G.* REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D. [ Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and J Harocu i • ,\ the Board of Philosophy, London University. Author of Studies in the Inner Life ] resy <* rart>- of Jesus, &c. A. D. HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. J Hogarth. See the biographical article, DOBSON, H. A. I A. E. T. W. ALFRED EDWARD THOMAS WATSON. f w ., , . Editor of the Badminton Library and Badminton Magazine. Formerly Editor J „ R K&cmS (tn part); of the Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News. Author of The Racing World and ] Hunting. its Inhabitants; &c. A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. J Hugo victor See the biographical article, SWINBURNE, A. C. I A. Cy. ARTHUR ERNEST COWLEY, M.A., LITT.D. f Hebrew Language; Sub-Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College. \ Hebrew Literature. A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. r Heath, Nicholas; Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls I Henry VIII. of England* College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- H rfnnn p- "u 1901. Lothian Prizeman (Oxford), 1892, Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England no°Pel> B'snop; under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. I Humphrey, Lawrence. A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. / Hofmann, Melchior; Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. I Hotman. A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D. , LITT.D., LL.D. Humboldt Karl W Von See the biographical article, SAYCE, A. H. \ A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. f ~ _ General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Hormuz (tn part). A. J. H. ALFRED J. HIPKINS, F.S.A. (1826-1903). , Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of the Royal College of Music, London. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, 1885; oM Harp (in part). the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of Musical I Instruments ; &c. A. L. ANDREW LANG. f Hauntings. See the biographical article, LANG, ANDREW. I A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. See the biographical article, CLERKE, A. M. A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED. Herschel, Sir F. W. (in part) ; Herschel, Sir J. F. W. (in part). Hevelius; Hipparchus; Horroeks; Huggins; Humboldt. Harpy; Harrier; Hawfinch; Hawk; Heron; Hoactzin; Honeyeater; Honey Guide; Hoopoe; Hornbill; . Humming-Bird. A. SI. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P. r Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of Industrial Efficiency; J Housing. The London Water Supply; Drink, Temperance and Legislation. A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Henry IV.: Roman Emperor; Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. •< Hide; Hohenzollern; [Honorius II.; Anti-Pope. A. W. W. ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D. f _ See the biographical article, WARD, A. W. \ Hrosvitna. C. A. M. F. CHARLES AUGUSTUS MAUDE FENNELL, M.A., LITT.D. [" Formerly Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge. Editor of Pindar's Odes and Frag- -I Hercules. mints ; and of the Stanford Dictionary of A nglicised Words and Phrases. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume. V VI C. B.« C. El. C. F. A. C. H. Ha. C. J. L. C. L. K. C. Mo. C. P. C. Pf. C. R. B. C. S. C. W. W. D. B. M. D. F. T. D. Gi. D. G. H. D. H. D. Mn. D. S.* E. C. B. E. D. B. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES CHARLES BEMONT, Lirr.D. (Oxon.). jHavet; See the biographical article, BEMONT, C. I Hozier. SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B, M.A., LL.D., D^C.L. ( Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Hissar (in part), Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East -4 Hungary: Language; Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; and Consul-General Huns. for German East Africa, 1900-1904. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. Hohenlohe (in part). Member 1 Honorius II., III., IV. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City, of the American Historical Association. SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.). Secretary Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of King s College, J _ London. Secretary to Government of India, Home Department, 1889-1894. 1 Hmdostam Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of Translations of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., F.S.A. Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor of Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London. WILLIAM COSMO MONKHOUSE. See the biographical article, MONKHOUSE, W. C. Henry IV., V., VI.: REV. CHARLES PRITCHARD, M.A. See the biographical article, PRITCHARD, CHARLES. | Hunt, W. Holman. f Hersehel, Sir F. W. (in part); I Hersehel, Sir J. F. W. L (in part). CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES-L. Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. of Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lnr. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Author of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. CARL SCHTJRZ, LL.D. See the biographical article, SCHURZ, CARL. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of Lord Clive; &c. DAVID BINNING MONRO, M.A., Lrrr.D. See the biographical article, MONRO, DAVID BINNING. Author j Hunald. Hayton; Henry the Navigator. | Hayes, Rutherford B. Hierapolis (in part). Homer DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The -I Harmony. Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. (_ SIR DAVID GILL, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., D.Sc. H.M. Astronomer at Cape of Good Hope, 1879-1907. Served in Geodetic Survey of Egypt, and on the expedition to Ascension Island to determine the Solar J Heliometer. Parallax by observations of Mars. Directed Geodetic Survey of Natal, Cape Colony i and Rhodesia. Author of Geodetic Survey of South Africa; Catalogues of Stars for the Equinoxes (1850, 1860, 1885, 1890, 1900); &c. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. Author of Short History of the Royal REV. PUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of Constructive Congregational Ideals; &c. DAVID SHARP, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.Z.S. Editor of the Zoological Record. Formerly Curator of Museum of Zoology, Univer- sity of Cambridge. President of Entomological Society of London. Author of " Insecta " (Cambridge Natural History); &c. RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.Lrrr. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius " in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi. EDWIN DAMPIER BRICKWOOD. Author of Boat-Racing ; &c. • Heraclea (in part); Hierapolis (in part); Hittites; Horus. f Heyn; Hood, Viscount; "I Howe, Earl; Humour. f Henderson, Alexander (_ (in part). f Hexapoda (in part). f Hieronymites; | Hilarion, Saint. f Horse: History; \Horse-Racing (in part). INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vii E. D. Bu. EDWARD DUNDAS BUTLER. Formerly Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Foreign J * ungary: Literature Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Author of Hungarian Poems and (in part). Fables for English Readers ; &c. E. E. S. ERNEST EDWARD SIKES, M.A. f Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer, St John's College, Cambridge. Newton Student at J Hephaestus; Athens, 1890. Editor of the Prometheus Vinctus of Aeschylus, and of The Homeric 1 Hera; Hermes. Hymns. E. F. S. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. C Assistant-Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of J Hiroshige; Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint-editor 1 Hokusai of Bell's " Cathedral Series. I E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. J Heroic Romances; See the biographical article, GOSSE, EDMUND, W. Heroic Verse; I Herrick; Holberg. Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.Lirr. (Oxon.), LL.D. f Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte S Hormizd. des Alterthums ; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens ; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme. {, E. M. W. REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A. J Herodotus (;*, *»ri\ Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. I E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, I Heart: Sttreerv Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner H wprnja in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. [ E. Pr. EDGAR PRESTAGE. f Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature at the University of Manchester. Com- I Herculano de Carvalho e mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon | Araiyo. Royal Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society. I E. Re.* EMIL REICH, Doc. JURIS., F.R.HisT.S. /Huiwarv- m*rni,,r, (;*, *n,t Author of Hungarian Literature ; History of Civilization ; &c. \ * 'Dgary ' Llterature (™ P« E. R. B. EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. f New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus; Jerusalem under the High 1 Hellenism. Priests. I F. B. FELICE BARNABEI, LITT.D. Formerly Director of Museum of Antiquities at Rome. Author of archaeological papers in Italian reviews and in the Athenaeum. F. C. C. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. (Giessen). f Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. \ Holy Water. Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magi? and Morals; &c. { F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f Heruli. Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. \ F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. f Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer oirj Heart- A t Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. 1 Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. L F. G. S. F. G. STEPHENS. f Formerly art critic of the Athenaeum. Author of Artists at Home; George Cruik- I jjoj] Frank. shank; Memorials of W. Mulready; French and Flemish Pictures; Sir E. Landseer;\ T. C. Hook, R.A.;&c. F. H. B. FRANCIS HENRY BUTLER, M.A. f Honey; Hunter, John; Worcester College, Oxford. Associate of the Royal School of Mines. \ Hunter, William. F. LL G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. r Heliopolis; Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey! iorrnec TVi«mo w of Bryan's Dictionary of Printers and Engravers. [ Humphry, Ozias. viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 0. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast. Author of The\ Henryson. Days of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots; &c. G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f Holland: History. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. J Holland: County and Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Associa- 1 tion of Literature. Province of. G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. f Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. President of the! * rniptera; Association of Economic Biologists. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Author] Hexapoda (in part). of Insects: their Structure and Life; &c. ' G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas for the Forests for the H Hundred. Selden Society. L G. K. GUSTAV KRUGER. f „=__„,„,, Professor of Church History in the University of Giessen. Author of Das'] llPP0'ylus- Papsitum; &c. G. R. REV. GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A. f Herodotus (in part). See the biographical article, RAWLINSON, GEORGE. I G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. f Hasan-ul-Basn£ Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old 1 Hassan ibn Thablt; Testament Histony at Mansfield College, Oxford. [ Hisham ibn al-Kalbi. H. LORD HOUGHTON. /Hood, Thomas. See the biographical article, HOUGHTON, IST BARON. H. Br. HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D. J Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the British Academy. ] Holland. Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making of English; &c. H. Bt. SIR HENRY BURDETT, K.C.B., K.C.V.O. f Founder and Editor of The Hospital. Formerly Superintendent of the Queen's J Hospital. Hospital, Birmingham, and the Seamen's Hospital, Greenwich. Author of 1 Hospitals and Asylums of the World; &c. H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition^ Howe' Samuel Gndley. of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. H. De. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. f Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta Bollandianai ena> 5t» * ert» st> and A eta sanctorum. H. L. HENRI LABROSSE. f Hugh of St Cher. Assistant Librarian at the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. iOfficer of the Academy. L H. L. C. HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D. J Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, Condon. Formerly Professor of "l Heat. Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. I H. M. V. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A. [ Henry, Stuart (Cardinal Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici Popes; 1 York) The Las: Stuart Queen. H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f Henry L» IL' IIL: Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, 1 °f England. _ 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. [ Henry of Huntingdon. H. W. R.* REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. I" Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J Hosea (in part). Oxford, IQOI. Author of Hebrew />-""'•-'•—- -'- D-I-I..'...- >„ «„.,;,•„„ ^ „<;..„>,„; — i (in Mansfield College Essays) ; &c. H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED. Correspondent of The Times at Vienna. Correspondent of The Times at Rome, *j Humbert, King. 1897-1902.- H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. f Hormuz (in part); See the biographical article, YuLE/-SlR H. |_ Hsiian Tsang (in part). 1. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f Hasdai ibn Shaprut; Reader in Talmudic "and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Herzl' Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short \ ,,.L c-mcnn n History of Jewish literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ; &c. I H rscn' aar J. A. C. SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G. /Hnhhpma- Hnlhcin See the biographical article, CROWE, SIR J. A. I H J. A. R. VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, D.D. f Dean of Westminster. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, and Norris- J. Hippolytus, The Canons Of. ian 'Professor of Divinity in the University. Author of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation; &c. J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. f Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's J Heating. College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of 1 Junior Engineers. Oxford, 15)01. ^Author^of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology^ INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix J. B. T. SIR JOHN BATTY TUKE, M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), D.Sc., LL.D. f President of the Neurological Society of the United Kingdom. Medical Director J «,„„ of New SaughtoA Hall Asylum, Edinburgh. M.P. for the Universities of Edinburgh 1 M'PP°crates. and St Andrews, 1900-1910. (_ J. Da. REV. JAMES DAVIES, M.A. (1820-1883). f Formerly Head Master of Ludlow Grammar School and Prebendary of Hereford J D j / Cathedral. Translated classical authors for Bohn's " Classical Library." Author 1 Hesloa U» part). of volumes in Collins's Ancient Classics for English Readers. J. E. H. JULIUS EGGELING, PH.D. f Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, University of Edinburgh. *! Hinduism. Formerly Secretary and Librarian to Royal Asiatic Society. J. F. F. JOHN FAITHFULL FLEET, C.I.E. f Commissioner of Central and Southern Divisions of Bombay, 1891-1897. Author •{ Hindu Chronology. of Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings ; &c. J. F. H. B. SIR JOHN FRANCIS HARPIN BROADBENT, BART., M.A., M.D. r Physician to Out-Patients, St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Hampstead n t. „ General Hospital. Assistant Physician to the London Fever Hospital. Author) e8rl> Heart Disease. of Heart Disease and Aneurysm; &c. J. G.* REV. JAMES Gow, M.A., LITT.D. /- Head Master of Westminster School. Fellow of King's College, London. Formerly I •» Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of Horace's Odes and Satires. Author 1 Horace (w part). of A Companion to the School Classics; &c. J. Ga. JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B. r See the biographical article, GAIRDNER, J. \ Henry VII.: of England. J. G. M. JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. (Edin.) f „ Emeritus Professor of Physiology at the University of Glasgow. Author of Life -| f in Motion ; Life of Helmholtz ; &c. \ Helmholtz. J. G. R. JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A. , PH.D. [Heine (in part); Professor of German at the University of London. Formerly Lecturer on the English -| Hildebrand Lay of- Language, Strassburg University. Author of History of German Literature; &c. Hoffmann *E T W J. Hn. JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. f Hecker, F. F. K.; Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of- Hertzberg Count Von' Das Rheinland unter der franzosischen Herrschaft. Hormavr J. H. A. H. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. /- Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. \ Herod; Herodians. J. H. F. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. r Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. -j Herald; Hesiod (in part). J. H. Mu. JOHN HENRY MUIRHEAD, M.A., LL.D. /• Professor of Philosophy in the University of Birmingham. Author of Elements \ HeSe!: Hegelianism in of Ethics; Philosophy and Life; &c. Editor of Library of Philosophy. 1 England. 3. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). r Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage andJ Here ward. Pedigree. 3. J. F. REV. JAMES J. Fox. ( St Thomas's College, Brookland, D.C., U.S.A. \ Hecker, I. T. J. K. L. SIR JOHN KNOX LAUGHTON, M.A., LITT.D. r Professor of Modern History, King's College, London, Secretary of the Navy Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in China, 1856-1850. Honorary Tr j Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow, King's College, London. ] Hood of Author of Physical Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing Winds and Currents; Studies in Naval History; Sea Fights and Adventures; &c. J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. r Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London J Heraclitus; College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. 1 Hume, David (in part). 3. P.-B. JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. r Editor of the Guardian (London). •! Hepplewhite. J. P. Pe. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. r Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to J Hillah; Hit. Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the \ Euphrates. 3. S. Co. JAMES SUTHERLAND COTTON, M.A. Editor of The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Hon. Secretary of the Egyptian Explora- tion Fund. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Queen's College, Oxford. Author 1 Hastings, Warren. of India in the " Citizen " Series; &c. J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in J Homfels. Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby ' Medallist of the Geological Society of London. L J. T. Be. JOHN T. BEALBY. Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical \ Hissar (in part). Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia, and Tibet; &c. \_ x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. f Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow J Op™,-,,,, of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in'the 1 University of Edinburgh and Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. I J. T. Mo. JOHN TORREY MORSE, Jr. / Author of The Life and Letters of Oliver Wendell Holmes. \ Uo™es, Oliver Wendell. J. T. S.* JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. f Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. \ J. V.* JULES VIARD. f Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public Instruction. Author T Hundred Years' War. of La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois ; &c. I J. V. B. JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews). fHphrPW<: PnktiA tn «,». Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic \ '. Age; &c. L Hennas, Shepherd of. J. Ws. JOHN WEATHERS, F.R.H.S. f „.„ Lecturer on Horticulture to the Middlesex Countv Council. Author of Practical\ Guide to Garden Plants; French Market Gardening; &c. I Horticulture U« part). J. W.* JAMES WARD, D.Sc., LL.D. C Professor^of Mental Philosophy and Logic in the University of Cambridge. Fellow J „ of Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of the 1 HerDart. New York Academy of Sciences. I J. W. F. J. WALTER FERRIER. r Translated George Eliot and Judaism from the German of Kaufmann. Author of -\ Heine (in tart) Mottiscliffe. J. W. Fo. THE HON. JOHN WATSON FOSTER, A.M., LL.D. (" Professor of American Diplomatics, George Washington University, Washington, -j Harrison, Benjamin. U.S.A. Formerly U.S. Secretary of State. Author of Diplomatic Memoirs; &c. I K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. f Harp ,(i* parJ} ' Editor of The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the \ mrP-Lute; Harpsichord; Orchestra. Holtztrompete; L Horn; Hurdy-Gurdy. L. H. B. LIBERTY HYDE BAILEY, LL.D. f H0rtif nitiirc- A Director of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University Chairman of Roosevelt 1 Commission on Country Life. I CofcWMf (in part). L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. r „ Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of I Harmotome; Hemimorphlte; Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralo- 1 Heulandite; Hornblende; gical Magazine. ^ Humite. L. W. LDCIEN WOLF. Vice-President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Formerly President ~] Hirsch, Baron, of the Society. Joint-editor of the Bibliotheca Anglo-judaica. I M. G. MOSES CASTER, Pn.D. (Leipzig). Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine -\ Hasdeu Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folk lore Society of England. Vice-President Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature; &c. [ M. Ha. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of " Protozoa " in Cam- •] Heliozoa. bridge Natural History; and papers for various scientific journals. M. H. C. MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, K.C., D.C.L. President of the Eugenics Education Society. Honorary Fellow, St John's College, Oxford. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Formerly Member of the General Council of 1 HerSChell 1st Baron, the Bar and of the Council of Legal Education, and Standing Counsel to the Univer- sity of Oxford. M. N. T. MARCUS NIEHBUR TOD, M.A. f Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. -I Helots. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI. C Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham \ Heraclius. University, 1905-1908. M. T. M. MAXWELL T. MASTERS, M.D., F.R.S. (1833-1907). r Formerly Editor of Gardeners' Chronicle; and Lectureron Botany, St George's Hos- HnrtinnHnro (• t\ pital, London. Author of Plant Life; Botany for Beginners; and numerous mono- 1 {ln part>- graphs in botanical works. N. D. M. NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. f Henry, Patrick; Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. J\ Homestead and Exemption [ Laws. 0. Ba. OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f Heraldry; Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the J Herbert: family; Honourable Society of the Baronetage. Howard: family 0. Br. OSCAR BRILIANT. f Hungary: Geography \ and Statistics. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi 0. C. W. REV. OWEN CHARLES WHITEHOUSE, M.A., D.D. [ Christ's College, Cambridge. Professor of Hebrew, Biblical Exegesis and Theology, i Hebrew Religion. and Theological Tutor, Cheshunt College, Cambridge. P. A. PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. [ Henry of Lausanne; Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole pratique des hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, J U,IO.K „• c* Paris. Author of Les Ue.es morales chez les heterodoxes Latines au debut du XIII" \ stick. I Humiliate. P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LLD. Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- Hpmiphnr- paratiye Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. ™ Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. Author of Outlines of \ "^realty. Biology; &c. P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. -f Hollo* Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England. \ 6S> P. H. PETER HENDERSON (1823-1800). _..-_„. f Horticulture: American Formerly Horticulturist, Jersey City and New York. Author of Gardening for~\ r , , /• Profit; Garden and Farm Topics. I Caltndar. (tit part). P. H. P.-S. PHILIP HENRY PYE-SMITH, M.D., F.R.S. f Consulting Physician to Guy's Hospital, London. Formerly Vice-Chancellor of the -j Harvey, William. University of London. Joint-author of A Text Book of Medicine; &c. I P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. f Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly I TT|IM«I«II«. r- ; of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 * alaya' «•*** Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. I R. A.* ROBERT ANCHEL f Herault de s6cneUes. Archivist to the Department de 1 Eure. L R. Ad. ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D. f „ _ See the biographical article, ADAMSON, R. \ Hume» David WB part). R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. (" St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- -! Hebron; Hor, Mt. tion Fund. R. A. W. ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E. Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimi- j „ _. „ . tation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirah Expeditionary nasa, fcl; Hejaz. Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895; &c. R. H. S. RICHARD HENRY STODDARD. f Hawthorne Nathaniel See the biographical article, STODDARD, RICHARD HENRY. |_ a R. L P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f Harvester; Hibernation. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \_ R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. (" Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's Hely-Hutehinson. Gazette, London. R. J. S. HON. ROBERT JOHN STRUTT, M.A., F.R.S. C Professor of Physics in the Imperial College of Science and Technology, South -J Helium. Kensington. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. R. K. D. SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. f Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum,] HsQan Tsang (in tart). and Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and ] Literature of China; &c. R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. [ Hedgehog; Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Hippopotamus' Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer ) „ of all Lands ; The Game Animals of Africa ; &c. L Horse W» *»*) J Howler. R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f Hopken; Horn, A. B., Count; Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the Hunparv HVc/n™ (i* Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs J. J ""g* „" 1611-172$; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 myaai, janos, toi796;&c. I Hunyadi, Laszl6. Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque I Hinemar Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens ; Recueil | R. Po. RENE POUPARDIN, D.-ES-L. Secretary of the Ecole Nationale, Paris. Author 01 Lie noyavme ue .rruverace suu* *cj t^urunngicns ; i^ecueit i des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c. L R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. f Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past 1 President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, -j House. London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.). r Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J 'Cl; Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville 1 Hirpini. and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. L R. S. T. RALPH STOCKMAN TARR. / Hudson River. Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University. L xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. W. ROBERT WALLACE, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.L.S. Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Carton Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C.,J Horse (in tart) Cirencester, 1882-1885. Author of Farm Live Stock of Great Britain; The Agricul-^ ture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming Industries of Cape Colony; &c. S. F. B. SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD, LL.D. f n See the biographical article, BAIRD, S. F. \ M inry' JosePn- S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, H t- fc. Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J * Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscrip- Hoshea. / ions ; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi ; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. f Holiday. Trinity College, Dublin. I T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.). f Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ I Heraelea (in part) ; Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of J Hispellum. the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. (" Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council I gieh Seas of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems | of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. I T. B.* THOMAS BROWN. f Hosierv Incorporated Weaving, Dyeing and Printing College, Glasgow. \ T. F. H. T. F. HENDERSON. f HAftlr__ Author of The Casket Letters and Mary Queen of Scots; Life of Robert Burns; &c. \ a 'er' T. Gi. THOMAS GILRAY M.A. f Henderson, Alexander Formerly Professoi of Modern History and English Literature, University College, J / . Dundee. [ (ln Part>- T. H. H.* COLONEL SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., HON. D.Sc. r Helmund- Herat- Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., J London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's] * Award; India; Tibet; &c. I Hindu Kush. T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc. f Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- H Hero 01 Alexandria, bridge. T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. r Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, J Hayward, Abraham; University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor H jjUKjjes Thomas of Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; joint-author of Bookman History of English Literature; &c. T. Wo. THOMAS WOODHOUSE. J" Hose-Pine Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. \ T. W. A. THOMAS WILLIAM ALLEN, M.A. / D_mo, /• A Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford. Joint-editor of The Homeric Hymns. \a r Un Part>- W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. r Hautes Alpes- Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's I Po_oavnio- College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature 1 and in History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1889. I Herzog, Hans. ,, . rHohenlohe (in part). W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. „ , AiiianpA Th«- Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, J * lce> l Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. Hononus I.; L Hungary: History (in part). W. Ba. WILLIAM BACKER, D.Pn. f TTJII.I Professor of Biblical Studies at the Rabbinical Seminary, Budapest. |_ W. Fr. WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1907). c „ Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of Edinburgh, and J I Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. [ Horse (in part). W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. r Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law at King's College, -I Homicide. London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (2yd ed.). W. G. H. WALTER GEORGE HEADLAM (1866-1908). Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Editor of Herodas. Translator of the plays J Herodas. of Aeschylus. W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f _ , . . See the biographical article, FLOWER, SIR W. H. \ * '' W. H. Ha. WILLIAM HENRY HADOW, M.A., Mus.Doc. f Principal, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Formerly Fellow and Tutor J of Worcester College, Oxford. Member of Council, Royal College of Music. Editor ] of Oxford History of Music. Author of Studies in Modern Music; &c. L INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Xlll W. L. G. W. M. R. W. P. J. W. R. Nl. W. R. S. W. R. S.-R. W. R. W. W. T. H. W. W. W. Wr. W. Y. S. 4 Haydon, Benjamin Robert WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in J Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council, Colonial | Series; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration). WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article, ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. WILLIAM PRICE JAMES. University College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. High Bailiff of County Courts, -\ Henley, W. E. Cardiff. Author of Romantic Professions ; &c. SIR WILLIAM ROBERTSON NICOLL, LL.D. See the biographical article, NICOLL, SIR W. R. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. See the biographical article, SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A. f Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Author of Russian -\ Hertzen. Folk Tales ;&c. WILLIAM ROBERT WORTHINGTON WILLIAMS, F.L.S. f Superintendent of London County Council Botany Centre. | Harris, Thomas Lake. Hosea (in part). in Botany, Birkbeck College (University of London). Association. Assistant Lecturer entre. Assistant Lecturer J HnrficiiltnrA (i~ A^.rt Member of the Geologists' 1 * ortlculture «• Part). Homoeopathy. WILLIAM TOD HELMUTH, M.D., LL.D. (d. 1901). Formerly Professor of Surgery and Dean of the Homoeopathic and Medical College and Hospital; New York. President of the Collins State Homoeopathic Hospital. Sometime' President of the American Institute of Homoeopathy and the New York State Homoeopathic Medical Society. Author of Treatise on Diphtheria; System of Surgery ; &c. WILLIAM WALLACE, LL.D. See the biographical article, WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897). WILLISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D. Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congrega- ~\ Hopkins, Samuel. tional Churches in the United States ; The Reformation ; John Calvin ; &c. WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D. See the biographical article, SELLAR, W. Y. Hegel (in part). ( -I Horace (in part). PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Harrow. Hartford. Hartlepool. Harvard University. Harz Mountains. Hat. Havana. Hawaii. Hazel. Health. Heath. Hebrides, The. Heidelberg Catechism. Heligoland. Heliostat. Hellebore. Helmet. Hemp. Herbarium. Herefordshire. Hero. Hertfordshire. Hesse. Hesse-Cassel. Hesse-Darmstadt. High Place. Highway. Hockey. Holly. Homily. Honduras. Hong-Kong. Hostage. Hottentots. Household, Royal. Hudson's Bay Company. Huntingdonshire. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XIII HARMONY (Gr. appovia, a concord of musical sounds, apfio^av to join; apuoviKr] (sc. rexy-q) meant the science or art of music, juowitcq being of wider significance), a combination of parts so that the effect should be aesthetically pleasing. In its earliest sense in English it is applied, in music, to a pleasing combination of musical sounds, but technically it is confined to the science of the combination of sounds of different pitch. I. Concord and Discord. — By means of harmony modern music has attained the dignity of an independent art. In ancient times, as at the present day among nations that have not come under the influence of European music, the harmonic sense was, if not altogether absent, at all events so obscure and undeveloped as to have no organizing power in the art. The formation by the Greeks of a scale substantially the same as that which has received our harmonic system shows a latent harmonic sense, but shows it in a form which positively excludes harmony as an artistic principle. The Greek perception of certain successions of sounds as concordant rests on a principle identifiable with the scientific basis of concord in simultaneous sounds. But the Greeks did not conceive of musical simultaneity as consisting of anything but identical sounds; and when they developed the practice of magadizing — i.e. singing in octaves — they did so because, while the difference between high and low voices was a source of pleasure, a note and its octave were then, as now, perceived to be in a certain sense identical. We will now start from this fundamental identity of the octave, and with it trace the genesis of other concords and discords; bearing in mind that the history of harmony is the history of artistic instincts and not a series of progressive scientific theories. The unisonous quality of octaves is easily explained when we examine the " harmonic series " of upper partials (see SOUND). Every musical sound, if of a timbre at all rich (and hence pre-eminently the human voice), contains some of these upper partials. Hence, if one voice produce a note which is an upper Ex. i.— The notes marked * are out of tune. •&" 9 IO II 12 partial of another note sung at the same time by another voice, the higher voice adds nothing new to the lower but only rein- forces what is already there. Moreover, the upper partials of the XIII. I higher voice will also coincide with some of the lower. Thus, if a note and its octave be sung together, the upper octave is itself No. 2 in the harmonic series of the lower, No. 2 of its own series is No. 4 of the lower, and its No. 3 is No. 6, and so on. The impression of identity thus produced is so strong that we often find among people unacquainted with music a firm conviction that a man is singing in unison with a boy or an instrument when he is really singing in the octave below. And even musical people find a difficulty in realizing more than a certain brightness and richness of single tone when a violinist plays octaves per- fectly in tune and with a strong emphasis on the lower notes. Doubling in octaves therefore never was and never will be a process of harmonization. Now if we take the case of one sound doubling another in the 1 2th, it will be seen that here, too, no real addition is made by the higher sound to the lower. The 1 2th is No. 3 of the harmonic series, No. 2 of the higher note will be No. 6 of the lower, No. 3 will be No. 9, and so on. But there is an important difference between the I2th and the octave. However much we alter the octave by transposition into other octaves, we never get anything but unison or octaves. Two notes two octaves apart are just as devoid of harmonic difference as a plain octave or unison. But, when we apply our principle of the identity of the octave to the 1 2th, we find that the removal of one of the notes by an octave may produce a combination in which there is a distinct harmonic element. If, for example, the lower note is raised by an octave so that the higher note is a fifth from it, No. 3 of the harmonic series of the higher note will not belong to the lower note at all. The sth is thus a combination of which the two notes are obviously different; and, moreover, the principle of the identity of octaves can now operate in a contrary direction and transfer this positive harmonic value of the sth to the 12th, so that we regard the i2th as a 5th plus an octave, instead of regarding the sth as a compressed 1 2th.1 At the same time, the relation between the two is quite close enough to give the sth much of the feeling of harmonic poverty and reduplication that characterizes the octave; and hence when medieval musicians 1 Musical intervals are reckoned numerically upwards along the degrees of the diatonic scales (described below). Intervals greater than an octave are called compound, and are referred to their simple forms, e.g. the I2th is a compound 5th. HARMONY doubled a melody in sths and octaves they believed themselves to be doing no more than extending and diversifying the means by which a melody might be sung in unison by different voices. How they came to prefer for this purpose the 4th to the sth seems puzzling when we consider that the 4th does not appear as a fundamental interval in the harmonic series until that series has passed beyond that part of it that maintains any relation to our musical ideas. But it was of course certain that they obtained the 4th as the inversion of the sth; and it is at least possible that the singers of lower voices found a peculiar pleasure in singing below higher voices in a position which they felt harmonically as that of a top part. That is to say, a bass, in singing a fourth below a tenor, would take pleasure in doubling in the octave an alto singing normally a 5th above the tenor.1 This should also, perhaps, be taken in connexion with the fact that the interval of the downward 4th is in melody the earliest that became settled. And it is worth noticing that, in any singing-class where polyphonic music is sung, there is a marked tendency among the more timid members to find their way into their part by a gentle humming which is generally a 4th below the nearest steady singers. The limited compass of voices soon caused modifications in the medieval parallelisms of 4ths and sths, and the introduction of independent ornaments into one or more of the voices increased to an extent which drew attention to other intervals. It was long, however, before the true criterion of concord and discord was attained; and at first the notion of concord was purely acoustic, that is to say, the ear was sensitive only to the difference in roughness and smoothness between combinations in them- selves. And even the modern researches of Helmholtz fail to represent classical and modern harmony, in so far as the pheno- mena of beats are quite independent of the contrapuntal nature of concord and discord which depends upon the melodic intelligi- bility of the motion of the parts. Beats give rise to a strong physical sense of discord akin to the painfulness of a flickering light (see SOUND). Accordingly, in the earliest experiments in harmony, the ear, in the absence of other criteria, attached much more importance to the purely acoustic roughness of beats than our ears under the experience of modern music. This, and the circumstance that the imperfect concords2 (the 3rds and 6ths) long remained out of tune owing to the incom- pleteness of the Pythagorean system of harmonic ratios, sufficiently explain the medieval treatment of these combinations as discords differing only in degree from the harshness of 2nds and 7ths. In the earliest attempts at really contrapuntal writing (the astonishing i3th- and I4th- century motets, in which voices are made to sing different melodies at once, with what seems to modern ears a total disregard of sound and sense) we find that the method consists in a kind of rough-hewing by which the concords of the octave, sth and 4th are provided at most of the strong accents, while the rest of the harmony is left to take care of itself. As the art advanced the imperfect concords began to be felt as different from the discords; but as their true nature appeared it brought with it such an increased sense of the harmonic poverty of octaves, sths and 4ths, as ended in a complete inversion of the earliest rules of harmony. The harmonic system of the later isth century, which cul- minated in the " golden age " of the 16th-century polyphony, may be described as follows: Imagine a flux of simultaneous inde- pendent melodies, so ordered as to form an artistic texture based not only on the variety of the melodies themselves, but also upon gradations between points of repose and points in which the roughness of sound is rendered interesting and beautiful by means of the clearness with which the melodic sense in each part indicates the convergence of all towards the next point of repose. The typical point of repose owes its effect not only to the acoustic smoothness of the combination, but to the fact that it actually 1 It is at least probable that this is one of the several rather obscure reasons for the peculiar instability of the 4th in modern harmony, which is not yet satisfactorily explained. 2 The perfect concords are the octave, unison, 5th and 4th. Other diatonic combinations, whether concords or discords, are called imperfect. consists of the essential elements present in the first five notes of the harmonic series. The major 3rd has thus in this- scheme asserted itself as a concord, and the fundamental principle of the identity of octaves produces the result that any combination of a bass note with a major 3rd and » perfect sth above it, at any distance, and with any amount of doubling, may constitute a concord available even as the final point of repose in the whole composition. And by degrees the major triad, with its major 3rd, became so familiar that a chord consisting of a bare sth, with or without an octave, was regarded rather as a skeleton triad without the 3rd than as a concord free from elements of imperfection. Again, the identity of the octave secured for the combination of a note with its minor 3rd and minor 6th a place among concords; because, whether so recognized by early theorists or not, it was certainly felt as an inversion of the major triad. The fact that its bass note is not the fundamental note (and therefore has a series of upper partials not compatible with- the higher notes) deprives it of the finality and perfection of the major triad, to which, however, its relationhsip is too near for it to be felt otherwise than as a concord. This sufficiently explains why the minor 6th ranks as a concord in music, though it is acoustically nearly Ex. 3. as rough as the discord of the minor 7th, and considerably rougher than that of the 7th note of the harmonic series, which has not become accepted in our musical system at all. But the major triad and its inversion are not the only concords that will be produced by our flux of melodies. From time to time this flux will arrest attention by producing a combination which, while it does not appeal to the ear as being a part of the harmonic chord of nature, yet contains in itself no elements not already present in the major triad. Theorists have in vain tried to find in " nature " a combination of a note with its minor 3rd and perfect sth; and so long as harmony was treated unhistori- cally and unscientifically as an a priori theory in which every chord must needs have a " root," the minor triad, together with nearly every other harmonic principle of any complexity, remained a mystery. But the minor triad, as an artistic and not purely acoustic phenomenon, is an inevitable thing. It has the character of a concord because of our intellectual percep- tion that it contains the same elements as the major triad; but its absence of connexion with the natural harmonic series deprives it of complete finality in the simple system of 16th-century harmony, and at the same time gives it a permanent contrast with the major triad; a contrast which is acoustically intensified by the fact that, though its intervals are in themselves as con- cordant as those of the major triad, their relative position produces decidedly rough combinations of "resultant tones." By the time cur flux of melodies had come to include the major and minor triads as concords, the notion of the independence of parts had become of such paramount importance as totally to revolutionize the medieval conception of the perfect concords. Fifths and octaves no longer formed an oasis in a desert of cacophony, but they assumed the character of concord so nearly approaching to unison that a pair of consecutive sths or octaves began to be increasingly felt as violating the independence of the parts. And thus it came about that in pure 16th-century counterpoint (as indeed at the present day whenever harmony and counterpoint are employed in their purest significance) consecutive sths and octaves are strictly forbidden. When we compare our laws of counterpoint with those of medieval discant (in which consecutive sths and octaves are the rule, while con- secutive 3rds and 6ths are strictly forbidden) we are sometimes tempted to think that the very nature of the human ear has changed. But it is now generally recognized that the process was throughout natural and inevitable, and the above account aims at showing that consecutive sths are forbidden by our harmonic system for the very reason which inculcated them in the system of the 1 2th century. II. Tonality. — As soon as the major and minor triad and their first inversions were well-defined entities, it became evident that HARMONY the successions of these concords and their alternations with discord involved principles at once larger and more subtle than those of mere difference in smoothness and artificiality. Not only was a major chord (or at least its skeleton) necessary for the final point of repose in a composition, but it could not itself sound final unless the concords as well as the discords before it showed a well-defined tendency towards it. This tendency was best realized when the penultimate concord had its fundamental note at the distance of a 5th or a 4th above or below that of the final chord. When the fundamental note of the penultimate chord is a 5th above or (what is the same thing) a 4th1 below that of the final chord, we have an " authentic " or " perfect " cadence, and the relation between the two chords is very clear. While the contrast between them is well marked, they have one note in common — for the root of the penultimate chord is the 5th of the final chord; and the statement of this common note, first as an octave or unison and then as a 5th, expresses the .first facts of harmony with a force which the major 3rds of the chords can only strengthen, while it also involves in the bass that melodic interval of the 4th or the 5th which is now known f^ j to be the germ of all melodic scales. The |p3 relation of the final note of a scale with its •=* upper 5th or lower 4th thus becomes a fundamental fact of complex harmonic significance — that is to say, of harmony modified by melody in so far as it concerns the succession of sounds as well as their simultaneous combination. In our modern key-system the final note of the scale is called the tonic, and the 5th above or 4th below it is the dominant. (In the i6th century the term " dominant " has this meaning only in the " authentic " modes other than the Phrygian, but as an aesthetic fact it is present in all music, though the theory here given would not have been intelligible to any composers before the iSth century). Another penultimate chord asserts itself as the converse of the dominant — namely, the chord of which the root is a 5th below or a 4th above the final. This chord has not that relationship to the final which the dominant chord shows, for its fundamental note is not in the harmonic series of the final. But the fundamental note of the final chord is in its harmonic series, and in fact stands to it as the dominant stands to the final. Thus the progression from subdominant, as it is called, to tonic, or final, forms a full close known as the " plagal cadence," second only in importance to the " perfect " f. . or " authentic cadence." In our modern EEj§E±ESii3 key-system these three chords, the tonic, the dominant and the subdominant, form a firm harmonic centre in reference to which all other chords are grouped. The tonic is the final in which everything ultimately resolves: the dominant stands on one side of it as a chord based on the note harmonically most closely related to the tonic, and the subdominant stands on the other side as the converse and opposite of the dominant, weaker than the dominant because not directly derived from the tonic. The other triads obtainable from the notes of the scale are all minor, and of less importance; and their relationship to each other and to the tonic is most definite when they are so grouped that their basses rise and fall in 4th and sths, because they then tend to imitate the relation- ship between tonic, dominant and subdominant. Ex.6. Tonic. Supertonic. Mediant. Sub- Dominant. Sub- dominant. mediant.1 Here are the six common chords of the diatonic scale. The triad on the yth degree or " leading-note " (B) is a discord, and is therefore not given here. Now, in the i6th century it was neither necessary nor desirable that chords should be grouped exclusively in this way. The relation between tonic, dominant and subdominant must necessarily appear at the final close, and in a lesser degree at The submediant is so-called because if the subdominant is taken a 5th below the tonic, the submediant will come midway between it and the tonic, as the_ mediant comes midway between tonic and dominant. subordinate points of repose; but, where no harmonies were dwelt on as stable and independent entities except the major and minor triads and their first inversions, a scheme in which these were confined to the illustration of their most elementary relationship would be intolerably monotonous. It is therefore neither surprising nor a sign of archaism that the tonality of modal music is from the modern point of view often very in- definite. On the contrary, the distinction between masterpieces and inferior works in the i6th century is nowhere more evident than in the expressive power of modal tonality, alike where it resembles and where it differs from modern. Nor is it too much to say that that expressive power is based on the modern sense of key, and that a description of modal tonality in terms of modern key will accurately represent the harmonic art of Palestrina and the other supreme masters, though it will have almost as little in common with 16th-century theory and inferior 16th- century practice as it has with modern custom. We must conceive modal harmony and tonality as a scheme in which voices move independently and melodiously in a scale capable of bearing the three chords of the tonic, dominant and sub- dominant, besides three other minor triads, but not under such restrictions of symmetrical rhythm and melodic design as will necessitate a confinement to schemes in which these three cardinal chords occupy a central position. The only stipulation is that the relationship of at least two cardinal chords shall appear at every full close. At other points the character and drift of the harmony is determined by quite a different principle — namely, that, the scale being conceived as indefinitely extended, the voices are agreed in selecting a particular section of it,the position of which determines not only the melodic character of each part but also the harmonic character of the whole, according to its greater or less remoteness from the scale in which major cardinal chords occupy a central position. Historically these modes were derived, with various errors and changes, from the purely melodic modes of the Greeks. Aesthetically they are systems of modern tonality adapted to conditions in which the range of harmony was the smallest possible, and the necessity for what we may conveniently call a clear and solid key-perspective incomparably slighter than that for variety within so narrow a range. We may thus regard modal harmony as an essentially modern scheme, presented to us in cross-sections of various degrees of obliquity, and modified at every close so as either to take us to a point of view in which we see the harmony sym- metrically (as in those modes2 of which the final chord is normally major, namely the Ionian, which is practically our major scale, the Mixolydian and the Lydian, which last is almost invariably turned into Ionian by the systematic flattening of its 4th degree) or else to transform the mode itself so that its own notes are flattened and sharpened into suitable final chords (as is necessary in those modes of which the triad on the final is normally minor, namely, the Dorian, Phrygian and Aeolian). In this way we may describe Mixolydian tonality as a harmonic scheme in which the keys of G major and C major are so combined that sometimes we feel that we are listening to harmony in C major that is disposed to overbalance towards the dominant, and sometimes that we are in G major with a pronounced leaning towards the subdominant. In the Dorian mode our sensations of tonality are more confused. We seem to be wandering through all the key-relationships of a minor tonic without defining anything, until at the final close the harmonies gather strength and bring us, perhaps with poetic surprise, to a close in D with a major chord. In the Phrygian mode the difficulty in forming the final close is such that classical Phrygian compositions actually end in what we feel to be a half-close, an impression which is by the great masters rendered perfectly artistic by the strong feeling that all such parts of the composition as do not owe their ex- pression to the variety and inconstancy of their harmonic drift are on the dominant of A minor. It cannot be too strongly insisted that the expression of modal music is a permanent artistic fact. Its refinements maybe crowded out by the later tonality, in which the much greater 2 See PLAIN SONG. 4 HARMONY Ex.?. Suspension. No. 8. Passing Note variety of fixed chords needs a much more rigid harmonic scheme to control it, but they can never be falsified. And when Beethoven in his last " Bagatelle " raises the 6th of a minor scale for the pleasure he takes in an unexpectedly bright major chord; or when, in the Incarnatus of his Mass in D, he makes a free use of the Dorian scale, he is actuated by precisely the same harmonic and aesthetic motives as those of the wonderful opening of Palestrina's eight-part Stabat Mater; just as in the Lydian figured chorale in his A minor Quartet he carries out the principle of harmonic variety, as produceable by an oblique melodic scale, with a thoroughness from which Palestrina himself would have shrunk. (We have noted that in 16th-century music the Lydian mode is almost invariably lonicized.) III. Modern Harmony and Tonality. — In the harmonic system of Palestrina only two kinds of discord are possible, namely, suspensions and passing-notes. The principle of the suspension is that while parts are moving from one concord to another one of the parts remains behind, so as to create a discord at the moment when the other parts proceed. The suspended part then goes on to its concordant note, which must lie on an adjacent (and in most cases a lower) degree of the scale. Passing-notes are produced transiently by the motion of a part up or down the scale while other parts remain stationary. The possibilities of these two devices can be worked out logically so as to produce combinations of extreme harshness. And, when combined with the rules which laid on the performers the responsibility for modifying the strict scale of the mode in order to form satis- factory closes and avoid melodic harshness, they some- times gave rise to combinations which the clearest artistic intellects of the i6th century perceived as incompatible with the modal style. For example, in a passage written thus J? ,u _ - ^ . _ F^t^ I I the singer of the lower ^ — 1 part would be obliged Ex- 9. d~ to flatten his B in [|(g|-0t minor Prelude in the first book of the Forty-eight to the slow movement of Brahms's G major String Quintet, Op. in. The effect of the remaining key-relationships involves contrasts between major and minor mode; but it is otherwise far less defined, since the primary tonic chord does not occupy a cardinal position in the second key. These key-relationships are most important from a minor tonic, as the change from minor to major is more vivid than the reverse change. The smoothest changes are those to " relative " minor, " relative " major (C to A minor; C minor to Et>); and mediant minor and sub- mediant major (C to E minor; C minor to At>). The change from major tonic to supertonic minor is extremely natural on a .small scale, i.e. within the compass of a single melody, as may be seen in countless openings of classical sonatas. But on a large scale the identity of primary dominant with secondary sub- dominant confuses the harmonic perspective, and accordingly in classical music the supertonic minor appears neither in the second subjects of first movements nor as the key for middle movements.1 But since the key-relationships of a minor tonic are at once more obscure harmonically and more vivid in con- trast, we find that the converse key-relationship of the flat 7th, though somewhat bold and archaic in effect on a small scale, has once or twice been given organic function on a large scale in classical movements of exceptionally fantastic character, of which the three great examples are the ghostly slow movement of Beethoven's D major Trio, Op. 70, No. i, the scherzo of his Ninth Symphony, and the finale of Brahms's D minor Violin Sonata (where, however, the C major theme soon passes per- manently into the more orthodox dominant minor). Thus far we have the set of key-relationships universally recognized since the major and minor modes were established, a relationship based entirely on the place of the primary tonic chord in the second key. It only remains for us to protest against the orthodox description of the five related keys as being the " relative " minor or major and the dominant and sub- dominant with their " relative " minors or majors; a conception which expresses the fallacious assumption that keys which are related to the same key are related to one another, and which thereby implies that all keys are equally related and that classical composers were fools. It cannot be too strongly insisted that there is no foundation for key-relationship except through a tonic, and that it is through the tonic that the most distant keys 1 Until Beethoven developed the resources for a wider scheme of key-contrasts, the only keys for second subjects of sonata-movements were the dominant (when the tonic was major) and the " relative " major or dominant minor (when the tonic was minor). A wider range was possible only in the irresponsible style of D. Scarlatti. have always been connected by every composer with a wide range of modulation, from Haydn to Brahms and (with due allowance for the conditions of his musical drama) Wagner. b. Indirect Relationships. — So strong is the indentity of the tonic in major and minor mode that Haydn and Mozart had no scruple in annexing, with certain reservations, the key-relation- ships of either as an addition to those of the other. The smooth- ness of Mozart's style makes him prefer to annex the key-relation- ships of the tonic minor (e.g. C major to Ab, the submediant of C minor), because the primary tonic note is in the second key, although its chord is transformed. His range of thought does not allow him to use these keys otherwise than episodically; but he certainly does not treat them as chaotically remote by confining them to rapid modulations in the development- portions of his movements. They occur characteristically as beautiful purple patches before or during his second subjects. Haydn, with his mastery of rational paradox, takes every opportunity, in his later works, of using all possible indirect key-relationships in the choice of key for slow movements and for the trios of minuets. By using them thus sectionally (i.e. so as not to involve the organic connecting links necessary for the complementary keys of second subjects) he gives himself a free hand; and he rather prefers those keys which are obtained by transforming the minor relationships of a major primary key (e.g. C to A major instead of A minor). These relationships are of great brilliance and also of some remoteness of effect, since the primary tonic note, as well as its chord, disappears entirely. Haydn also obtains extreme contrasts by changing both modes (e.g. C minor to A major, as in the G minor Quartet, Op. 72, No 6, where the slow movement is in E major), and indeed there is not one key-contrast known to Beethoven and Brahms which Haydn does not use with complete sense of its meaning, though his art admits it only as a surprise. Beethoven rationalized every step in the whole possible range of key-relationship by such harmonic means as are described in the article BEETHOVEN. Haydn's favourite key-relationships he used for the complementary key in first movements; and he at once discovered that the use of the major mediant as complementary key to a major tonic implied at all events just as much suggestion of the submediant major in the recapitula- tion as would not keep the latter half of the movement for too long out of the tonic. The converse is not the case, and where Beethoven uses the submediant major as complementary key in a major first movement he does not subsequently introduce the still more remote and brilliant mediant in the recapitulation. The function of the complementary key is that of contrast and vividness, so that if the key is to be remote it is as well that it should be brilliant rather than sombre; and accordingly the easier key-relationships obtainable through transforming the tonic into minor do not appear as complementary keys until Beethoven's latest and most subtle works, as the Quartet in Bb, Op. 130 (where we again note that the flat submediant of the exposition is temporarily answered by the flat mediant of the recapitulation). c. Artificial Key-relationships. — Early in the history of the minor mode it was discovered that the lower tetrachord could be very effectively and naturally altered so as to resemble the upper (thus producing the scale C Db Et[ F, G Ab Bit C). This produces a flat supertonic (the chord of which is generally pre- sented in its first inversion, and is known as the Neapolitan 6th. from its characteristic use in the works of the Neapolitan school which did so much to establish modern tonality) and its origin, as just described, often impels it to resolve on a major tonic chord. Consequently it exists in the minor mode as a pheno- menon not much more artificial than the mode itself; and although the keys it thus connects are extremely remote, and the effect of their connexion very surprising, the connexion is none the less real, whether from a major or a minor tonic, and is a crucial test of a composer's sense of key-perspective. Thus Philipp Emanuel Bach in a spirit of mere caprice puts the charming little slow movement of his D major Symphony into Eb and obliterates all real relationship by chaotic operatic HARMONY connecting links. Haydn's greatest pianoforte sonata (which, being probably his last, is of course No. i in most editions) is in Eb, and its slow movement is in Fl) major ( = Ft>). That key had already appeared, with surprising effect, in the wander- ings of the development of the first movement. No attempt is made to indicate its connexion with Eb; and the finale begins in Et», but its first bar is unharmonized and starts on the one note which most contradicts Ei; and least prepares the mind for Et». The immediate repetition of the opening phrase a step higher on the normal supertonic strikes the note which the, open- ing had contradicted, and thus shows its function in the main key without in the least degree explaining away the paradoxical effect of the key of the slow movement. Brahms's Violoncello Sonata Op. 99, is in F; a prominent episode in the development of the first movement is in E# minor ( = Gb), thus preparing the mind for the slow movement, which is in F$ major ( = Gt>), with a central episode in F minor. The scherzo is in F minor, and begins on the dominant. Thus if we play its first chord immedi- ately after the last chord of the slow movement we have exactly that extreme position of flat supertonic followed by dominant which is a favourite form of cadence in Wagner, who can even convey its meaning by its mere bass without any harmonies (Walkiire, Act 3, Scene 2:"Was jetzt du bist,das sage dir selbst"). Converse harmonic relationships are, as we have seen, always weaker than their direct forms. And thus the relation of C major to B major or minor (as shown in the central episode of the slow movement just mentioned) is rare. Still more rare is the obtain- ing of indirect artificial relationships, of which the episode in the first movement just mentioned is an illustration in so far as it enhances the effect of the slow movement, but is incon- clusive in so far as it is episodic. For with remote key-relation- ships everything depends upon whether they are used with what may be called cardinal function (like complementary keys) or not. Even a near key may occur in the course of wandering modula- tions without producing any effect of relationship at all, and this should always be borne in mind whenever we accumulate statistics from classical music. d. Contrary and Unconnected Keys. — There remain only two pairs of keys that classical music has not brought into connexion, a circumstance which has co-operated with the utter vagueness of orthodox theories on the subject to confirm the conventionally progressive critic in his conviction that all modulations are alike. We have seen how the effect of modulation from major tonic to minor supertonic is, on a large scale, obscured by the identity of the primary dominant with the secondary sub- dominant, though the one chord is major and the other minor. Now when the supertonic becomes major this difference no longer obviates the confusion, and modulation from C major to D major, though extremely easy, is of so bewildering effect that it is used by classical composers only in moments of intensely dramatic surprise, as, for example, in the recapitulation of the first subject of Beethoven's Eroica Symphony, and the last variation (or coda) cf the slow movement of his Trio in B\>, Op. 97. And in both cases the balance is restored by the converse (and equally if not more contradictory) modulation between major tonic and major fiat yth, though in the slow movement of the B\> Trio the latter is represented only by its dominant chord which is " enharmonically " resolved into quite another key. The frequent attempts made by easy-going innovators to treat these key-contrasts on another footing than that of paradox, dramatic surprise or hesitation, only show a deficient sense of tonality, which must also mean an inability to see the intensely powerful effect of the true use of such modulations in classical music, an effect which is entirely inde- pendent of any ability to formulate a theory to explain it.1 1 Many theorists mistake the usual extreme emphasis on the dominant chord of the dominant key, in preparation for second subjects, for a modulation to the major supertonic, but this can deceive no one with any sense of tonality. A good practical test is to see what becomes of such passages when translated into the minor mode. Illusory modulation to the flat yth frequently occurs as a bold method of throwing strong emphasis on to the subdominant at the outset of a movement, as in Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 31, No. I. There now remains only one pair of keys that have never been related, namely, those that (whether major or minor) are at the distance of a tritone 4th. In the first place they are unrelated because there is no means of putting any form of a tonic chord of F$ into any form of the key of C, or vice versa; and in the second place because it is impossible to tell which of two precisely opposite keys the second key may be (e.g. we have no means of knowing that a direct modulation from C to F$ is not from C to Gt>, which is exactly the same distance in the opposite direction) . And this brings us to the only remaining subjects of importance in the science and art of harmony, namely, those of the tempered scale, enharmonic ambiguity and just intonation. Before proceeding we subjoin a table of all the key-relationships from major and minor tonics, representing the degrees by capital Roman figures when the second key is major and small figures TABLES OF KEY-RELATIONSHIPS A. From Major Tonic — i — 1 1 1 Indirect through both i and the second key i ! Indirect, through i \ III> \{It \ Indirect through the second key HI Vl i i Doubly indirect through the farmer indirect keys Hi* Vik \ \ \ \ t Artificial, direct \ \ IH> \ VII & vfi Artificial, indirect* \ S I* \ \ \ \ Unrelated \i > !V\IVt& ivff-Vk &vk Contradictory 1 \, £ VII> & viib B. i From Minor Tonic * Direct Relationships III iv v VI V,II jt 1 I i I Indirect, through I iji» viS i i i i ,lil Indirect 'through both ! i I and the second key IV V ,' Indirect through the / second key ill vi / Dcjmbly indirect III* VI» \ Artificial, direct Artificial, indirect* * 1 X \ Ilk '< il* VlHt'it vii# > , f * / \ / Unrelated \ / \IV4t & MI=|V> &v(> Contradictory6 ; \l II viik 2 Very rare, but the slow movement of Schubert's C major String Quintet demonstrates it magnificently. 3 All the indirect relationships from a minor tonic are distinctly strained and, except in the violently contrasted doubly indirect keys, obscure as being themselves minor. But the direct artificial modulation is quite smooth, and rich rather than remote. See Beethoven's C$ minor Quartet. 4 No classical example, though the clearer converse from a major tonic occurs effectively. 6 Not (with the exception of II) so violent as when from major tonic. Bach, whose range seldom exceeds direct key-relationships, is not afraid to drift from D minor to C minor, though nothing would induce him to go from D major to C major or minor. 8 HARMONY when minor. Thus I represents tonic major, iv represents subdominant minor, and so on. A flat or a sharp after the figure indicates that the normal degree of the standard scale has been lowered or raised a semitone, even when in any particular pair of keys it would not be expressed by a flat or a sharp. Thus vib would, from the tonic of Bb major, express the position of the slow movement of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 106, which is written in F# minor since Gb minor is beyond the practical limits of notation. VI. Temperament and Enharmonic Changes. — As the facts of artistic harmony increased in complexity and range, the purely acoustic principles which (as Helmholtz has shown) go so far to explain 16th-century aesthetics became more and more inadequate; and grave practical obstacles to euphonious tuning began to assert themselves. The scientific (or natural) ratios of the diatonic scale were not interfered with by art so long as no discords were "fundamental"; but when discords began to assume independence, one and the same note often became assignable on scientific grounds to two slightly different positions in pitch, or at all events to a position incompatible with even tolerable effect in performance. Thus, the chord of the diminished 7th is said to be intolerably harsh in " just intonation," that is to say, intonation based upon the exact ratios of a normal minor scale. In practical performance the diminished 7th contains three minor 3rds and two imperfect 5ths (such as that which is present in the dominant 7th), while the peculiarly dissonant interval from which the chord takes its name is very nearly the same as a major 6th. Now it can only be said that an intonation which makes nonsense of chords of which every classical composer from the time of Corelli has made excellent sense, is a very unjust intonation indeed; and to anybody who realizes the universal relation between art and nature it is obvious that the chord of the diminished 7th must owe its naturalness to its close approximation to the natural ratios of the minor scale, while it owes its artistic possibility to the extremely minute instinctive modification by which its dissonance becomes tolerable. As a matter of fact, although we have shown here and in the article Music how artificial is the origin and nature of all but the very scantiest materials of the musical language, there is no art in which the element of practical compromise is so minute and so hard for any but trained scientific observation to perceive. If a painter could have a scale of light and shade as nearly approaching nature as the practical intonation of music approaches the acoustic facts it really involves, a visit to a picture gallery would be a severe strain on the strongest eyes, as Ruskin constantly points out. Yet music is in this respect exactly on the same footing as other arts. It constitutes no exception to the universal law that artistic ideas must be realized, not in spite of, but by means of practical necessities. However independent the treatment of discords, they assert themselves in the long run as transient. They resolve into permanent points of repose of which the basis is natural; but the transient phenomena float through the harmonic world adapting themselves, as best they can, to their environment, showing as much dependence upon the stable scheme of " just intonation " as a crowd of metaphors and abstractions in language shows a dependence upon the rules of the syllogism. As much and no more, but that is no doubt a great deal. Yet the attempt to determine the point in modern harmony where just intonation should end and the tempered scale begin, is as vexatious as the attempt to define in etymology the point at which the literal meaning of a word gives places to a metaphorical meaning. And it is as unsound scientifically as the conviction of the typical circle-squarer that he is unravelling amysteryandmeasuringaquantityhitherto unknown. Just intonation is a reality in so far as it emphasizes the contrast between concord and discord; but when it forbids artistic interaction between harmony and melody it is a chimera. It is sometimes said that Bach, by the example of his forty-eight preludes and fugues in all the major and minor keys, first fixed the modern scale. This is true practically, but not aesthetically. By writing a series of movements in every key of which the keynote was present in the normal organ and harpsichord manuals of his and later times, he enforced the system by which all facts of modern musical harmony are represented on keyed instruments by dividing the octave into twelve equal semitones, instead of tuning a few much-used keys as accurately as possible and sacrificing the euphony of all the rest. This system of equal temperament, with twelve equal semitones in the octave, obviously annihilates important distinctions, and in the most used keys it sours the concords and blunts the discords more than unequal temperament; but it is never harsh; and where it does not express harmonic subtleties the ear instinctively supplies the interpretation; as the observing faculty, indeed, always does wherever the resources of art indicate more than they express. Now it frequently happens that discords or artificial chords are not merely obscure in their intonation, whether ideally or practically, but as produced in practice they are capable of two sharply distinct interpretations. And it is possible for music to take advantage of this and to approach a chord in one signifi- cance and quit it with another. Where this happens in just intonation (in so far as that represents a real musical conception) such chords will, so to speak, quiver from one meaning into the other. And even in the tempered scale the ear will interpret the change of meaning as involving a minute difference of intonation. The chord of the diminished 7th has in this way four different meanings — E*. ii. and the chord of the augmented 6th, when accompanied by the fifth, may become a dominant 7th or vice versa, as in the passage already cited in the coda of the slow movement of Beethoven's Bb Trio, Op. 97. Such modulations are called enharmonic. We have seen that all the more complex musical phenomena involve distinctions enharmonic in the sense of intervals smaller than a semitone, as, for instance, whenever the progression D E in the scale of C, which is a minor tone, is identified with the progression of D E in the scale of D, which is a major tone (differing from the former as f from ^). But the special musical meaning of the word " enharmonic " is restricted to the difference between such pairs of sharps with flats or naturals as can be represented on a keyboard by the same note, this difference being the most impressive to the ear in " just intonation " and to the imagination in the tempered scale. Not every progression of chords which is, so to speak, spelt enharmonically is an enharmonic modulation in itself. Thus a modulation from D flat to E major looks violently enharmonic on paper, as in the first movement of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 1 10. But E major with four sharps is merely the most convenient way of expressing F flat, a key which would need six flats and a double flat. The reality of an enharmonic modula- tion can be easily tested by transporting the passage a semi- tone. Thus, the passage just cited, put a semitone lower, becomes a perfectly diatonic modulation from C to E flat. But no transposition of the sixteen bars before the return of the main theme in the scherzo of Beethoven's Sonata in Ey, Op. 31, No. 3, will get rid of the fact that the diminished 7th (G Bb Db Efl) , on the dominant of F minor, must have changed into G Bb Db Fb (although Beethoven does not take the trouble to alter the spelling) before it could resolve, as it does, upon the dominant of Ab. But though there is thus a distinction between real and apparent enharmonic modulations, it frequently happens that a series of modulations perfectly diatonic in themselves returns to the original key by a process which can only be called an enharmonic circle. Thus the whole series of keys now in practical use can be arranged in what is called the circle of fifths (C G D A E B F# [ = Gbl Db Ab Bb F C, from which series we now see the meaning of what was said in the discussion of key-relationships as to the ambiguity of the relationships between keys a tritone fourth apart). Now no human memory is capable of distinguishing the difference of pitch between the HARMONY keys of C and B# after a wide series of modulations. The difference would be perceptible enough in immediate juxta- position, but after some interval of time the memory will certainly accept two keys so near in pitch as identical, whether in "just intonation " or not. And hence the enharmonic circle of fifths is a conception of musical harmony by which infinity is at once rationalized and avoided, just as some modern mathematicians are trying to rationalize the infinity of space by a non-Euclidian space so curved in the fourth dimension as to return upon itself. A similar enharmonic circle progressing in major 3rds is of frequent occurrence and of very rich effect. For example, the keys of the movements of Brahms's C Minor Symphony are C minor, E major, Ab major ( = G#),aridC ( = Bft). And the same circle occurs in the opposite direction in the first movement of his Third Symphony, where the first subject is in F, the transi- tion passes directly to Db and thence by exactly the same step to A (= Bbb). The exposition is repeated, which of course means that in " just intonation " the first subject would begin in Gbb and then pass through a transition in Ebbb to the second subject in Cbbb. As the development contains another spurious enharmonic modulation, and the recapitulation repeats in another position the first spurious enharmonic modulation of the exposition/ it would follow that Brahms's movement began in F and ended in C sextuple-flat! So much, then, for the application of bad metaphysics and circle-squaring mathematics to the art of music. Neither in mathematics nor in art is an approximation to be confused with an imperfection. Brahms's movement begins and ends in F much more exactly than any wooden diagonal fits a wooden square. The following series of musical illustrations show the genesis of typical harmonic resources of classical and modern music. Ex. u. — Three concords (tonic, first inversion of sub- dominant, and dominant of A minor, a possible 16th- century cadence in the Phrygian mode). Ex. 13. — The same chords varied by a sus- pension (*). Ex. 14. — Ditto, with the further addition of a double suspension (*) and two passing notes (ft). 1 , ' | i ,«. r i J 1 Ex. 15. — Ditto, with a chromatic alteration of the second chord (*) and an "essential" discord (dominant 7th) at (t). Ex. 16. — Ditto, with chromatic passing notes (**) and appoggiaturas (tt). Ex. 17. — The last two chor ds of Ex. 1 6 at tacked unexpectedly, the first ap- poggiatura (.*) prolonged (til it seems to make a strange foreign chord before it resolves on the short note at $, while the second appoggiatura (f) is chromatic. Ex. 18. — The same en- harmonically transformed so as to become a variation of the "dominant ninth" of C minor. The G# at * is really Ab, and % is no longer a note of resolution, but a chromatic passing-note. WAGNER. "*^>-_ ^S ' %~' ^ Definitions. (Intended to comprise the general conceptions set forth in the above article.) 1. Musical sounds, or notes, are sensations produced by regular periodical vibrations in the air, sufficiently rapid to coalesce in a single continuous sensation, and not too rapid for the mechanism or the human ear to respond. 2. The pitch of a note is the sensation corresponding to the degree of rapidity of its vibrations; being low or gram where these are slow, ana High or acute where they are rapid. 3. An interval is the difference in pitch between two notes. 4. Rhythm is the organization, in a musical scheme, of sounds in respect of time. 5. Melody is the organization, in a musical scheme, of rhythmic notes in respect of pitch. 6. Harmony is the organization, in a musical scheme, of simul- taneous combinations of notes on principles whereby their acoustic properties interact with laws of rhythm and melody. 7. The harmonic series is an infinite series of notes produced by the subdivision of a vibrating body or column of air into aliquot parts, such notes being generally inaudible except in the form of the timbre which their presence in various proportions imparts to the fundamental note produced by the whole vibrating body or air-column. 8. A concord is a combination which, both by its acoustic smooth- ness and by its logical origin and purpose in a musical scheme, can form a point of repose. 9. A discord is a combination in which both its logical origin in a musical scheme and its acoustic roughness show that it cannot form a point of repose. 10. The perfect concords and perfect intervals are those comprised within the first four members of the harmonic series, namely, the octave, as between numbers I and 2 of the series (see Ex. I above) ; the 5th, as between Nos. 2 and 3; and the 4th, as between Nos' 3 and 4. 11. All notes exactly one or more octaves apart are regarded as harmonically identical. 12. The root of a chord is that note from which the whole or the most important parts of the chord appear (if distributed in the right octaves) as members of the harmonic series. 13. A chord is inverted when its lowest note is not its root. 14. The major triad is a concord containing three different notes which (octaves being disregarded) are identical with the first, third and fifth members of the harmonic series (the second and fourth members being negligible as octaves). 15. The mino - '.riad is a concord containing the same intervals as the major tried in a different order; in consequence it is artificial, as one of its notes is not derivable from the harmonic series. 16. Unessential discords are those that are treated purely as the phenomena of transition, delay or ornament, in an otherwise con- cordant harmony. 17. Essential discords are those which are so treated that the mind tends to regard them as definite chords possessing roots. 1 8. A key is an harmonic system in which there is never any doubt as to which note or triad shall be the final note of music in that system, nor of the relations between that note or chord and the other notes or chords. (In this sense the church modes are either not keys or else they are subtle mixtures of keys.) 19. This final note of a key is called its tonic. 20. The major mode is that of keys in which the tonic triad and the two other cardinal triads are major. 21. The minor mode is that of keys in which the tonic triad and one other cardinal triad are minor. 22. A diatonic scale is a series of the notes essential to one major or minor key, arranged in order of pitch and repeating itself in other octaves on reaching the limit of an octave. 23. Modulation is the passing from one key to another. 24. Chromatic notes and chords are those which do not belong to the diatonic scale of the passage in which they occur, but which are not so used as to cause modulation. 25. Enharmonic intervals are minute intervals which never occur in music as directly measured quantities, though they exist as differences between approximately equal ordinary intervals, diatonic or chromatic. In an enharmonic modulation, two chords differing by an enharmonic quantity are treated as identical. 26. Pedal or organ point is the sustaining of a single note in the bass (or, in the case of an inverted pedal, in an upper part) while the larmonies move independently. Unless the harmonies are some- :imes foreign to the sustained note, it does not constitute a pedal. In modern music pedals take place on either the tonic or the dominant, other pedal-notes being rare and of complex meaning. Double medals (of tonic and dominant, with tonic below) are not unusual. The device is capable of very free treatment, and has produced many very bold and rich harmonic effects in music since the earlier works of Beethoven. It probably accounts for many so-called essential discords." In the form of drones the pedal is the only real harmonic device of ancient and primitive music. The ancient Greeks sometimes IO HARMOTOME— HARNESS used a reiterated instrumental note as an accompaniment above the melody. These primitive devices, though harmonic in the true modern sense of the word, are out of the line of harmonic develop- ment, and did not help it in any definite way. 27. The fundamental bass of a harmonic passage is an imaginary bass consisting of the roots of the chords. 28. A figured bass, or continue, is the bass of a composition supplied with numerals indicating the chords to be filled in by the accompanist. Thorough-bass (Ger. Generalbass) is the art of interpreting such figures. (D. F. T.) HARMOTOME, a mineral of the zeolite group, consisting of hydrous barium and aluminium silicate, HsBaAi^SiOs^+SHjO. Usually a small amount of potassium is present replacing part of the barium. The system of crystallization is monoclinic; only complex twinned crystals are known. A common and character- istic form of twinned crystal, such as is represented in the figure, con- sists of four intercrossing indi- viduals twinned together according to two twin-laws; the compound group resembles a tetragonal crystal with prism and pyramid, but may be distinguished from this by the grooves along the edges of the pseudo-prism. The faces of the crystals are marked by character- istic striations, as indicated in the figure. Twinned crystals of exactly the same kind are also frequent in phillipsite (q.v.). Crystals are usually white and translucent, with a vitreous lustre. The hardness is 45, and the specific gravity 2-5. The name harmotome (from dp^os, " a joint," and Ttpvuv, " to cut ") was given by R. J. Haiiy in 1801, and has a crystallo- graphic signification. Earlier names are cross-stone (Ger. Kreuzstein) , ercinite, andreasbergolite and andreolite, the two last being derived from the locality, Andreasberg in the Harz. Morvenite (from Morven in Argyllshire) is the name given to small transparent crystals formerly referred to phillipsite. Like other zeolites, harmotome occurs with calcite in the amygdaloidal cavities of volcanic rocks, for example, in the dolerites of Dumbartonshire, and as fine crystals in the agate- lined cavities in the melaphyre of Oberstein in Germany. It also occurs in gneiss, and sometimes in metalliferous veins. At Andreasberg in the Harz it is found in the lead and silver veins; and at Strontian in Argyllshire in lead veins, associated with brewsterite (a strontium and barium zeolite), barytes and calcite. (L. J. S.) HARMS, CLAUS (1778-1855), German divine, was born at Fahrstedt in Schleswig-Holstein on the 25th of May 1778, and in his youth worked in his father's mill. At the university of Kiel he repudiated the prevailing rationalism and under the influence of Schleiermacher became a fervent Evangelical preacher, first at Lunden (1806), and then at Kiel (1816). His trenchant style made him very popular, and he did great service for his cause especially in 1817, when, on the 3ooth anniversary of the Reformation, he published side by side with Luther's theses, ninety-five of his own, attacking reason as " the pope of our time " who " dismisses Christ from the altar and throws God's word from the pulpit." He also had some fame as a hymn- writer, and besides volumes of sermons published a good book on Pastoraltheologie (1830). He resigned his pastorate on account of blindness in 1849, and died on the ist of February 1855. See Autobiography (2nd ed., Kiel, 1852); M. Baumgarten, Bin Denkmalfur C. Harms (Brunswick, 1855). HARNACK, ADOLF (1851- ), German theologian, was born on the 7th of May 1851 at Dorpat, in Russia, where his father, Theodosius Harnack (1817-1889), held a professorship of pastoral theology. Theodosius Harnack was a staunch Lutheran and a prolific writer on theological subjects; his chief field of work was practical theology, and his important book on that subject, summing up his long experience and teaching, appeared at Eriangen (1877-1878, 2 vols.). The liturgy of the Lutheran church of Russia has, since 1898, been based on his Liturgische Formulare (1872). The son pursued his studies at Dorpat (1869-1872) and at Leipzig, where he took his degree; and soon afterwards (1874) began lecturing as a Privatdozent. These lectures, which dealt with such special subjects as Gnosticism and the Apocalypse, attracted considerable attention, and in 1876 he was appointed professor extraordinarius. In the same year he began the publica- tion, in conjunction with O. L. von Gebhardt and T. Zahn, of an edition of the works of the Apostolic Fathers, Patrum apostoli- corum opera, a smaller edition of which appeared in 1877. Three years later he was called to Giessen as professor ordinarius of church history. There he collaborated with Oscar Leopold von Gebhardt in Texte und U nlersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Litleratur (1882 sqq.), an irregular periodical, con- taining only essays in New Testament and patristic fields. In 1 88 1 he published a work on monasticism, Das Monchtum, seine Ideale und seine Geschichte (sth ed., 1900; English translation, 1901), and became joint-editor with Emil Schurer of the Theologische Literaturzeitung. In 1885 he published the first volume of his epoch-making work, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (3rd ed. in three volumes, 1894-1898; English translation in seven volumes, 1894-1899). In this work Harnack traces the rise of dogma, by which he understands the authoritative doctrinal system of the 4th century and its development down to the Reformation. He considers that in its earliest origins Christian faith and the methods of Greek thought were so closely intermingled that much that is not essential to Chris- tianity found its way into the resultant system. Therefore Protestants are not only free, but bound, to criticize it; indeed, for a Protestant Christian, dogma cannot be said to exist. An abridgment of this appeared in 1889 with the title Grundriss der Dogmengeschichte (3rd ed., 1898). In 1886 Harnack was called to Marburg; and in 1888, in spite of violent opposition from the conservative section of the church authorities, to Berlin. In 1890 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences. At Berlin, somewhat against his will, he was drawn into a controversy on the Apostles' Creed, in which the party antagon- isms within the Prussian Church had found expression. Harnack 's view is that the creed contains both too much and too little to be a satisfactory test for candidates for ordination, and he would prefer a briefer symbol which could be rigorously exacted from all (cf. his Das apostolische Glaubensbekenntnis. Ein geschichtlicher Bericht nebst einem Nachworte, 1892; 27th ed., 1896). At Berlin Harnack continued his literary labours. In 1893 he published a history of early Christian literature down to Eusebius, Geschichte der altchrisll. Litteratur bis Eusebius (part 2 of vol. i., 1897); and in 1900 appeared his popular lectures, Das Wesen des Christentums (sth ed., 1901; English translation, What is Christianity? 1901; 3rd ed., 1904). One of his more recent historical works is Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums in den ersten drei J ahrhunderten (1902; English translation in two volumes, 1904-1905). It has been followed by some very interesting and important New Testament studies (Beitrage zur Einleilung in das neue Testament, 1906 sqq.; Engl. trans.: Luke the Physician, 1907; Tke Savings of Jesus, 1908). Harnack, both as lecturer and writer, was one of the most prolific and most stimulating of modern critical scholars, and trained up in his " Seminar " a whole generation of teachers, who carried his ideas and methods throughout the whole of Germany and even beyond its borders. His distinctive character- istics are his claim for absolute freedom in the study of church history and the New Testament; his distrust of speculative theology, whether orthodox or liberal; his interest in practical Christianity as a religious life and not a system of theology. Some of his addresses on social matters have been published under the heading " Essays on the Social Gospel " (1907). HARNESS (from O. Fr. harneis or harnois; the ultimate origin is obscure; the Celtic origin which connects it with the Welsh haiarn, iron, has phonetic and other difficulties; the French is the origin of the Span, arnes, and Ger. Harnisch), probably, in HARO— HARP n origin, gear, tackle, equipment in general, but early applied particularly to the body armour of a soldier, including the trappings of the horse; now the general term for the gear of an animal used for draft purposes, traces, collar, bridle, girth, breeching, &c. It is usually not applied to the saddle or bridle of a riding animal. The word, in its original meaning of tackle or working apparatus, is still found in weaving, for the mechanism which shifts the warp-threads to form the " shed," and in bell-hanging, for the apparatus by which a large bell is hung. The New English Dictionary quotes an early use of the word for the lines, rod and hooks of an angler (Fysshing with an Angle, c. 145°)- HARO, CLAMEUR DE, the ancient Norman custom of " crying for justice," still surviving in the Channel Islands. The wronged party must on his knees and before witnesses cry: "Haro! Haro! Haro! a 1'aide, mon prince, on me fait tort." This appeal has to be respected, and the alleged trespass or tort must cease till the matter has been thrashed out in the courts. The " cry " thus acts as an interim injunction, and no inhabitant of the Channel Islands would think of resisting it. The custom is undoubtedly very ancient, dating from times when there were no courts and no justice except such as was meted out by princes personally. The popular derivation for the name is that which explains "Haro" as an abbreviation of "Ha! Rollo," a direct appeal to Rollo, first duke of Normandy. It is far more probable that haro is simply an exclamation to call attention (O.H.G. hera, hara, "here"!). Indeed it is clear that the " cry for justice " was in no sense an institution of Rollo, but was a method of appeal recognized in many countries. It is said to be identical with the " Legatro of the Bavarians and the Thuringians," and the first mention of it in France is to be found in the " Grand coutumier de Normandie." A similar custom, only observed in criminal charges, was recognized by the Saxon laws under the name of " Clamor Violentiae." Thus there is reason to think that William the Conqueror on his arrival in England found the " cry " fully established as far as criminal matters were concerned. Later the " cry " was made applicable to civil wrongs, and, when the administration of justice became systematized, disappeared altogether in criminal cases. It naturally tended to become obsolete as the administra- tion of justice became systematized, but it was long retained in north-western France in cases of disputed possession, and was not actually repealed until the close of the i8th century. A survival of the English form of haro is possibly to be found in the " Ara," a cry at fairs when " settling time " arrived. HAROLD I. (d. 1040), surnamed Harefopt, the illegitimate son of Canute, king of England, and ^Elfgifu of Northampton. On the death of his father in 1035, he claimed the crown of England in opposition to Canute's legitimate son, Hardicanute. His claims were supported by Leofric, earl of Mercia, and the north; those of Hardicanute by his mother, Queen Emma, Godwine, earl of the West-Saxons and the south. Eventually Harold was temporarily elected regent, pending a final settle- ment on Hardicanufe's return from Denmark. Hardicanute, however, tarried, and meanwhile Harold's party increased rapidly. In 1037 he was definitely elected king, and banished Emma from the kingdom. The only events of his brief reign are ineffectual inroads of the Welsh and Scots. Hardicanute was preparing to invade England in support of his claims when Harold died at Oxford on the loth of March 1040. HAROLD II. (c. 1022-1066), king of the English, the second son of Earl Godwine, was born about 1022. While still very young (before 1045) he was appointed to the earldom of the East-Angles. He snared his father's outlawry and banishment in 1051; but while Godwine went to Flanders, Harold with his brother Leofwine took refuge in Ireland. In 1052 Harold and Leofwine returned. Having plundered in the west of England, they joined their father, and were with him at the assembly which decreed the restoration of the whole family. Harold was now restored to his earldom of the East-Angles, and on his father's death in 1053 he succeeded him in the greater earldom of the West-Saxons. He was now the chief man in the kingdom, and when the older earls Leofric and Siward died his power increased yet more, and the latter part of Edward's reign was virtually the reign of Harold. In 1055 he drove back the Welsh, who had burned Hereford. In 1063 came the great Welsh war, in which Harold, with the help of his brother Tostig, crushed the power of Gruffyd, who was killed by his own people. But in spite of his power and his prowess, Harold was the minister of the king rather than his personal favourite. This latter position rather belonged to Tostig, who on the death of Siward in 1053 received the earldom of Northumberland. Here, however, his harshness soon provoked enmity, and in 1065 the North- umbrians revolted against him, choosing Morkere in his place. Harold acted as mediator between the king and the insurgents, and at length agreed to the choice of Morkere, and the banish- ment of his brother. At the beginning of 1066 Edward died, with his last breath recommending Harold as his successor. He was accordingly elected at once and crowned. The men of Northumberland at first refused to acknowledge him, but Harold won them over. The rest of his brief reign was taken up with preparations against the attacks which threatened him on both sides at once. William challenged the crown, alleging both a bequest of Edward in his favour and a personal engagement which Harold had contracted towards him — probably in 1064; and prepared for the invasion of England. Meanwhile Tostig was trying all means to bring about his own restoration. He first attacked the Isle of Wight, then Lindesey, but was compelled to take shelter in Scotland. From May to September the king kept the coast with a great force by sea and land, but at last provisions failed and the land army was dispersed. Harold then came to London, ready to 'meet which- ever enemy came first. By this time Tostig had engaged Harold Hardrada of Norway to invade England. Together they sailed up the Humber, defeated Edwin and Morkere, and received the submission of York. Harold hurried northwards; and on the 25th of September he came on the Northmen at Stamford Bridge and won a complete victory, in which Tostig and Harold Hardrada were slain. But two days later William landed at Pevensey. Harold marched southward as fast as possible. He gathered his army in London from all southern and eastern England, but Edwin and Morkere kept back the forces of the north. The king then marched into Sussex and engaged the Normans on the hill of Senlac near Battle (see HASTINGS). After a fight which lasted from morning till evening, the Normans had the victory, and Harold and his two brothers lay dead on the field (i4th of October 1066). . HARP (Fr. harpe; Ger. Harfe; Ital. arpa), a member of the class of stringed instruments of which the strings are twanged or vibrated by the fingers. The harp is an instrument of beautiful proportions, approximating to a triangular form, the strings diminishing in length as they ascend in pitch. The mechanism is concealed within the different parts of which the instrument is composed, (i) the pedestal or pedal-box, on which rest (2) the vertical pillar, and (3) the inclined convex body in which the soundboard is fixed, (4) the curved neck, with (5) the comb concealing the mechanism for stopping the strings, supported by the pillar and the body. (1) The pedestal or pedal-box^ forms the base of the harp and contains seven pedals both in single and double action harps, the difference being that in the single action the pedals are only capable of raising the strings one semitone by means of a drop into a notch, whereas with the double action the pedals, after a first drop, can by a further drop into a second and lower notch shorten the string a second semitone, whereby each string is made to serve in turn for flat, natural and sharp. The harp is normally in the key of C flat major, and each of the seven pedals acts upon one of the notes of this diatonic scale throughout the compass. The choice of this method of tuning was imposed by the construction of the harp with double action. The pedals remain in the notches until released by the foot, when the pedal returns to its normal position through the action of a spiral spring, which may be seen under each of the pedals by turning the harp up. (2) The vertical pillar is a kind of tunnel in which are placed the seven rods worked by the pedals, which set in motion the mechanism situated in the neck of the instrument. Although the pillar apparently 12 HARP rests on the pedestal, it is really supported by a brass shoulder firmly screwed to the beam which forms the lowest part of the body, a connexion which remains undisturbed when the pedal box and its cover are removed. (3) The body or sound-chest of the harp is in shape like the longi- tudinal section of a cone. It was formerly composed of staves joined together as in the lute and mandoline. Erard was the first to make it in two pieces of wood, generally sycamore, with the addition of a flat soundboard of Swiss pine. The body is strengthened on the inside, in order to resist the tension of the strings, by means of ribs; there are five soundholes in the back, which in the older models were furnished with swell shutters opened at will by the swell pedal, the fourth from the left worked by the left foot. As the increase of sound obtained by means of the swell was infinitesimal, the device has now been discarded. The harp is strung by knotting the end of the string and passing it through its hole in the centre of the sound- board, where it is kept in position by means cf a grooved peg which grips the string. (4) The neck consists of a curved piece of wood resting on the body at the treble end of the instrument and joining the pillar at the bass end. In the neck are set the tuning pins round which are wound the strings. (5) The comb is the name given to two brass plates or covers which fit over both sides of the neck, concealing part of the mechan- ism for shortening the strings and raising their pitch a semitone when actuated by the pedals. On the front plate of the comb, to the left of the player, is a row of brass bridges against which the strings rest below the tuning pins, and which determine the vibrating length of the string reckoned from the peg in the soundboard. Below the bridges are two rows of brass disks, known as forks, connected by steel levers; each disk is equipped with two studs for grasping the string and shortening it. The mechanism is ingenious. When a pedal is depressed to the first notch, the corresponding lower disk turns a little way on a mandrel keeping the studs clear of the string. The upper disk, set in motion by the steel levers connecting the disks, revolves simultaneously till the string is caught by the two studs which thus form a new bridge, shortening the vibrating length of the string by just the length necessary to raise the pitch a semitone. If the same pedal be depressed to the second notch, another move- ment causes the lower disk to revolve again till the string is a second time seized and shortened, the upper disk remaining stationary. The hidden mechanism meanwhile has gone through a series of movements; the pedal is really a lever set upon a spring, and when depressed it draws down the connecting rod in the pillar which sets in motion chains governing the mandrels of the disks. The harp usually has forty-six strings, of gut in the middle and upper registers, and of covered steel wire in the bass; the C strings are red and the F strings blue. The compass thus has a range of octaves from The double stave is used as for the pianoforte. The single action harp used to be tuned to the key of Efc> major. The modern harp with double action is the only instrument with fixed tones, not determined by the ear or touch of the performer, which has separate notes for naturals, sharps and flats, giving it an enharmonic compass. On the harp the appreciable interval between D# and El> can be played. The harp in its normal condition is tuned to Ct> major; it rests with the performer to transpose it at will in a few seconds into any other key by means of the pedals. Each of the pedals influences one note of the scale throughout the compass, beginning at the left with D, C, and B worked by the left foot. Missing the fourth or forte pedal, and continuing towards the right we get the E, F, G and A pedals worked by the right foot. By lowering the D pedal into the first notch the Db becomes Dti, and into the second notch D#, and so on for all the pedals. If, for example, a piece be written in the key of E major, the harp is trans- posed into that key by depressing the E, A, and B pedals to the first notch, and those for F, G, C and D to the second or sharp notch and so on through all the keys. Accidentals and modulations are readily played by means of the pedals, provided the transitions be not too rapid. The harp is the instrument upon which transposition presents the least difficulty, for the fingering is the same for all keys. The strings are twanged with the thumbs and the first three fingers. The quality of tone does not vary much in the different registers, but it has the greatest brilliancy in keys with many flats, for the strings are then open and not shortened by the forks. Various effects can be obtained on the harp: (i) by harmonics, (2) by damp- ing, (3) by guitar tones, (4) by the glissando. (i) Harmonics are produced by resting the ball of the hand on the middle of the string and setting it in vibration by the thumb or the first two fingers of the same hand, whereby a mysterious and beautiful tone is obtained. Two or three harmonics can be played together with the left hand, and by using both hands at once as many as four are possible. (2) Damping is effected by laying the palm against the string in the bass and the back of the finger in the treble. (3) Guitar or pizzicato notes are obtained by twanging the strings sharply at the lower end near the soundboard with the nails. (4) The glissando effect is produced, as on the pianoforte, by sliding the thumb or finger along the strings in quick succession; this does not necessarily give the diatonic scale, for by means of the pedals the harp can be tuned beforehand to chords. It is possible to play on the harp all kinds of diatonic and arpeggio passages, but no chromatic, except in very slow tempo, on account of the time required by the mechanism of the pedals; and chords of three or four notes in each hand, shakes, turns, successions of double notes can be easily acquired. The same note can also be repeated slowly or quickly, the next string being tuned to a duplicate note, and the two strings plucked alternately in order to give the string time to vibrate. Pleyel's chromatic harp, patented in 1894 ar>d improved in 1903 by Gustave Lyon, manager of the firm of Pleyel, Wolff & Co., is an instrument practically without mechanism which has already won great favour in France and Belgium, notably in the orchestra. It has been constructed on the familiar lines of the pianoforte. Henry Pape, a piano manufacturer, had in 1845 conceived the idea of a chromatic harp of, which the strings crossed in the centre as in the piano, and a report on the construction was published at the time; the instrument, however, was not considered successful, and was relegated to oblivion until Mr Lyon revised the matter and brought out a successful and practical instrument. The advantages claimed for this harp are the abandonment of the whole pedal mechanism, a metal framing which insures the strings keeping in tune as long as those of a piano, and an easily acquired technique. The chromatic harp consists of (i) a pedestal on castors, (2) a steel pillar without internal mechanism, (3) a wide neck containing two brass wrest-planks in which are fixed two rows of tuning pins, and (4) a soundchest in which is firmly riveted the steel plate to which the strings are fastened, and the soundboard pierced with eyelet holes through which the strings are drawn to the string plate. There is a string for every chromatic semitone of the scale of C major, the white strings representing the white keys of the piano keyboard, and the black strings corresponding to the black keys. The tuning pins for the black strings are set in the left side of the neck in alternate groups of twos and threes, and those for the white in the right side in alternate groups of threes and fours. The strings cross half-way between neck and soundboard, this being the point where they are plucked; the left hand finds the black notes above, and the right hand below the crossing. There is besides in the neck a set of twelve tuning buttons, each one of which on being pressed gives out one note of the chromatic scale tuned to the pitch of the diapason normal. It is obvious that the repertoire for this harp is very extensive, including many compositions written for the piano, which however cannot be played with any legato effects, these being still impossible on this chromatic harp. History. — While the instrument is of great antiquity, it is yet from northern Europe that the modern harp and its name are derived. The Greeks and Romans preferred to it the lyre in its different varieties, and a Latin writer, Venantius Fortunatus,1 describes it in the 7th century of our era as an instrument of the barbarians — " Romanusque lyra, plaudat tibi barbarus harpa." This is believed to be the earliest mention of the name, which is clearly Teutonic, — O.H.Ger. harapha, A.-S. hearpe, Old Norse harpa. The modern Fr. harpe retains the aspirate; in the Spanish and Italian arpa it is dropped. The earliest delineations of the harp in Egypt give no indication that it had not existed long before. There are, indeed, representa- tions in Egyptian paintings of stringed instruments of a bow-form having affinities with both primitive harp and nefer (a kind of oval guitar) that support the idea of the invention of the harp from the tense string of the warrior's or hunter's bow. This primitive- looking instrument, called nanga, had a boat- shaped sound-chest with a parchment or skin soundboard, down the centre of which one end of the string was fas- tened to a strip of wood, whilst the other was wound round pegs in • the upper part of the p bow. The nanga was to Ci>, it became possible to play in fifteen keys, thus exceeding the power of the keyboard instruments, over which the harp has another important advantage in the sim- plicity of the fingering, which is the same for every key. It is to Sebastian Erard we owe the perfecting of the pedal harp (ng' 5)> a triumph he gained in Paris by unremitting studies begun when he adopted a " fork " mechanism in 1786 and ended in 1810 when he had attained com- plete success with the double action pedal mechanism already described above. Erard's merit was not confined to this improvement only; he modified the structure of the comb that conceals the mechanism, and constructed the sound-body of the instrument upon a modern principle more advantageous to the tone. Notwithstanding these improvements and the great beauty of tone the harp possesses, the domestic use of it in modern times has almost disappeared. The great cost of a good harp, and the trouble to many amateurs of tuning, may have led to the supplanting of the harp by the more convenient and useful pianoforte. With this comes naturally a diminution in FIG. 5. the number of solo-players on the instru- Modern Erard Harp. ment. Were it not for the increasing use of the harp in the orchestra, the colour of its tone having attracted the masters of instrumentation, so that the great scores of Meyerbeer and Gounod, of Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner are not complete without it, we should perhaps know little more of the harp than of the dulcimer, in spite of the efforts of distinguished virtuosi whose devotion to their instrument maintains its technique on an equality with that of any other, even the most in public favour. The first record of the use of harps in the orchestra occurs in the account of the Ballet comique de la royne performed at the chateau de Moutiers on the occasion of the marriage of Mary of Lorraine with the due de Joyeuse in 1581, when harps formed part of the concert de musique. See in addition to the works already referred to, Engel's Musical Instruments in the South Kensington Museum (1874); and the articles " Harp," in Rees's Cyclopaedia, written by Dr Burney, in Stainer and Barrett's Dictionary of Musical Terms (1876), and in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. On the origins of the instrument see Proceedings of British Association (1904) (address of president of anthropological section). (K. S. ; A. J. H.) HARPENDEN, an urban district in the Mid or St Albans parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, 25 m. N.W. by N. from London by the Midland railway, served also by a branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 4725. It is a favourite outlying residential district for those whose work lies in London. The church of St Nicholas is a modern recon- struction with the exception of the Perpendicular tower. In the Lawes Testimonial Laboratory there is a vast collection of samples of experimentally grown produce, annual products, ashes and soils. Sir John Bennet Lawes (d. 1900) provided an endowment of £100,000 for the perpetuation of the agricultural experiments which he inaugurated here at his seat of Rothamsted Park. The success of his association of chemistry with botany is shown by the fact that soil has been made to bear wheat without intermission for upwards of half a century without manure. The country neighbouring to Harpenden is very pleasant, includ- ing the gorse-covered Harpenden Common and the narrow well-wooded valley of the upper Lea. HARPER'S FERRY, a town of Jefferson county, West Virginia, U.S.A., finely situated at the confluence of the Potomac and Shenandoah rivers (which here pass through a beautiful gorge in the Blue Ridge), 55 m. N.W. of Washington. Pop. (1900) 896; (19101 766. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio railway, which crosses the Potomac here, by the Winchester & Potomac railway (Baltimore & Ohio) of which it is a terminus, and by boats on the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal, which passes along the Maryland side of the Potomac. Across the Potomac on the north rise the Maryland Heights; across the Shenandoah, on the West Virginia side, the Virginia or Loudoun Heights: and behind the town to the W. the Bolivar Heights. A United States arsenal and armoury were established at Harper's Ferry in 1796, the site being chosen because of the good water-power; these were seized on the i6th of October 1859 by John Brown (q.v.), the abolitionist, and some 21 of his followers. For four months before the raid Brown and his men lived on the Kennedy Farm, in Washington county, Maryland, about 4 m. N.W. of Harper's Ferry. The engine-house in which Brown was captured was exhibited at the Columbian Exposition at Chicago and was later rebuilt on Bolivar Heights; a marble pillar, marked " John Brown's Fort," has been erected on its original site. On Camp Hill is Storer College (state-aided), a normal school for negroes, which was established under Free Baptist control in 1867, and has academic, normal, biblical, musical and industrial departments. The first settlement here was made about 1747 by Robert Harper, who ran a ferry across the Potomac. The position of Harper's Ferry at the lower end of the Shenandoah Valley rendered it a place of strategic importance during the Civil War. On the i8th of April 1861, the day after Virginia passed her ordinance of secession, when a considerable force of Virginia militia under General Kenton Harper approached the town — an attack having been planned in Richmond two days before — the Federal garrison of 45 men under Lieutenant Roger Jones set fire to the arsenal and fled. Within the next few days large numbers of Confederate volunteers assembled here; and Harper was succeeded in command (27th April) by " Stonewall " Jackson, who was in turn succeeded by Brigadier-General Joseph E. Johnston on the 23rd of May. Johnston thought that the place was unimportant, and withdrew when (i^th June) the Federal forces under General Robert Patterson and Colonel Lew Wallace approached, and Harper's Ferry was again occupied by a Federal garrison. In September 1862, during General Lee's first invasion of the North, General McClellan advised that the place be abandoned in order that the 10,000 men defending it might be added to his fighting force, but General Halleck would not consent, so that when Lee needed supplies from the Shenandoah Valley he was blocked by the garrison, then under the command of Colonel Dixon S. Miles. On Jackson's approach they were distributed as follows: about 7000 men on Bolivar Heights, about 2000 on Maryland Heights, and about 1800 on the lower ground. On the i3th of September General Lafayette McLaws carried Maryland Heights and General John G. Walker planted a battery on Loudoun Heights. On the I4th there was some fighting, but early on the i $th, as Jackson was about to make an assault on Bolivar Heights, the garrison, surrounded by a superior force, surrendered. The total Federal loss (including the garrisons at Winchester and Martinsburg) amounted to 44 killed (the commander was mortally wounded), 12,520 prisoners, and 13,000 small arms. For this terrible loss to the Union army the responsibility seems to have been General Halleck's, though the blame was officially put on Colonel Miles, .who died immediately after the surrender. Jackson rejoined Lee on the following day in time to take part in the battle of Antietam, and after the battle General McClellan placed a strong garrison (the I2th Corps) at Harper's Ferry. In June 1863 the place was again abandoned to the Confederates on their march to Pennsylvania. After their defeat at Gettysburg, the town again fell into the hands of the Federal troops, and it remained in their possession until the end of the war. On the 4th of July 1864 General Franz Sigel, who was then in command here, withdrew his troops to Maryland Heights, and from there resisted Early's attempt to enter the town and to drive the Federal garrison from Maryland Heights. Harper's Ferry was seriously damaged by a flood in the Shenandoah in October 1878. HARPIES (Gr. "Aprruitu, older form 'Aptiruicu, " swift robbers "), in ancient mythology, the personification of the sweep- ing storm-winds. In Homer, where they appear indifferently under the name of apirtucu and 6vf\\ai, their function is to carry off those whose sudden disappearance is desired by the gods. Only one of them is there mentioned (Iliad, xvi. 150) by name, Podarge, the mother of the coursers of Achilles by Zephyrus, the generative wind. According to Hesiod (Thcog. 265) they are two in number, Ae'llo and Ocypete, daughters of Thaumas and Elect ra, winged HARPIGNIES— HARPSICHORD goddesses with beautiful locks, swifter than winds and birds in their flight, and their domain is the air. In later times their number was increased (Celaeno being a frequent addition and their leader in Virgil), and they were described as hateful and repulsive creatures, birds with the faces of old women, the ears of bears, crooked talons and hanging breasts; even in Aeschylus (Eumenides, 50) they appear as ugly and misshapen monsters. Their function of snatching away mortals to the other world brings them into connexion with the Erinyes, with whom they are often confounded. On the so-called Harpy monument from Lycia, now in the British Museum, the Harpies appear carrying off some small figures, supposed to be the daughters of Pandareus, unless they are intended to represent departed souls. The repulsive character of the Harpies is more especially seen in the legend of Phineus, king of Salmydessus in Thrace (Apollodorus i. 9, 21 ; see also Diod. Sic. iv. 43). Having been deprived of his sight by the gods for his ill-treatment of his sons by his first wife (or for having revealed the future to mortals), he was con- demned to be tormented by two Harpies, who carried off what- ever food was placed before him. On the arrival of the Argonauts, Phineus promised to give them particulars of the course they should pursue and of the dangers that lay before them, if they would deliver him from his tormentors. Accordingly, when the Harpies appeared as usual to carry off the food from Phineus's table, they were driven off and pursued by Calais and Zetes, the sons of Boreas, as far as the Strophades islands in the Aegean. On promising to cease from molesting Phineus, their lives were spared. Their place of abode is variously placed in the Strophades, the entrance to the under-world, or a cave in Crete. According to Cecil Smith, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiii. (1892-1893), the Harpies are the hostile spirits of the scorching south wind; E. Rohde (Rlieinisches Museum, i., 1895) regards them as spirits of the storm, which at the bidding of the gods carry off human beings alive to the under-world or some spot beyond human ken. See articles in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie and Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites. In the article GREEK ART, fig. 14 gives a representation of the winged Harpies. HARPIGNIES, HENRI (1819- ), French landscape painter, born at Valenciennes in 1819, was intended by his parents for a business career, but his determination to become an artist was so strong that it conquered all obstacles, and he was allowed at the age of twenty-seven to enter Achard's atelier in Paris. From this painter he acquired a groundwork of sound constructive draughtsmanship, which is so marked a feature of his landscape painting. After two years under this exacting teacher he went to Italy, whence he returned in 1850. During the next few years he devoted himself to the painting of children in landscape setting, and fell in with Corot and the other Barbizon masters, whose principles and methods are to a certain extent re- flected in his own personal art. To Corot he was united by a bond of warm friendship, and the two artists went together to Italy in 1860. On his return, he scored his first great success at the Salon, in 1861, with his " Lisiere de bois sur les bords de 1'Allier." After that year he was a regular exhibitor at the old Salon; in 1886 he received his first medal for " Le Soir dans la campagne de Rome," which was acquired for the Luxembourg Gallery. Many of his best works were painted at Herisson in the Bourbonnais, as well as in the Nivernais and the Auvergne. Among his chief pictures are " Soir sur les bords de la Loire " (1861), "Les Corbeaux" (1865), " Le Soir" (1866), " Le Saut-du-Loup " (1873), " La Loire " (1882), and " Vue de Saint-Prive " (1883). He also did some decorative work for the Paris Opera — the " Vallee d'Egerie " panel, which he Ishowed at the Salon of 1870. HARP-LUTE, or DITAL HARP, one of the many attempts to revive the popularity of the guitar and to increase its compass, invented in 1798 by Edward Light. The harp-lute owes the first part of its name to the characteristic mechanism for shortening the effective length of the strings; its second name— dital harp — emphasizes the nature of the stops, which are worked by the thumb in contradistinction to the pedals of the harp worked by the feet. It consists of a pear-shaped body, to which is added a curved neck supported on a front pillar or arm springing from the body, and therefore reminiscent of the harp. There are 12 catgut strings. The curved fingerboard, almost parallel with the neck, is provided with frets, and has in addition a thumb- key for each string, by means of which the accordance of the string is mechanically raised a semitone at will. The dital or key, on being depressed, acts upon a stop-ring or eye, which draws the string down against the fret, and thus shortens its effective length. The fingers then stop the strings as usual over the remaining frets. A further improvement was patented in 1816 as the British harp-lute. Other attempts possessing less practical merit than the dital harp were the lyra-guitarre, which appeared in Germany at the beginning of the igth century; the accord-guitarre, towards the middle of the same century; and the keyed guitar. (K. S.) HARPOCRATES, originally an Egyptian deity, adopted by the Greeks, and worshipped in later times both by Greeks and Romans. In Egypt, Harpa-khruti, Horus the child, was one of the forms of Horus, the sun-god, the child of Osiris. He was supposed to carry on war against the powers of darkness, and hence Herodotus (ii. 144) considers him the same as the Greek Apollo. He was represented in statues with his finger on his mouth, a symbol of childhood. The Greeks and Romans, not understanding the meaning of this attitude, made him the god of silence (Ovid, Metam. ix. 691), and as such he became a favourite deity with the later mystic schools of philosophy. See articles by G. Lafaye in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites, and by E. Meyer (s.v . " Horos ") in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie. HARPOCRATION, VALERIUS, Greek grammarian of Alex- andria. He is possibly the Harpocration mentioned by Julius Capitolinus (Life of Verus, 2) as the Greek tutor of Antoninus Verus (and century A.D.); some authorities place him much later, on the ground that he borrowed from Athenaeus. He is the author of a Ae!-iK6v (or Ilept rlav Xe£ewj') Tuvotna. prjropuv, which has come down to us in an incomplete form. The work contains, in more or less alphabetical order, notes on well-known events and persons mentioned by the orators, and explanations of legal and commercial expressions. As nearly all the lexicons to the Greek orators have been lost, Harpocration's work is especially valuable. Amongst his authorities were the writers of Atthides (histories of Attica), the grammarian Didymus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and the lexicographer Dionysius, son of Tryphon. The book also contains contributions to the history of Attic oratory and Greek literature generally. Nothing is known of an '\vdripSiv avva-yuyri, a sort of anthology or chrestomathy attributed to him by Suidas. A series of articles in the margin of a Cambridge MS. of the lexicon forms the basis of the Lexicon rheloricum Canlabrigiense (see DOBREE, P. P.). * The best edition is by W. Dindprf (1853); see also J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, i. (1906), p. 325; C. Boysen, De Harpocrationis fontibus (Kiel, 1876). HARPOON (from Fr. harpon, a grappling-iron, O. Fr. harpe, a dog's claw, an iron clamp for fastening stones together; the source of these words is the Lat. harpago, harpa, &c., formed from Gr. aprajri, hook, apwa^tiv, to snatch, tear away, cf. " harpy "), barbed spear, particularly one used for spearing whales or other large fish, and either thrown by hand or fired from a gun (see WHALE-FISHERY). HARPSICHORD, HARPSICON, DOUBLE VIRGINALS (Fr. clavecin; Ger. Clavicymbel, Kiel-Flilgel; Ital. arpicordo, cembalo, clavi- cembalo, graveccmbalo; Dutch, clavisinbal) , a large keyboard instrument (see PIANOFORTE), belonging to the same family as the virginal and spinet, but having 2, 3, or even 4 strings to each note, and a case of the harp or wing shape, afterwards adopted for the grand pianoforte. J. S. Bach's harpsichord, preserved in the museum of the Hochschule fiir Musik at Charlottenburg, has two manuals and 4 strings to each note, one 16 ft., two 8 ft. and one 4 ft. By means of stops the performer has within his power a number of combinations for varying the tone and dynamic power. In all instruments of the harpsichord family i6 HARPY— HARRAR the strings, instead of being struck by tangents as in the clavi- chord, or by hammers as in the pianoforte, are plucked by means of a quill firmly embedded in the centred tongue of a jack or upright placed on the back end of the key-lever. When the finger depresses a key, the jack is thrown up, and in passing the crow-quill catches the string and twangs it. It is this twanging of the string which produces the brilliant incisive tone peculiar to the harpsichord family. What these instruments gain in brilliancy of tone, however, they lose in power of expression and of accent. The impossibility of commanding any emphasis necessarily created for the harpsichord an individual technique which influenced the music composed for it to so great an extent that it cannot be adequately rendered upon the pianoforte. The harpsichord assumed a position of great importance during the i6th and lyth centuries, more especially in the orchestra, which was under the leadership of' the harpsichord player. The most famous of all harpsichord makers, whose names form a guarantee for excellence, were the Ruckers, established at Antwerp from the last quarter of the i6th century. (K. S.) HARPY, a large diurnal bird of prey, so named after the mythological monster of the classical poets (see HARPIES), — the Thrasaetus harpyia of modern ornithologists — an inhabitant of the warmer parts of America from Southern Mexico to Brazil. Though known since the middle of the iyth century, its habits have come very little under the notice of naturalists, and what is said of them by the older writers must be received with some -^ Harpy. suspicion. A cursory inspection of the bird, which is not un- frequently brought alive to Europe, its size, and its enormous bill and talons, at once suggest the vast powers of destruction imputed to it, and are enough to account for the stories told of its ravages on mammals — sloths, fawns, peccaries and spider- monkeys. It has even been asserted to attack the human race. How much of this is fabulous there seems no means at present of determining, but some of the statements are made by veracious travellers — D'Orbigny and Tschudi. It is not uncommon in the forests of the isthmus of Panama, and Salvin says (Proc. Zool. Society, 1864, p. 368) that its flight is slow and heavy. Indeed its owl-like visage, its short wings and soft plumage, do not in- dicate a bird of very active habits, but the weapons of offence with which it is armed show that it must be able to cope with vigorous prey. Its appearance is sufficiently striking — the head and lower parts, except a pectoral band, white, the former adorned with an erectile crest, the upper parts dark grey banded with black, the wings dusky, and the tail barred; but the huge bill and powerful scutellated legs most of all impress the be- holder. The precise affinities of the haroy cannot be said to have been determined. By some authors it is referred to the eagles, by others to the buzzards, and by others again to the hawks; but possibly the first of these alliances is the most likely to be true. (A. N.) HARRAN, HARAN or CHARRAN (Sept. Happav or Kappa : Strabo, Kdppcu: Pliny, Carrae or Carrhae; Arab. Harrdn), in biblical history the place where Terah halted after leaving Ur, and ap- parently the birthplace of Abraham, a town on the stream Jullab, some nine hours' journey from Edessa in Syria. At this point the road from Damascus joins the highway between Nineveh and Carchemish, and Haran had thus considerable military and commercial value. As a strategic position it is mentioned in inscriptions as early as the time of Tiglath Pileser I., about noo B.C., and subsequently by Sargon II., who restored the privileges lost at the rebellion which led to the con- quest referred to in 2 Kings xix. 12 C = Isa. xxxvii. 12). It was the centre of a considerable commerce (Ezek. xxvii. 23), and one of its specialities was the odoriferous gum derived from the strobus (Pliny, H.N. xii. 40). It was here that Crassus in his eastern expedition was attacked and slain by the Parthians (53 B.C.) ; and here also the emperor Caracalla was murdered at the instigation of Macrinus (A.D. 217). Haran was the chief home of the moon-god Sin, whose temple was rebuilt by several kings, among them Assur-bani-pal and Nabunidus and Herodian (iv. 13, 7) mentions the town as possessing in his day a temple of the moon. In the middle ages it is mentioned as having been the seat of a particular heathen sect, that of the Haranite Sabeans. It retained its importance down to the period of the Arab ascendancy; but by Abulfeda it is mentioned as having before his time fallen into decay. It is now wholly in ruins. The Yahwistic writer (Gen. xxvii. 43) makes it the home of Laban and connects it with Isaac and Jacob. But we cannot thus put Haran in Aramnaharaim; the home of the Labanites is rather to be looked for in the very similar word Hauran. HARRAR (or HARAR), a city of N.E. Africa, in 8° 45' N., 42° 36' E., capital of a province of Abyssinia and 220 m. S.S.W. of the ports of Zaila (British) and Jibuti (French) on the Gulf of Aden. With Jibuti it is connected by a railway (188 m. long) and carriage-road. Harrar is built on the slopes of a hill at an elevation of over 5000 ft. A lofty stone wall, pierced by five gates and flanked by twenty-four towers, encloses the city, which has a population of about 40,000. The streets are steep, narrow, dirty and unpaved, the roadways consisting of rough boulders. The houses are in general made of undressed stone and mud and are flat-topped, the general aspect of the city being Oriental and un-Abyssinian. A few houses, including the palace of the governor and the foreign consulates, are of more elaborate and solid construction than the majority of the build- ings. There are several mosques and an Abyssinian church (of the usual circular construction) built of stone. Harrar is a city of considerable commercial importance, through it passing all the merchandise of southern Abyssinia, Kaffa and Galla land. The chief traders are Abyssinians, Armenians and Greeks. The principal article of export is coffee, which is grown extensively in the neighbouring hills and is of the finest quality. Besides coffee there is a large trade in durra, the kat plant (used by the Mahommedans as a drug), ghee, cattle, mules and camels, skins and hides, ivory and gums. The import trade is largely in cotton goods, but every kind of merchandise is included. Harrar is believed to owe its foundation to Arab immigrants from the Yemen in the 7th century of the Christian era. In the region of Somaliland, now the western part of the British pro- tectorate of that name, the Arabs established the Moslem state of Adel or Zaila, with their capital at Zaila on the Gulf of Aden. In the I3th century the sultans of Adel enjoyed great power. In 1521 the then sultan Abubekr transferred the seat of govern- ment to Harrar, probably regarding Zaila as too exposed to the attacks of the Turkish and Portuguese navies then contending HARRATIN— HARRIGAN for the mastery of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Abubekr's successor was Mahommed III., Ahmed ibn Ibrahim el-Ghazi (1507-1543), surnamed Gran (Granye), the left-handed. He was not an Arab but, probably, of Somali origin. The son of a noted warrior, he quickly rose to supreme power, becoming sultan or amir in 1525. He is famous for his invasion of Abys- sinia, of which country he was virtual master for several years. From the beginning of the iyth century Adel suffered greatly from the ravages of pagan Galla tribes, and Harrar sank to the position of an amirate of little importance. It was first visited by a European in 1854 when (Sir) Richard Burton spent ten days there in the guise of an Arab. In 1875 Harrar was occupied by an Egyptian force under Raouf Pasha, by whose orders the amir was strangled. The town remained in the possession of Egypt until 1885, when the garrison was withdrawn in consequence of the rising of the Mahdi in the Sudan. The Egyptian garrison and many Egyptian civilians, in all 6500 persons, left Harrar between November 1884 and the 25th of April 1885, when a son of the ruler who had been deposed by Egypt was installed as amir, the arrangement being carried out under the super- intendence of British officers. The new amir held power until January 1887, in which month Harrar was conquered by Menelek II., king of Shoa (afterwards emperor of Abyssinia). The governorship of Harrar was by Menelek entrusted to Ras Makonnen, who held the post until his death in 1906. The Harrari proper are of a distinct stock from the neigh- bouring peoples, and speak a special language. Harrarese is " a Semitic graft inserted into an indigenous stock " (Sir R. Burton, First Footsteps in East Africa). The Harrari are Mahommedans of the Shafa'i or Persian sect, and they employ the solar year and the Persian calendar. Besides the native population there are in Harrar colonies of Abyssinians, Somalis and Gallas. By the Somalis the place is called Adari, by the Gallas Adaray. See ABYSSINIA; SOMALILAND. Also P. Paulitschke, Harar: Forschungsreise nach den Som&l- und Calla-Landern Ost-Afrikas (Leipzig, 1888). HARRATIN, black Berbers, dwelling in Tidikelt and other Saharan oases. Many of them are blacker than the average negro. In physique, however, they are true to the Berber type, being of handsome appearance with European features and well- proportioned bodies. They are the result of an early crossing with the Sudanese negro races, though to-day they have all the pride of the Berbers (?.».), and do not live with or intermarry among negroes. HARRIER, or HEN-HARRIER, name given to certain birds of prey which were formerly very abundant in parts of the British Islands, from their habit of harrying poultry. The first of these names has now become used in a generic sense for all the species ranked under the genus Circus of Lacepede, and the second con- fined to the particular species which is the Falco cyaneus of Linnaeus and the Circus cyaneus of modern ornithologists. One European species, C. aeruginosus, though called in books the marsh-harrier, is far more commonly known in England and Ireland as the moor-buzzard. But harriers are not, like buzzards, arboreal in their habits, and always affect open country, generally, though not invariably, preferring marshy or fenny districts, for snakes and frogs form a great part of their ordinary food. On the ground their carriage is utterly unlike that of a buzzard, and their long wings and legs render it easy to distinguish the two groups when taken in the hand. All the species also have a more or less well-developed ruff or frill of small thickset feathers surrounding the lower part of the head, nearly like that seen in owls, and accordingly many systematists consider that the genus Circus, though undoubtedly belonging to the Falconidae, connects that family with the Striges. No osteological affinity, however, can be established between the harriers and any section of the owls, and the superficial resemblance will have to be explained in some other way. Harriers are found almost all over the world,1 and 1 The distribution of the different species is rather curious, while the range of some is exceedingly wide, — one, C. maillardi, seems to be limited to the island of Reunion (Bourbon). fifteen species are recognized by Bowdler Sharpe (Cat. Birds Brit. Museum, i. pp. 50-73). In most if not all the harriers the sexes differ greatly in colour, so much so that for a long while the males and females of one of the commonest and best known, the C. cyaneus above mentioned, were thought to be distinct .species, and were or still are called in various European languages by different names. The error was maintained with the greater persistency since the young males, far more abundant than the adults, wear much the same plumage as their mother, and it was not until after Montagu's observations were published at the v» vV^ Hen- Harrier (Male and Female). beginning of the ipth century that the " ringtail," as she was called (the Falco pygargus of Linnaeus), was generally admitted to be the female of the " hen-harrier." But this was not Montagu's only good service as regards this genus. He proved the hitherto unexpected existence of a second species,2 subject to the same diversity of plumage. This was called by him the ash-coloured falcon, but it now generally bears his name, and is known as Montagu's harrier, C. cineraceus. In habits it is very similar to the hen-harrier, but it has longer wings, and its range is not so northerly, for while the hen-harrier extends to Lapland, Mon- tagu's is but very rare in Scotland, though in the south of England it is the most common species. Harriers indeed in the British Islands are rapidly becoming things of the past. Their nests are easily found, and the birds when nesting are easily destroyed. In the south-east of Europe, reaching also to the Cape of Good Hope and to India, there is a fourth species, the C. swainsoni of some writers, the C. pallidus of others. In North America C. cyaneus is represented by a kindred form, C. hudsonius, usually regarded as a good species, the adult male of which is always to be recognized by its rufous markings beneath, in which character it rather resembles C. cineraceus, but it has not the long wings of that species. South America has in C. cinereus another representative form, while China, India and Australia possess more of this type. Thus there is a section in which the males have a strongly contrasted black -and grey plumage, and finally there is a group of larger forms allied to the European C. aeru- ginosus, wherein a grey dress is less often attained, of which the South African C. raniwrus and the New Zealand C. gouldi are examples. (A. N.) HARRIGAN, EDWARD (1845- ), American actor, was born in New York of Irish parents on the 26th of October 1845. He made his first appearance in San Francisco in 1867, and soon afterwards formed a stage partnership with Tony Hart, whose real name was Anthony Cannon. As " Harrigan and Hart," they had a great success in the presentation of types of low life in New York. Beginning as simple sketches, these were gradually worked up into plays, with occasional songs, set to popular music 8 A singular mistake, which has been productive of further error, was made by Albin, who drew his figure (Hist. Birds, ii. pi. 5) from a specimen of one species, and coloured it from a specimen of the other. i8 HARRIMAN, E. H.— HARRINGTON, J. by David Braham. The titles of these plays indicate their character, The Mulligan Guards, Squatter Sovereignty, A Leather Patch, The O'Regans. The partnership with Hart lasted from 1871-1884. Subsequently Harrigan played in different cities of the United States, one of his favourite parts being George Coggs- well in Old Lavender. HARRIMAN, EDWARD HENRY (1848-1909), American financier and railroad magnate, son of the Rev. Orlando Harriman, rector of St George's Episcopal church, Hempstead, L.I., was born at Hempstead on the 25th of February 1848. He became a broker's clerk in New York at an early age, and in 1870 was able to buy a seat on the New York Stock Exchange on his own account. For a good many years there was nothing sensational in his success, but he built up a considerable business connexion and prospered in his financial operations. Meanwhile he carefully mastered the situation affecting American railways. In this respect he was assisted by his friendship with Mr Stuy- vesant Fish, who, on becoming vice-president of the Illinois Central in 1883, brought Harriman upon the directorate, and in 1887, being then president, made Harriman vice-president; twenty years later it was Harriman who dominated the finance of the Illinois Central, and Fish, having become his opponent, was dropped from the board. It was not till 1898, however, that his career as a great railway organizer began with his formation, by the aid of the bankers, Kuhn, Loeb & Co., of a syndicate to acquire the Union Pacific line, which was then in the hands of a receiver and was generally regarded as a hopeless failure. It was soon found that a new power had arisen in the railway world. Having brought the Union Pacific out of bankruptcy into prosperity, and made it an efficient instead of a decaying line, he utilized his position to draw other lines within his control, notably the Southern Pacific in 1901. These extensions of his power were not made without friction, and his abortive contest in 1901 with James J. Hill for the control of the Northern Pacific led to one of the most serious financial crises ever known on Wall Street. But in the result he became the dominant factor in American railway matters. At his death, on the 9th of September 1909, his influence was estimated to extend over 60,000 m. of track, with an annual earning power of $700,000,000 or over. Astute and unscrupulous manipulation of the stock markets, and a capacity for the hardest of bargaining and the most determined warfare against his rivals, had their place in this success, and Harriman's methods excited the bitterest criticism, culminating in a stern denunciation from President Roosevelt himself in 1907. Nevertheless, besides acquiring colossal wealth for himself, he helped to create for the American public a vastly improved railway service, the benefit of which survived all controversy as to the means by which he triumphed over the obstacles in his way. HARRIMAN, a city of Roane county, Tennessee, U.S.A., on the Emory river, about 35 m.W. by S.of Knoxville. Pop. (1900) 3442 (5 1 6 being negroes); (1910) 3061. Harriman is served by the Har- riman & North Eastern, the Tennessee Central, and the Southern railways. It is the seat of the East Tennessee Normal and Industrial Institute, for negroes, and of the American University of Harriman (Christian Church, coeducational; 1893), which comprises primary, preparatory, collegiate, Bible school, civic research, commercial, music and art departments, and in 1907- 1908 had 12 instructors and 317 students. Near the city are large deposits of iron and an abundance of coal and timber. Among manufactures are cotton products, farming tools, leather, tannic acid, furniture and flour. Harriman was founded in 1890 by a land company. A clause in this company's by-laws requires that every conveyance of real estate by the company " shall contain a provision forbidding the use of the property or any building thereon, for the purpose of making, storing or selling intoxicating beverages as such." Harriman was chartered as a city in 1891, and its charter was revised in 1899. HARRINGTON, EARLS OF. The first earl of Harrington was the diplomatist and politician, William Stanhope (c. 1690- 1756), a younger son of John Stanhope of Elvaston, Derbyshire, and a brother of Charles Stanhope (1673-1760), an active politician during the reign of George I. His ancestor, Sir John Stanhope (d. 1638). was a half-brother of Philip Stanhope, ist earl of Chesterfield. Educated at Eton, William Stanhope entered the army and served in Spain, but soon he turned his attention to more peaceful pursuits, went on a mission to Madrid and represented his country at Turin. When peace was made between England and Spain in 1720 Stanhope became British ambassador to the latter country, and he retained this position until March 1727, having built up his reputation as a diplomatist during a difficult period. In 1729 he had some part in arranging the treaty of Seville between England, France and Spain, and for his services in this matter he was created Baron Harrington in January 1730. Laterin thesame year he was appointed secretary of state for the northern department under Sir Robert Walpole, but, like George II., he was anxious to assist the emperor Charles VI. in his war with France, while Walpole favoured a policy of peace. Although the latter had his way Harrington remained secretary until the great minister's fall in 1742, when he was transferred to the office of president of the council and was created earl of Harrington and Viscount Petersham. In 1744, owing to the influence of his political allies, the Pelhams, he returned to his former post of secretary of state, but he soon lost the favour of the king, and this was the principal cause why he left office in October 1746. He was lord lieutenant of Ireland from 1747 to 1751, and he died in London on the 8th of December 1756. The earl's successor was his son, William (1719-1779), who entered the army, was wounded at Fontenoy and became a general in 1770. He was a member of parliament for about ten years and he died on the ist of April 1779. This earl's wife Caroline (1722-1784), daughter of Charles Fitzroy, 2nd duke of Grafton, was a noted beauty, but was also famous for her eccentricities. Their elder son, Charles(i753-i829),whobccame the 3rd earl, was a distinguished soldier. He served with the British army during the American War of Independence and attained the rank of general in 1802. From 1805 to 1812 he was commander-in-chief in Ireland; he was sent on diplomatic errands to Vienna and to Berlin, and he died at Brighton on the i jth of September 1829. Charles Stanhope, 4th earl of Harrington (1780-1851), the eldest son of the 3rd earl, was known as Lord Petersham until he succeeded to the earldom in 1829. He was very well known in society owing partly to his eccentric habits; he dressed like the French king Henry IV., and had other personal peculiarities. He married the actress, Maria Foote, but when he died in March 1851 he left no sons, and his brother Leicester Fitzgerald Charles (1784-1862) became the sth earl. This nobleman was a soldier and a politician of advanced views, who is best known as a worker with Lord Byron in the cause of Greek independence. He was in Greece in 1823 and 1824, where his relations with Byron were not altogether harmonious. He wrote A Sketch of the History and Influence of the Press in British India (1823); and Greece in 1823 and 1824 (English edition 1824, American edition 1825). His son Sydney Seymour Hyde, 6th earl (1845-1866), dying unmarried, was succeeded by a cousin, Charles Wyndham Stanhope (1809-1881), as 7th earl, and in 1881 the latter's son Charles Augustus Stanhope (b. 1844) became Sth earl of Harrington. Before the time of the first earl of Harrington the Stanhope family had held the barony of Stanhope of Harrington, which was created in 1605 in favour of Sir John Stanhope (c. 1550-1621) of Harrington, Northamptonshire. Sir John was a younger son of Sir Michael Stanhope (d. 1552) of Shelford, Nottinghamshire, who was a brother- in-law of the protector Somerset. Sir Michael's support of Somerset cost him his life, as he was beheaded on the 26th of February 1552. Sir John was treasurer of the chamber from 1596 to 1616 and was a member of parliament for several years. He died on the 9th of March 1621, and when his only son Charles, 2nd baron (c. 1595-1675), died without issue in 1675 the barony became extinct. HARRINGTON, or HARINGTON, JAMES (1611-1677), English political philosopher, was born in January 161 1 of an old Rutland- shire family. He was son of Sir Sapcotes Harrington of Rand, Lincolnshire, and great-nephew of the first Lord Harington of Exton (d. 1615). In 1629 he entered Trinity College, Oxford, as HARRIOT— HARRIS, J. a gentleman commoner. One of his tutors was the famous Chillingworth. After several years spent in travel, and as a soldier in the Dutch army, he returned to England and lived in retirement till 1646, when he was appointed to the suite of Charles I., at that time being conveyed from Newcastle as prisoner. Though republican in his ideas, Harrington won the king's regard and esteem, and accompanied him to the Isle of Wight. He roused, however, the suspicion of the parliament- arians and was dismissed: it is said that he was for a short time put in confinement because he would not swear to refuse assist- ance to the king should he attempt to escape. After Charles's death Harrington devoted his time to the composition of his Oceana, a work which pleased neither party. By order of Cromwell it was seized when passing through the press. Harrington, how- ever managed to secure the favour of the Protector's favourite daughter, Mrs Claypole; the work was restored to him, and appeared in 1656, dedicated to Cromwell. The views embodied in Oceana, particularly that bearing on vote by ballot and rota- tion of magistrates and legislators, Harrington and others (who in 1659 formed a club called the " Rota ") endeavoured to push practically, but with no success. In November 1661, by order of Charles II., Harrington was arrested, apparently without sufficient cause, on a charge of conspiracy, and was thrown into the Tower. Despite his repeated request no public trial could be obtained, and when at length his sisters obtained a writ of habeas corpus he was secretly removed to St Nicholas Island off Plymouth. There his health gave way owing to his drinking guaiacum on medical advice, and his mind appeared to be affected. Careful treatment restored him to bodily vigour, but his mind never wholly recovered. After his release he married, — at what date does not seem to be precisely known. He died on the nth of September 1677, and was buried next to Sir Walter Raleigh in St Margaret's, Westminster. Harrington's writings consist of the Oceana, and of papers, pamphlets, aphorisms, even treatises, in defence of the Oceana. The Oceana is a hard, prolix, and in many respects heavy exposi- tion of an ideal constitution, " Oceana " being England, and the lawgiver Olphaus Megaletor, Oliver Cromwell. The details are elaborated with infinite care, even the salaries of officials being computed, but the main ideas are two in number, each with a practical corollary. The first is that the determining element of power in a state is property generally, property in land in particular; the second is that the executive power ought not to be vested for any considerable time in the same men or class of men. In accordance with the first of these, Harrington re- commends an agrarian law, limiting the portion of land held to that yielding a revenue of £3000, and consequently insisting on particular modes of distributing landed property. As a practical issue of the second he lays down the rule of rotation by ballot. A third part of the executive or senate are voted out by ballot every year (not being capable of being elected again for three years). Harrington explains very carefully how the state and its govern- ing parts are to be constituted by his scheme. Oceana contains many valuable ideas, but it is irretrievably dull. His Works were edited with biography by John Toland in 1700; Toland's edition, with additions by Birch, appeared in 1747, and again in 1771. Oceana was reprinted by Henry Morley in 1887. See Dwight in Political Science Quarterly (March, 1887). Harrington has often been confused with his cousin Sir James Harrington, a member of the commission which tried Charles I., and afterwards excluded from the acts of pardon. HARRIOT.or HARRIOTT, THOMAS (1560-1621), English mathe- matician and astronomer, was born at Oxford in 1560. After studying at St Mary Hall, Oxford, he became tutor to Sir Walter Raleigh, who appointed him in 1585 to the office of geographer to the second expedition to Virginia. Harriot published an account of this expedition in 1588, which was afterwards reprinted in Hakluyt's Voyages. On his return to England, after an absence of two years, he resumed his mathematical studies, and having made the acquaintance of Henry Percy, earl of Northumberland, distinguished for his patronage of men of science, he received from him a yearly pension of £120. He died at London on the 2nd of July 1621. A manuscript of Harriot's entitled Ephemeris chrysometria is preserved in Sion College; and his Artis analyticae praxis ad aequationes alge- braicas resolvendas was published at London in 1631. His con- tributions to algebra are treated in the article ALGEBRA; Wallis's History of Algebra (1685) may also be consulted. From some papers of Harriot's, discovered in 1784, it would appear that he had either procured a telescope from Holland, or divined the construction of that instrument, and that he coincided in point of time with Galileo in discovering the spots on the sun's disk. See Charles Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1815), and J. E. Montucla, Histoire des mathematigues (1758). HARRIS, GEORGE, IST BARON (1746-1829), British general, was the son of the Rev George Harris, curate of Brasted, Kent, and was born on the i8th of March 1746. Educated at West- minster school and at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, he was commissioned to the Royal Artillery in 1760, transferring to an ensigncy in the 5th foot (Northumberland Fusiliers) in 1762. Three years la.ter he became lieutenant, and in 1771 captain. His first active service was in the American War of Independence, in which he served at Lexington, Bunker Hill (severely wounded) and in every engagement of Howe's army except one up to November 1778. By this time he had obtained his majority, and his next service was under Major-General Medows at Santa Lucia in 1778-1779, after which his regiment served as marines in Rodney's fleet. Later in 1779 he was for a time a prisoner of war. Shortly before his promotion to lieu- tenant-colonel in his regiment (1780) he married. After com- manding the 5th in Ireland for some years, he exchanged and went with General Medows to Bombay, and served with that officer in India until 1792, taking part in various battles and engagements, notably Lord Cornwallis's attack on Seringapatam. In 1794, after a short period of home service, he was again in India. In the same year he became major-general, and in 1796 local lieutenant-general in Madras. Up to 1800 he commanded the troops in the presidency, and for a short time he exercised the civil government as well. In December 1798 he was appointed by Lord Wellesley, the governor-general, to command the field army which was intended to attack Tipu Sahib, and in a few months Harris reduced the Mysore country and stormed the great stronghold of Seringapatam. His success established his reputation as a capable and experienced commander, and its political importance led to his being offered the reward (which he declined) of an Irish peerage. He returned home in 1800, became lieutenant-general in the army the following year, and attained the rank of full general in 1812. In 1815 he was made a peer of the United Kingdom under the title Baron Harris of Seringapatam and Mysore, and of Belmont, Kent. In 1820 he received the G.C.B., and in 1824 the governorship of Dumbarton Castle. Lord Harris died at Belmont in May 1829. He had been colonel of the 73rd Highlanders since 1800. His descendant, the 4th Baron Harris (b. 1851), best known as a cricketer, was under-secretary for India (1883-1886), under- secretary for war (1886-1889) and governor of Bombay (1890- 1895). See Rt. Hon. S. Lushington, Life of Lord Harris (London, 1840), and the regimental histories of the 5th Northumberland Fusiliers and 73rd Highlanders. HARRIS, JAMES (1709-1780), English grammarian, was born at Salisbury on the zoth of July 1709. He was educated at the grammar school in the Close at Salisbury, and at Wadham College, Oxford. On leaving the university he was entered at Lincoln's Inn as a student of law, though not intended for the bar. The death of his father in 1733 placed him in possession of an independent fortune and of the house in Salisbury Close. He became a county magistrate, and represented Christchurch in parliament from 1761 till his death, and was comptroller to the queen from 1774 to 1780. He held office under Lord Grenville, retiring with him in 1765. The decided bent of his mind had always been towards the Greek and Latin classics; and to the study of these, especially of Aristotle, he applied himself with unremitting assiduity during a period of fourteen or fifteen 20 HARRIS, J. C.— HARRIS, SIR W. S. years. He published in 1744 three treatises — on art; on music, painting and poetry; and on happiness. In 1751 appeared the work by which he became best known, Hermes, a philosophical inquiry concerning universal grammar. He also published Philosophical Arrangements and Philosophical Inquiries. Harris was a great lover of music, and adapted the words for a selec- tion from Italian and German composers, published by the cathedral organist, James Corfe. He died on the 22nd of December 1780. His works were collected and published in 1801, by his son, the first earl of Malmesbury, who prefixed a brief biography. HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER (1848-1908), American author, was born in Eatonton, Putnam county, Georgia, on the 8th of December 1848. He started as an apprentice to the printer's trade in the office of the Countryman, a weekly paper published on a plantation not far from his home. He then studied law, and practised for a short time in Forsyth, Ga., but soon took to journalism. He joined the staff of the Savannah Daily News in 1871, and in 1876 that of the Atlanta Constitution, of which he was an editor from 1890 to 1901, and in this capacity did much to further the cause of the New South. But his most distinctive contribution to this paper, and to American literature, consisted of his dialect pieces dealing with negro life and folklore. His stories are characterized by quaint humour, poetic feeling and homely philosophy; and " Uncle Remus," the principal character of most of them, is a remarkably vivid and real creation. The first collection of his stories was published in 1880 as Uncle Remus: his Songs and his Sayings. Among his later works are Nights with Uncle Remus (1883), Mingo and Other Sketches in Black and White (1884), Free Joe and Other Georgian Sketches (1887), Balaam and His Master and Other Sketches and Stories (1891), Uncle Remus and His Friends (1892), On the Plantation (1892), which is partly autobiographic, Sister Jane (1896), The Chronicles of Aunt Minervy Ann (1899), and The Tar- Baby and Other Rhymes of Uncle Remus (1904). More purely juvenile are Daddy Jake the Runaway and Other Stories (1889), Little Mr Thimblefinger and his Queer Country (1894) and its sequel Mr Rabbit at Home (1895), Aaron in the Wildwoods (1897), Plantation Pageants (1899), Told by Uncle Remus (1905), and Uncle Remus and Br'er Rabbit (1907). He was one of the compilers of the Life of Henry W. Grady, including his Writings and Speeches (1890) and wrote Stories of Georgia (1896), and Georgia from the Invasion of De Soto to Recent Times (1899). He died in Atlanta on the 3rd of July 1908. HARRIS, JOHN (c. 1666-1719), English writer. He is best known as the editor of the Lexicon technicum, or Dictionary of the Arts and Sciences (1704), which ranks as the earliest of the long line of English encyclopaedias, and as the compiler of the Collection of Voyages and Travels which passes under his name. He was born about 1666, probably in Shropshire, and was a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, from 1684 to 1688. He was presented to the vicarage of Icklesham in Sussex, and subse- quently to the rectory of St Thomas, Winchelsea. In 1698 he was entrusted with the delivery of the seventh series of the Boyle lectures — Atheistical Objections against the Being of God and His Attributes fairly considered and fully refuted. Between 1702 and 1704 he delivered at the Marine Coffee House in Birchin Lane the mathematical lectures founded by Sir Charles Cox, and advertised himself as a mathematical tutor at Amen Corner. The friendship of Sir William Cowper, afterwards lord chancellor, secured for him the office of private chaplain, a prebend in Rochester cathedral (1708), and the rectory of the united parishes of St Mildred, Bread Street and St Margaret Moses, in addition to other preferments. He showed himself an ardent supporter of the government, and engaged in a bitter quarrel with the Rev. Charles Humphreys, who afterwards was chaplain to Dr Sacheverel. Harris was one of the early members of the Royal Society, and for a time acted as vice-president. At his death on the 7th of September 1719, he was busy completing an elaborate History of Kent. He is said to have died in poverty brought on by his own bad management of his affairs. HARRIS, THOMAS LAKE (1823-1906), American spiritual- istic "prophet," was born at Fenny Stratford in Buckinghamshire, England, on the isth of May 1823. His parents were Calvinistic Baptists, and very poor. They settled at Utica, New York, when Harris was five years old. When he was about twenty Harris became a Universalist preacher, and then aSwedenborgian. He became associated about 1847 with a spiritualist of indifferent character named Davis. After Davis had been publicly exposed, Harris established a congregation in New York. About 1850 he professed to receive inspirations, and published some long poems. He had the gift of improvisation in a very high degree. About 1859 he preached in London, and is described as a man " with low, black eyebrows, black beard, and sallow countenance." He was an effective speaker, and his poetry was admired by many; Alfred Austin in his book The Poetry of the Period even devoted a chapter to Harris. He founded in 1861 a community at Wassaic, New York, and opened a bank and a mill, which he superintended. There he was joined by about sixty converts, including five orthodox clergymen, some Japanese people, some American ladies of position, and especially by Laurence Oliphant (q.ii.) with his wife and mother. The community — the Brother- hood of the New Life— decided to settle at the village of Brocton on the shore of Lake Erie. Harris established there a wine- making industry. In reply to the objections of teetotallers he said that the wine prepared by himself was filled with the divine breath so that all noxious influences were neutralized. Harris also built a tavern and strongly advocated the use of tobacco. He exacted complete surrender from his disciples — even the surrender of moral judgment. He taught that God was bi-sexual, and apparently, though not in reality, that the rule of society should be one of married celibacy. He professed to teach his community a change in the mode of respiration which was to be the visible sign of possession by Christ and the seal of immortality. The Oliphants broke away from therestraint about 1881, charging him with robbery and succeeding in getting back from him many thousands of pounds by legal proceedings. But while losing faith in Harris himself, they did not abandon his main teaching. In Laurence Oliphant's novel Masollam his view of Harris will be found. Briefly, he held that Harris was originally honest, greatly gifted, and possessed of certain psychical powers. But in the end he came to practise unbridled licence under the loftiest pretensions, made the profession of extreme disinterestedness a cloak to conceal his avarice, and demanded from his followers a blind and supple obedience. Harris in 1876 discontinued for a time public activities, but issued to a secret circle books of verse dwelling mainly on sexual questions. On these his mind ran from the first. In 1891 he announced that his body had been renewed, and that he had discovered the secret of the resuscitation of humanity. He pub- lished a book, Lyra triumphalis, dedicated to A. C. Swinburne. He also made a third marriage, and visited England intending to remain there. He was called back by a fire which destroyed large stocks of his wine, and remained in New York till 1903, when he visited Glasgow. His followers believed that he had attained the secret of immortal life on earth, and after his death on the 23rd of March 1906 declared that he was only sleeping. It was three months before it was acknowledged publicly that he was really dead. There can be little or no doubt as to the real character of Harris. His teaching was esoteric in form, but is a thinly veiled attempt to alter the ordering of sexual relations. The authoritative biography from the side of his disciples is the Life byA. A. Cuthbert, published in Glasgow in 1908. It is full of the jargon of Harris's sect, but contains some biographical facts as well as many quotations. Mrs Oliphant's Life of Laurence Oliphant (1891) has not been shaken in any important particular, and Oli- phant's own portrait of Harris in Masollam is apparently unexag- gerated. But Harris had much personal magnetism, unbounded self-confidence, along with endless fluency, and to the last was believed in by some disciples of character and influence. (W. R. Ni.) HARRIS, SIR WILLIAM SNOW (1701-1867), English electrician, was descended from an old family of solicitors at Plymouth, where he was born on the ist of April 1791. He received his early education at the Plymouth grammar-school, HARRIS, W. T.— HARRISBURG 21 and completed a course of medical studies at the university of Edinburgh, after which he established himself as a general medical practitioner in Plymouth. On his marriage in 1824 he resolved to abandon his profession on account of its duties interfering too much with his favourite study of electricity. As early as 1820 he had invented a new method of arranging the lightning conductors of ships, the peculiarity of which was that the metal was permanently fixed in the masts and extended throughout the hull; but it was only with great difficulty, and not till nearly thirty years afterwards, that his invention was adopted by the government for the royal navy. In 1826 he read a paper before the Royal Society " On the Relative Powers of various Metallic Substances as Conductors of Electricity," which led to his being elected a fellow of the society in 1831. Subse- quently, in 1834, 1836 and 1839, he read before the society several valuable papers on the elementary laws of electricity, and he also communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh various interesting accounts of his experiments and discoveries in the same field of inquiry. In 1835 he received the Copley gold medal from the Royal Society for his papers on the laws of electricity of high tension, and in 1839 he was chosen to deliver the Bakerian lecture. Meanwhile, although a government commission had recommended the general adoption of his conductors in the royal navy, and the government had granted him an annuity of £300 "in consideration of services in the cultivation of science," the naval authorities continued to offer various objections to his invention; to aid in removing these he in 1843 published his work on Thunderstorms, and also about the same time contributed a number of papers to the Nautical Magazine illustrative of damage by lightning. His system was actually adopted in the Russian navy before he succeeded in removing the prejudices against it in England, and in 1845 the emperor of Russia, in acknowledgment of his services, presented him with a valuable ring and vase. At length, the efficiency of his system being acknowledged, he received in 1847 the honour of knighthood, and subsequently a grant of £5000. After suc- ceeding in introducing his invention into general use Harris resumed his labours in the field of original research, but as he failed to realize the advances that had been made by the new school of science his application resulted in no discoveries of much value. His manuals of Electricity, Galvanism and Magnetism, published between 1848 and 1856, were, however, written with great clearness, and passed through several editions. He died at Plymouth on the 22nd of January 1867, while having in preparation a Treatise on Frictional Electricity, which was published posthumously in the same year, with a memoir of the author by Charles Tomlinson. HARRIS, WILLIAM TORREY (1835-1909), American edu- cationist, was born in North Killingly, Connecticut, on the xoth of September 1835. He studied at Phillips Andover Academy, Andover, Massachusetts, and entered Yale, but left in his junior year (1857) to accept a position as a teacher of shorthand in the St Louis, Missouri, public schools. Advancing through the grades of principal and assistant superintendent, he was city superintendent of schools from 1867 until 1880. In 1858, under the stimulus of Henry C. Brockmeyer, Harris became interested in modern German philosophy in general, and in particular in Hegel, whose works a small group, gather- ing about Harris and Brockmeyer, began to study in 1859. From 1867 to 1893 Harris edited The Journal of Speculative Philosophy (22 vols.), which was the quarterly organ of the Philosophical Society founded in 1866. The Philosophical Society died out before 1874, when Harris founded in St Louis a Kant Club, which lived for fifteen years. In 1873, with Miss Susan E. Blow, he established in St Louis the first permanent public-school kindergarten in America. He represented the United States Bureau of Education at the International Con- gress of Educators at Brussels in 1880. In 1889 he represented the United States Bureau of Education at the Paris Exposition, and from 1889 to 1906 was United States commissioner of education. In 1899 the university of Jena gave him the honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy for his work on Hegel. In 1906 the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching conferred upon him "as the first man to whom such recognition for meritorious service is given, the highest retiring allowance which our rules will allow, an annual income of $3000." Besides being a contributor to the magazines and encyclopedias on educational and philosophical subjects, he wrote An Intro- duction to the Study of Philosophy (1889); The Spiritual Sense of Dante's Divina Commedia (1889); Hegel's Logic (1890); and Psychologic Foundations of Education (1898); and edited Appleton's International Education Series and Webster's Inter- national Dictionary. He died on the sth of November 1909. See Henry R. Evans, "A List of the Writings of William Torrey Harris ' in the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1007 vol. i. (Washington, 1908). HARRISBURG, the capital of Pennsylvania, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Dauphin county, on the E. bank of the Susque- hanna river, about 105 m. W. by N. of Philadelphia. Pop. (189°), 39,38s; (i9°°), 50,167, of whom 2493 were foreign-born and 4107 were negroes; (1910 census) 64,186. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia & Reading, the Northern Central and the Cumberland Valley railways; and the Pennsyl- vania canal gives it water communication with the ocean. The river here is a mile wide, and is ordinarily very shallow and dotted with islets, but rises from 4 to 6 ft. after a moderate rain; it is spanned by several bridges. The city lies for the most part on the E. slope of a hill extend- ing from the river bank, several feet in height, across the Penn- sylvania canal to Paxton Creek. Front Street, along the river, is part of a parkway connecting the park system with which the city is encircled. Overlooking it are the finest residences, among them the governor's mansion. State Street, 120 ft. in width, runs at right angles with Front Street through the business centre of the city, being interrupted by the Capitol Park (about 16 acres). The Capitol,1 dedicated in 1906, was erected to re- place one burned in 1897; it is a fine building, with a dome modelled after St Peter's at Rome. At the main entrance are bronze doors, decorated in relief with scenes from the state's history; the floor of the rotunda is of tiles made at Doylestown, in the style of the pottery made by early Moravian settlers, and illustrating the state's resources; the Senate Chamber and the House Chamber have stained-glass windows by W. B. van Ingen and mural paintings by Edwin A. Abbey, who painted a series, " The Development of the Law," for the Supreme Court room in the eastern wing and decorated the rotunda. The mural decorations of the south corridor, by W. B. van Ingen, portray the state's religious sects; those in the north corridor, by John W. Alexander, represent the changes in the physical and material character of the state; and there is a frieze by Miss Violet Oakley, " The Founding of the State of Liberty Spiritual," in the governor's reception room. Two heroic groups of statuary for the building were designed by George Grey Barnard. The state library in the Capitol contains about 150,000 volumes. In the same park is also a monument 105 ft. high erected in 1 For this building the legislature in 1901 appropriated $4,000,000, stipulating that it should be completed before the 1st of January 1907, It was completed by that-time, the net expenditure of the building commission being about $3,970,000. Although the legis- lature had made no provision for furniture and decoration, the state Board of Public Grounds and Buildings (governor, auditor-general and treasurer) undertook to complete the furnishing and decoration of the building within the stipulated time, and paid out for that purpose more than $8,600,000. In May 1906 a new treasurer entered office, who discovered that many items for furniture and decoration were charged twice, once at a normal and again at a remarkably high figure. In 1907 the legislature appointed a committee to investigate the charge of fraud. The committee's decision was that the Board of Grounds and Buildings was not authorized to let the decorating and furnishing of the state house; that it had illegally authorized certain expenditures; and that architect and contractors had made fraudulent invoices and certificates. Various indictments were found : in the first trial for conspiracy in the making and delivering of furniture the contractor and the former auditor-general, state treasurer and superintendent of public grounds and buildings were convicted and in December 1908 were sentenced to two years' imprisonment and fined $500 each; in 1910 a suit was brought for the recovery of about $5,000,000 from those responsible. 22 HARRISMITH— HARRISON, BENJAMIN 1868 to the memory of the soldiers who fell in the Mexican War; it has a column of Maryland marble 76 ft. high, which is sur- mounted by an Italian marble statue of Victory, executed in Rome. At the base of the monument are muskets used by United States soldiers in that war and guns captured at Cerro Gordo. In State Street is the Dauphin County Soldiers' monu- ment, a shaft 10 ft. sq. at the base and no ft. high, with a pyra- midal top. For several years prior to 1902 Harrisburg suffered much from impure water, a bad sewerage system, and poorly paved and dirty streets. In that year, however, a League for Municipal Improvements was formed; in February 1902 a loan of $1,000,000 for municipal improvements was voted, landscape gardeners and sewage engineers were consulted, and a non- partisan mayor was elected, under whom great advances were made in street cleaning and street paving, a new nitration plant was completed, the river front was beautified and protected from flood, sewage was diverted from Paxton Creek, and the development of an extensive park system was undertaken. Harrisburg's charitable institutions include a city hospital, a home for the friendless, a children's industrial home, and a state lunatic hospital (1845). The city is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric. Both coal and iron ore abound in the vicinity, and the city has numerous manufacturing establish- ments. The value of its factory products in 1905 .was $17,146,338 (14-3% more than in 1900), the more import- ant being those of steel works and rolling mills ($4,528,907), blast furnaces, steam railway repair shops, cigar and cigarette factories ($1,258,498), foundries and machine shops ($953,617), boot and shoe factories ($922,568), flouring and grist mills, slaughtering and meat-packing establishments and silk mills. Harrisburg was named in honour of John Harris, who, upon coming into this region to trade early in the i8th century, was attracted to the site as an easy place at which to ford the Susque- hanna, and about 1726 settled here. He was buried in what is now Harris Park, where he erected the first building, a small hut, within the present limits of Harrisburg. In 1753 his son estab- lished a ferry over the river, and the place was called Harris's Ferry until 1785, when the younger Harris laid out the town and named it Harrisburg. In the same year it was made the county- seat of the newly constituted county of Dauphin, and its name was changed to Louisburg; but when, in 1791, it was incorporated as a borough, the present name was again adopted. In 1812, after an effort begun twenty-five years before, it was made the capital of the state; and in 1860 it was chartered as a city. In the summer of 1827, through the persistent efforts of persons most interested in the woollen manufactures of Massachusetts and other New England states to secure legislative aid for that industry, a convention of about 100 delegates — manufacturers, newspaper men and politicians — was held in Harrisburg, and the programme adopted by the convention did much to bring about the passage of the famous high tariff act of 1828. HARRISMITH, a town in the Orange Free State, 60 m. N.W. by rail of Ladysmith, Natal, and 240 m. N.E. of Bloemfontein via Bethlehem. Pop. (1904) 8300 (including troops 1921). It is built on the banks of the Wilge, 5250 ft. above the sea and some 20 m. W. of the Drakensberg. Three miles N. is the Platberg, a table-shaped mountain rising 2000 ft. above the town, whence an excellent supply of water is derived. The town is well laid out and several of the streets are lined with trees. Most of the houses are built of white stone quarried in the neighbourhood. The Kaffirs, who numbered in 1904 3483, live in a separate location. Harrismith has a dry, bracing climate and enjoys a high reputation in South Africa as a health resort. It serves one of the best-watered and most fertile agricultural and pastoral districts of the province, of which it is the chief eastern trading centre. Wool and hides are the principal exports. Harrismith was founded in 1849, the site first chosen being on the Elands river, where the small town of Aberfeldig now is; but the advantages of the present site soon became apparent and the settlement was removed. The founders were Sir Harry Smith (after whom the town is named), then governor of Cape Colony, and Major Henry D. Warden, at that time British resident at Bloemfontein, whose name is perpetuated in that of the principal street. In a cave about 2 m. from the town are well-preserved Bushman paintings. HARRISON, BENJAMIN (1833-1901), the twenty-third president of the United States, was born at North Bend, near Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 2oth of August 1833. His great- grandfather, Benjamin Harrison of Virginia (c. 1740-1791), was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. His grandfather, William Henry Harrison (1773-1841), was ninth president of the United States. His father, John Scott Harrison (1804-1878), represented his district in the national House of Representatives in 1853-1857. Benjamin's youth was passed upon the ancestral farm, and as opportunity afforded he attended school in the log school-house near his home. He was prepared for college by a private tutor, studied for two years at the Farmers' College, near Cincinnati, and in 1852 graduated from Miami University, at that time the leading educational institution in the State of Ohio. From his youth he was diligent in his studies and a great reader, and during his college life showed a marked talent for extemporaneous speaking. He pursued the study of law, partly in the office of Bellamy Storer (1798-1875), a leading lawyer and judge of Cincinnati, and in 1853 he was admitted to the bar. At the age of twenty-one he removed to Indianapolis. He had but one acquaintance in the place, the clerk of the federal court, who permitted him to occupy a desk in his office and place at the door his sign as a lawyer. Waiting for professional business, he was content to act as court crier for two dollars and a half a day; but he soon gave indications of his talent, and his studious habits and attention to his cases rapidly brought him clients. Within a few years he took rank among the leading members of the profession at a bar which included some of the ablest lawyers of the country. His legal career was early inter- rupted by the Civil War. His whole heart was enlisted in the anti-slavery cause, and during the second year of the war he accepted a commission from the governor of the state as second- lieutenant and speedily raised a regiment. He became its colonel, and as such continued in the Union Army until the close of the war, and on the 23rd of January 1865 was breveted a brigadier-general of volunteers for " ability and manifest energy and gallantry in command of brigade." He participated with his regiment in various engagements during General Don Carlos Buell's campaigns in Kentucky and Tennessee in 1862 and 1863; took part in General W. T. Sherman's march on Atlanta in 1864 and in the Nashville campaign of the same year; and was transferred early in 1865 to Sherman's army in its march through the Carolinas. As the commander of a brigade he served with particular distinction in the battles of Kenesaw Mountain (June 29~July 3, 1864), Peach Tree Creek (2oth of July 1864) and Nashville (i5th-i6th of December 1864). Allowing for this interval of military service, he applied himself exclusively for twenty-four years to his legal work. The only office he held was that of reporter of the supreme court of Indiana for two terms (1860-1862 and 1864-1868), and this was strictly in the line of his profession. He was a devoted member of the Republican party, but not a politician in the strict sense. Once he became a candidate for governor, in 1876, but his candidature was a forlorn hope, undertaken from a sense of duty after the regular nominee had withdrawn. He took a deep interest in the campaign which resulted in the election of James A. Garfield as president, and was offered by him a place in his cabinet; but this he declined, having been elected a member of the United States Senate, in which he took his seat on the 4th of March 1881. He was chairman of the committee on territories, and took an active part in urging the admission as states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington, Idaho and Montana, which finally came into the Union during his presidency. He served also on the committee of military and Indian affairs, the committee on foreign relations and others, was prominent in the discussion of matters brought before the Senate from these committees, advocated the enlargement of the navy and the reform of the civil service, and opposed the HARRISON, F.— HARRISON, J. pension veto messages of President Cleveland. Having failed to secure a re-election to the Senate in 1887, Harrison was nominated by the Republican party for the presidency in 1888, and defeated Grover Cleveland, the candidate of the Democratic party, receiving 233 electoral votes to Cleveland's 168. Among the measures and events distinguishing his term as president were the following: The meeting of the Pan-American Congress at Washington; the passage of the McKinley Tariff Bill and of the Sherman Silver Bill of 1890; the suppressing of the Louisiana Lottery; the enlargement of the navy; further advance in civil service reform; the convocation by the United States of an international monetary conference; the establishment of commercial reciprocity with many countries of America and Europe; the peaceful settlement of a controversy with Chile; the negotiation of a Hawaiian Annexation Treaty, which, however, before its ratification, his successor withdrew from the Senate; the settlement of difficulties with Germany concerning the Samoan Islands, and the adjustment by arbitration with Great Britain of the Bering Sea fur-seal question. His adminis- tration was marked by a revival of American industries and a reduction of the public debt, and at its conclusion the country ' was left in a condition of prosperity and on friendly terms with foreign nations. He was nominated by his party in 1892 for re-election, but was defeated by Cleveland, this result being due, at least in part, to the labour strikes which occurred during the presidential campaign and arrayed the labour unions against the tariff party. After leaving public life he resumed the practice of the law, and in 1898 was retained by the government of Venezuela as its leading counsel in the arbitration of its boundary dispute with Great Britain. In this capacity he appeared before the inter- national tribunal of arbitration at Paris in 1899, worthily main- taining the reputation of the American bar. After the Spanish- American War he strongly disapproved of the colonial policy of his party, which, however, he continued to support. He occupied a portion of his leisure in writing a book, entitled This Country of Ours (1897), treating of the organization and administration of the government of the United States, and a collection of essays by him was published posthumously, in 1901, under the title Views of an Ex-President. He died at Indianapolis on the i3th of March 1901. Harrison's distinguish- ing trait of character, to which his success is to be most largely attributed, was his thoroughness. He was somewhat reserved in manner, and this led to the charge in political circles that he was cold and unsympathetic; but no one gathered around him more devoted and loyal friends, and his dignified bearing in and out of office commanded the hearty respect of his countrymen. President Harrison was twice married; in 1853 to Miss Caroline Lavinia Scott, by whom he had a son and a daughter, and in 1896 to Mrs Mary Scott Lord Dimmock, by whom he had a daughter. A " campaign " biography was published by Lew Wallace (Phila- delphia, 1888), and a sketch of his life may be found in Presidents of the United States (New York, 1894), edited by James Grant Wilson. (J. W. Fo.) HARRISON, FREDERIC (1831- ), English jurist and historian, was born in London on the i8th of October 1831. Members of his family (originally Leicestershire yeomen) had been lessees of Sutton Place, Guildford, of which he wrote an interesting account (Annals of an Old Manor House, 1893). He was educated at King's College school and at Wadham College, Oxford, where, after taking a first-class in Literae Humaniores in 1853, he became fellow and tutor. He was called to the bar in 1858, and, in addition to his practice in equity cases, soon began to distinguish himself as an effective contributor to the higher- class reviews. Two articles in the Westminster Review, one on the Italian question, which procured him the special thanks of Cavour, the other on Essays and Reviews, which had the probably undesigned effectof stimulating the attack on the book, attracted especial notice. A few years later Mr Harrison worked at the codification of the law with Lord Westbury, of whom he con- tributed an interesting notice to Nash's biography of the chan- cellor. His special interest in legislation for the working classes led him to be placed upon the Trades Union Commission of 1867- 1869; he was secretary to the commission for the digest of the law, 1869-1870; and was from 1877 to 1889 professor of juris- prudence and international law under the council of legal educa- tion. A follower of the positive philosophy, but in conflict with Richard Congreve (q.i>.) as to details, he led the Positivists who split off and founded Newton Hall in 1881, and he was president of the English Positivist Committee from 1880 to 1905; he was also edifor and part author of the Positivist New Calendar of Great Men (1892), and wrote much on Comte and Positivism. Of his separate publications, the most important are his lives of Cromwell (1888), William the Silent, (1897), Ruskin (1902), and Chatham (1905); his Meaning of History (1862; enlarged 1894) and Byzantine History in the Early Middle Ages (1900); and his essays on Early Victorian Literature (1896) and The Choice of Books (1886) are remarkable alike for generous admiration and good sense. In 1904 he published a " romantic mono- graph " of the roth century, Theophano, and in 1906 a verse tragedy, Nicephorus. An advanced and vehement Radical in politics and Progressive in municipal affairs, Mr Harrison in 1886 stood unsuccessfully for parliament against Sir John Lubbock for London University. In 1889 he was elected an alderman of the London County Council, but resigned in 1893. In 1870 he married Ethel Berta, daughter of Mr William Harrison, by whom he had four sons. George Gissing, the novelist, was at one time their tutor; and in 1905 Mr Harrison wrote a preface to Gissing's Veranilda (see also Mr Austin Harrison's article on Gissing in the Nineteenth Century, September 1906). As a relig- ious teacher, literary critic, historian and jurist, Mr Harrison took a prominent part in the life of his time, and his writings, though often violently controversial on political and social subjects, and in their judgment and historical perspective characterized by a modern Radical point of view, are those of an accomplished scholar, and of one whose wide knowledge of literature was combined with independence of thought and admirable vigour of style. In 1907 he published The Creed of a Layman,' Apologia pro fide mea, in explanation of his religious position. HARRISON, JOHN (1693-1776), English horologist, was the son of a carpenter, and was born at Faulby, near Pontefract in Yorkshire, in the year 1693. Thence his father and family removed in 1700 to Barrow in Lincolnshire. Young Harrison at first learned his father's trade, and worked at it for several years, at the same time occasionally making a little money by land-measuring and surveying. The bent of his mind, however, was towards mechanical pursuits. In 1 7 1 5 he made a clock with wooden wheels, which is in the patent museum at South Kensington, and in 1726 he devised his ingenious " gridiron pendulum," which maintains its length unaltered in spite of variations of temperature (see CLOCK). Another invention of his was a recoil clock escapement in which friction was reduced to a minimum, and he was the first to employ the commonly used and effective form of " going ratchet," which is a spring arrangement for keeping the timepiece going at its usual rate during the interval of being wound up. In Harrison's time the British government had become fully alive to the necessity of determining more accurately the longi- tude at sea. For this purpose they passed an act in 1713 offering rewards of £10,000, £15,000 and £20,000 to any who should construct chronometers that would determine the longitude within 60, 40 and 30 m. respectively. Harrison applied himself vigorously to the task, and in 1735 went to the Board of Longi- tude with a watch which he also showed to Edmund Halley, George Graham and others. Through their influence he was allowed to proceed in a king's ship to Lisbon to test it; and the result was so satisfactory that he was paid £500 to carry out further improvements. Harrison worked at the subject with the utmost perseverance, and, after making several watches, went up to London in 1761 with one which he considered almost perfect. His son William was sent on a voyage to Jamaica to test it ; and, on his return to Portsmouth in 1762, it was found to have lost HARRISON, T.— HARRISON, T. A. only i minute 54! seconds. This was surprisingly accurate, as it determined the longitude within 18 m., and Harrison claimed the full reward of £20,000; but though from time to time he received sums on account, it was not till 1773 that he was paid in full. In these watches compensation for changes of temperature was applied for the first time by means of a " compensation-curb," designed to alter the effective length of the balance-spring in proportion to the expansion or contraction caused by variations of temperature. Harrison died in London on the 24th of March 1776. His want of early education was felt by him greatly throughout life. He was unfortunately never able to express his ideas clearly in writing, although in conversation he could give a very precise and exact account of his many intricate mechanical contrivances. Among his writings were a Description concerning such Mechanism as will afford a Nice or True Mensuration of Time (1775), and The Principles of Mr Harrison's Timekeeper, published by order of the Commissioners of Longitude (1767). HARRISON, THOMAS (1606-1660), English parliamentarian, a native of Newcastle-under-Lyme in Staffordshire, the son of a butcher and mayor of that town, was baptized in 1606. He was placed with an attorney of Clifford's Inn, but at the beginning of the war in 1642 he enlisted in Essex's lifeguards, became major in Fleetwood's regiment of horse under the earl of Manchester, was present at Marston Moor, at Naseby, Langport and at the taking of Winchester and Basing, as well as at the siege of Oxford. At Basing Harrison was accused of having killed a prisoner in cold blood. In 1646 he was returned to parliament for Wendover, and served in Ireland in 1647 under Lord Lisle, returning to England in May, when he took the side of the army in the dispute with the parliament and obtained from Fairfax a regiment of horse. In November he opposed the negotiations with the king, whom he styled " a man of blood " to be called to account, and he declaimed against the House of Lords. At the surprise of Lambert's quarters at Appleby on the i8th of July 1648, in the second civil war, he distinguished himself by his extraordinary daring and was severely wounded. He showed a special zeal in bringing about the trial of the king. Charles was entrusted to his care on being brought up from Hurst Castle to London, and believed that Harrison intended his assassination, but was at once favourably impressed by his bearing and reassured by his disclaiming any such design. Harrison was assiduous in his attendance at the trial, and signed the death-warrant with the fullest conviction that it was his duty. He took part in sup- pressing the royalist rising in the midlands in May 1649, and in July was appointed to the chief command in South Wales, where he is said to have exercised his powers with exceptional severity. On the 2oth of February 1651 he became a member of the council of state, and during Cromwell's absence in Scotland held the supreme military command in England. He failed in stopping the march of the royalists into England at Knutsford on the 1 6th of August 1651, but after the battle of Worcester he ren- dered great service in pursuing and capturing the fugitives. Later he pressed on Cromwell the necessity of dismissing the Long Parliament, and it was he who at Cromwell's bidding, on the 2oth of April 1653, laid hands on Speaker Lenthall and com- pelled him to vacate the chair. He was president of the council of thirteen which now exercised authority, and his idea of govern- ment appears to have been an assembly nominated by the congre- gations, on a strictly religious basis, such as Barebone's Parlia- ment which now assembled, of which he was a member and a ruling spirit. Harrison belonged to the faction of Fifth Monarchy men, whose political ideals were entirely destroyed by Cromwell's assumption, of the protectorate. He went immediately into violent opposition, was deprived of his commission on the 22nd of December 1653, and on the 3rd of February 1654 was ordered to confine himself to liis father's house in Staffordshire. Suspected of complicity in the plots of the anabaptists, he was imprisoned for a short time in September, and on that occasion was sent for by Cromwell, who endeavoured in a friendly manner to per- suade him to desist. He, however, incurred the suspicions of the administration afresh, and on the isth of February 1655 he was imprisoned in Carisbrooke Castle, being liberated in March 1656, when he took up his residence at Highgate with his family. In April 1657 he was arrested for supposed complicity in Venner's conspiracy, and again once more in February 1658, when he was imprisoned in the Tower. At the Restoration, Harrison, who was excepted from the Act of Indemnity, refused to take any steps to save his life, to give any undertaking not to conspire against the government or to flee. " Being so clear in the thing," he declared, " I durst not turn my back nor step a foot out of the way by reason I had been engaged in the service of so glorious and great a God." He was arrested in Staffordshire in May 1660 and brought to trial on the nth of October. He made a manly and straightforward defence, pleading the authority of parlia- ment and adding, " May be I might be a little mistaken, but I did it all according to the best of my understanding, desiring to make the revealed will of God in His holy scriptures a guide to me." At his execution, which took place at Charing Cross on the I3th of October 1660, he behaved with great fortitude. Richard Baxter, who was acquainted with him, describes Harrison as " a man of excellent natural parts for affection and oratory, but not well seen in the principles of his religion; of a sanguine complexion, naturally of such a vivacity, hilarity and alacrity as another man hath when he hath drunken a cup too much, but naturally also so far from humble thoughts of himself that it was his ruin." Cromwell also complained of his excessive eagerness. " Harrison is an honest man and aims at good things, yet from the impatience of his spirit will not wait the Lord's leisure but hurries me on to that which he and all honest men will have cause to repent." Harrison was an eloquent and fluent expounder of the scriptures, and his " rap- tures " on the field of victory are recorded by Baxter. He was of the chief of those " fiery spirits " whose ardent and emotional religion inspired their political action, and who did wonders during the period of struggle and combat, but who later, in the more sober and difficult sphere of constructive statesmanship, showed themselves perfectly incapable. Harrison married about 1648 Katherine, daughter and heiress of Ralph Harrison of Highgate in Middlesex, by whom he had several children, all of whom, however, appear to have died in infancy. See the article on Harrison by C. H. Firth in the Diet, of Nat. Biog.; Life of Harrison by C. H. Simpkinson (1905); Notes and Queries, 9 series, xi. 211. HARRISON, THOMAS ALEXANDER (1853- ), American artist, was born in Philadelphia on the i7th of January 1853. He was a pupil of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts and of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, whither he went in 1878, . having previously been with a United States government survey expedition on the Pacific coast. Chafing under the restraints of the schools, he went into Brittany, and at Pont Aven and Con- carneau turned his attention to marine painting and landscape. In 1882 he sent a figure-piece to the Salon, a fisher boy on the beach, which he called " Chateaux en Espagne." This attracted attention, and in 1885 he received an honourable mention, the first of many awards conferred upon him, including the Temple gold medal (Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, 1887), first medal, Paris Exhibition (1889), and medals in Munich, Brussels, Ghent, Vienna and elsewhere. He became a member of the Legion of Honour and officier of Public Instruction, Paris; a member of the Societe Nationale des Beaux- Arts, Paris; of the Royal Institute of Painters in Oil Colours, London; of the Secession societies of Munich, Vienna and Berlin; of the National Academy of Design, the Society of American Artists, New York, and other art bodies. In the Salon of 1885 he had a large canvas of several nude women, called " In Arcady," a remarkable study of flesh tones in light and shade which had a strong influence on the younger men of the day. But his reputa- tion rests rather on his marine pictures, long waves rolling in on the beach, and great stretches of open sea under poetic con- ditions of light and colour. His brother, BIRGE HARRISON (1834- ), also a painter, particularly successful in snow scenes, was a pupil of the Ecole HARRISON, W.— HARRISON, W. H. des Beaux Arts, Paris, under Cabanel and Carolus Duran; his " November " (honourable mention, 1882) was purchased by the French government. Another brother, BUTLER HARRISON (d. 1886), was a figure painter. HARRISON, WILLIAM (1534-1593), English topographer and antiquary, was born in London on the iSth of April 1534- He was educated, according to his own account, at St Paul's school and at Westminster under Alexander Nowell. In 1551 he was at Cambridge, but he took his B.A. degree from Christ Church, Oxford, in 1560. He was inducted early in 1559 to the rectory of Radwinter, Essex, on the presentation of Sir William Brooke, Lord Cobham, to whom he had formerly acted as chaplain; and from 1571 to 1581 he held from another patron, Francis de la Wood, the living of Wimbish in the same county. He became canon of Windsor in 1586, and his death and burial are noted in the chapter book of St George's chapel on the 24th of April 1593. His famous and amusing Description of England was under- taken for the queen's printer, Reginald Wolfe, who designed the publication of " an universall cosmographie of the whole world . . with particular histories of every knowne nation." After Wolfe's death in 1576 this comprehensive plan was reduced to descriptions and histories of England, Scotland and Ireland. The historical section was to be supplied by Raphael Holinshed, the topographical by Harrison. The work was eventually pub- lished as The Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland . . . by Raphael Holinshed and others, and was printed in two black- letter folio volumes in 1577. Harrison's Description of England, humbly described as his " foule frizeled treatise," and dedicated to his patron Cobham, is an invaluable survey of the condition of England under Elizabeth, in all its political, religious and social aspects. Harrison is a minute and careful observer of men and things, and his descriptions are enlivened with many examples of a lively and caustic humour which makes the book excellent reading. In spite of his Puritan prejudices, which lead him to regret that the churches had not been cleared of their " pictures in glass " (" by reason of the extreme cost thereof "), and to exhaust his wit on the effeminate Italian fashions of the younger generation, he had an eye for beauty and is loud in his praise of such architectural gems as Henry VII. 's chapel at Westminster. He is properly contemptuous of the snobbery that was even then characteristic of English society; but his account of " how gentlemen are made in England " must be read in full to be appreciated. He is especially instructive on the condition and services of the Church immediately after the Reformation; notably in the fact that, though an ardent Protestant, he is quite unconscious of any breach of continuity in the life and organiza- tion of the Church of England. Harrison also contributed the translation from Scots into English of Bellenden's version of Hector Boece's Latin Descrip- tion of Scotland. His other works include a " Chronologic," giving an account of events from the creation to the year 1593, which is of some value for the period covered by the writer's lifetime. This, with an elaborate treatise on weights and measures, remains in MS. in the diocesan library of Londonderry. For the later editions of the Chronicles of England . . . see HOLINSHED. The second and third books of Harrison's Description were edited by Dr F. J. Furnivall for the New Shakspcre Society, with extracts from his " Chronologie " and from other contemporary writers, as Shakspere's England (2 vols., 1877-1878). HARRISON, WILLIAM HENRY (1773-1841), ninth president of the United States, was born at Berkeley, Charles City county, Virginia, on the 9th of February 1773, the third son of Benjamin Harrison (c. 1740-1791). His father was long prominent in Virginia politics, and became a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1764, opposing Patrick Henry's Stamp Act resolutions in the following year; he was a member of the Continental Congress in 1774-1777, signing the Declaration ol Independence and serving for a time as president of the Boarc of War; speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1777- 1782; governor of Virginia in 1781-1784; and in 1788 as a member of the Virginia Convention he actively opposed the ratification of the Federal Constitution by his state. William rlenry Harrison received a classical education at Hampden- Sidney College, where he was a student in 1787-1790, and began a medical course in Philadelphia, but the death of his father caused him to discontinue his studies, and in November 1791 he entered the army as ensign in the Tenth Regiment at Fort Washington, Cincinnati. In the following year he became a ieutenant, and subsequently acted as aide-de-camp to General Anthony Wayne in the campaign which ended in the battle of Fallen Timbers on the loth of August 1 794. He was promoted to a captaincy in 1797 and for a brief period served as commander of Fort Washington, but resigned from the army in June 1798. Soon afterwards he succeeded Winthrop Sargent as secretary of the North-west Territory. In 1799 he was chosen by the Jeffer- sonian party of this territory as the delegate of the territory in Congress. While serving in this capacity he devised a plan for disposing of the public lands upon favourable terms to actual settlers, and also assisted in the division of the North-west Territory. It was his ambition to become governor of the more populous eastern portion, which retained the original name, but nstead, in January 1800, President John Adams appointed him governor of the newly created Indiana Territory, which com- prised until 1809 a much larger area than the present state of the same name. (See INDIANA: History.) He was not sworn into office until the loth of January 1801, and was governor until September 1812. Among the legislative measures of his administration may be mentioned the attempted modification of the slavery clause of the ordinance of 1787 by means of an indenture law — a policy which Harrison favoured; more effective land laws; and legislation for the more equitable treatment of the Indians and for preventing the sale of liquor to them. In 1803 Harrison also became a special commissioner to treat with the Indians " on the subject of boundary or lands," and as such negotiated various treaties — at Fort Wayne (1803 and 1809), Vincennes (1804 and 1809) and Grouseland (1805) — by which the southern part of the present state of Indiana and portions of the present states of Illinois, Wisconsin and Missouri were opened to settlement. For a few months after the division in 1804 of the Louisiana Purchase into the Orleans Territory and the Louisiana Territory he also acted as governor of the Louisiana Territory — all of the Louisiana Purchase N. of the thirty-third parallel, his jurisdiction then being the greatest in extent ever exercised by a territorial official in the United States. The Indian cessions of 1809, along the Wabash river, aroused the hostility of Tecumseh (q.v.) and his brother, familiarly known as " The Prophet," who were attempting to combine the tribes between the Ohio and the Great Lakes in opposition to the encroachment of the whites. Several fruitless conferences between the governor and the Indian chiefs, who were believed to be encouraged by the British, resulted in Harrison's advance with a force of militia and regulars to the Tippecanoe river, where (near the present Lafayette, Ind.) on the 7th of November 1811 he won over the Indians a victory which established his military reputation and was largely responsible for his sub- sequent nomination and election to the presidency of the United States. From one point of view the battle of Tippecanoe may be regarded as the opening skirmish of the war of 1812. When in the summer of 181 2 open hostilities with Great Britain began, Harrison was appointed by Governor Charles Scott of Kentucky major-general in the militia of that state. A few weeks later (22nd August 1812) he was made brigadier-general in the regular U.S. army, and soon afterwards was put in command of all the troops in the north-west, and on the 2nd of March 1813 he was promoted to the rank of major-general. General James Win- chester, whom Harrison had ordered to prepare to cross Lake Erie on the ice and surprise Fort Maiden, turned back to rescue the threatened American settlement at Frenchtown (now Monroe), on the Raisin river, and there on the 22nd of January 1813 was .forced to surrender to Colonel Henry A. Proctor. Harrison's offensive operations being thus checked, he accom- plished nothing that summer except to hold in check Proctor, who (May 1-5) besieged him at Fort Meigs, the American advanced HARRISON post after the disaster of the river Raisin. After Lieutenant O. H. Perry's naval victory on the roth of September 1813, Harrison no longer had to remain on the defensive; he advanced to Detroit, re-occupied the territory surrendered by General William Hull, and on the sth of October administered a crushing defeat to Proctor at the battle of the Thames. In 1814 Harrison received no active assignments to service, and on this account and because the secretary of war (John Armstrong) issued an order to one of Harrison's subordinates without consulting him, he resigned his commission. Armstrong accepted the resignation without consulting President Madison, but the president later utilized Harrison in negotiating with the north-western Indians, the greater part of whom agreed (22nd July 1814) to a second treaty of Greenville, by which they were to become active allies of the United States, should hostilities with Great Britain continue. This treaty publicly marked an American policy of alliance with these Indians and caused the British peace negotiators at Ghent to abandon them. In the following year Harrison held another conference at Detroit with these tribes in order to settle their future territorial relations with the United States. From 1816 to 1819 Harrison was a representative in Congress, and as such worked in behalf of more liberal pension laws and a better militia organization, including a system of general military education, of improvements in the navigation of the Ohio, and of relief for purchasers of public lands, and for the strict construc- tion of the power of Congress over the Territories, particularly in regard to slavery. In accordance with this view in 1819 he voted against Tallmadge's amendment (restricting the extension of slavery) to the enabling act for the admission of Missouri. He also delivered forcible speeches upon the death of Kosciusko and upon General Andrew Jackson's course in the Floridas, favouring a partial censure of the latter. Harrison was a member of the Ohio senate in 1810-1821, and was an unsuccessful candidate for the National House of Repre- sentatives in 1822, when his Missouri vote helped to cause his defeat; he was a presidential elector in 1824, supporting Henry Clay, and from 1825 to 1828 was a member of the United States Senate. In 1828 after unsuccessful efforts to secure for him the command of the army, upon the death of Major-General Jacob Brown, and the nomination for the vice-president, on the ticket with John Quincy Adams, his friends succeeded in getting Harrison appointed as the first minister of the United States to Colombia. He became, however, an early sacrifice to Jackson's spoils system, being recalled within less than a year, but not until he had involved himself in some awkward diplomatic com- plications with Bolivar's autocratic government. For some years after his return from Colombia he lived in retirement at North Bend, Ohio. He was occasionally " men- tioned " for governor, senator or representative, by the anti- Jackson forces, and delivered a few addresses on agricultural or political topics. Later he became clerk of the court of common pleas of Hamilton county — a lucrative position that was then most acceptable to him. Early in 1835 Harrison began to be mentioned as a suitable presidential candidate, and later in the year he was nominated for the presidency at large public meet- ings in Pennsylvania, New York and Maryland. In the election of the following year he attracted a large part of the Whig and Anti-Masonic vote of the Middle and Western states and led among the candidates opposing Van Buren, but received only 73 electoral votes while Van Buren received 1 70. His unexpected strength, due largely to his clear, if non-committal, political record, rendered him the most " available " candidate for the Whig party for the campaign of 1840, and he was nominated by the Whig convention at Harrisburg, Pa., in December 1839, his most formidable opponent being Henry Clay, who, though generally regarded as the real leader of his party, was less " available " because as a mason he would alienate former members of the old Anti-Masonic party, and as an advocate of a protective tariff would repel many Southern voters. The conven- tion adjourned without adopting any " platform " of principles, the party shrewdly deciding to make its campaign merely on the issue of whether the Van Buren administration should be con- tinued in power and thus to take full advantage of the popular discontent with the administration, to which was attributed the responsibility for the panic of 1837 and the subsequent business depression. Largely to attract the votes of Democratic mal- contents the Whig convention nominated for the vice-presidency John Tyler, who had previously been identified with the Demo- cratic party. The campaign was marked by the extraordinary enthusiasm exhibited by the Whigs, and by their skill in attacking Van Buren without binding themselves to any definite policy. Because of his fame as a frontier hero, of the circumstance that a part of his home at North Bend, Ohio, had formerly been a log cabin, and of the story that cider, not wine, was served on his table, Harrison was derisively called by his opponents the " log cabin and hard cider " candidate; the term was eagerly accepted by the Whigs, in whose processions miniature log cabins were carried and at whose meetings hard cider was served, and the campaign itself has become known in history as the "log cabin and hard cider campaign." Harrison's canvass was con- spicuous for the immense Whig processions and mass meetings, the numerous " stump " speeches (Harrison himself addressing meetings at Dayton, Chillicothe, Columbus and other places), and the use of campaign songs, of party insignia, and of campaign cries (such as " Tippecanoe and Tyler too "); and in the election he won by an overwhelming majority of 234 electoral votes to 60 cast for Van Buren. President Harrison was inaugurated on the 4th of March 1841. He chose for his cabinet Daniel Webster as secretary of state, Thomas Ewing as secretary of the treasury, John Bell as secretary of war, George E. Badger as secretary of the navy, Francis Granger as postmaster-general, and John J. Crittenden as attorney-general. He survived his inauguration only one month, dying on the 4th of April 1841, and being succeeded by the vice- president, John Tyler. The immediate cause of his death was an attack of pneumonia, but the disease was aggravated by the excitement attending his sudden change in circumstances and the incessant demands of office seekers. After temporary interment at Washington, his body was removed to the tomb at North Bend, Ohio, where it now lies. A few of Harrison's public addresses survive, the most notable being A Discourse on the Aborigines of the Ohio. It has been said of him: " He was not a great man, but he had lived in a great time, and he had been a leader in great things." He was the first territorial delegate in the Congress of the United States and was the author of the first step in the development of the country's later homestead policy; the first presidential candidate to be selected upon the ground of " expediency " alone; and the first president to die in office. In 1795 he married Anna Symmes (1775-1864), daughter of John Cleves Symmes. Their grandson, Benjamin Harrison, was the twenty-third president of the United States. AUTHORITIES. — In 1824 Moses Dawson published at Cincinnati the Historical Narrative of the Civil and Military Services of Major- General William H. Harrison. This is a combined defence and political pamphlet, but it is the source of all the subsequent " lives " that have appeared. There are several " campaign " biographies, including one by Richard Hildreth (1839) and one by Caleb Gushing (1840); and there is a good sketch in Presidents of the United States (New York, 1894), edited by J. G. Wilson. An excellent study of Harrison's career in Indiana appears in vol. 4 of the Indiana Historical Society Publications. Selections from his scanty correspondence appear in vols. ii. and iii. of the Quarterly Publications of the Historical and Philosophical Society of Ohio. HARRISON, a town of Hudson county. New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Passaic river, opposite Newark (with which it is connected by bridges and electric railways), and 7 m. W. of Jersey City. Pop. (1890) 8338; (1900) 10,596, of whom 3633 were foreign- born; (1910 census) 14,498. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Erie, and the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railways. Harrison was chosen as the eastern terminal of the Pennsylvania railroad for steam locomotive service, transportation thence to New York being by electric power through the railway's Hudson river tunnels. The town has an extensive river-front, along which are many of its manufactories; among their products are steam-pumps, steel, iron, machinery, roller bearings, HARRODSBURG— HARROW 27 brass tubing, iron and brass castings, marine engines, hoisting engines, metal novelties, dry batteries, electric lamps, concrete blocks, cotton thread, wire cloth, leather, trunks, beer, barrels, lumber, inks and cutlery. The factory product in 1905 was valued at $8,408,924. The town is governed by a mayor and a common council. Harrison was settled toward the close of the 1 7th century, and for many years constituted the S. portion of the township of Lodi. In 1840, however, it was set off from Lodi and named in honour of President William Henry Harrison, and in 1873 it was incorporated. Harrison originally included what is now the town of Kearny (q.v.). HARRODSBURG, a city and the county-seat of Mercer county, Kentucky, U.S.A., 32 m. S. of Frankfort, on the Southern railway. Pop. (1890) 3230; (1900) 2876, of whom 1150 were negroes; (1910 U.S. census) 3147. On account of its sulphur springs Harrodsburg became early in the igth century a fashion- able resort, and continues to attract a considerable number of visitors. The city is the seat of Harrodsburg Academy, Beau- mont College for women (1894; founded as Daughters' College in 1856); and Wayman College (African M.E.) for negroes. Among its manufactures are flour, whisky, dressed lumber and ice. About 7 m. E. of Harrodsburg is Pleasant Hill, or Union Village, a summer resort and the home, since early in the igth century, of a Shaker community. Harrodsburg was founded on the 1 6th of June 1774 by James Harrod (1746-1793) and a few followers, and is the oldest permanent settlement in the state. It was incorporated in 1875. Harrodsburg was formerly the seat of Bacon College (see LEXINGTON, Kentucky). HARROGATE, a municipal borough and watering-place in the Ripon parliamentary division of the West Riding of York- shire, England, 203 m. N. by W. from London, on the North- Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 16,316; (1901) 28,423. It is indebted for its rise and importance to its medicinal springs, and is the principal inland watering-place in the north of England. It consists of two scattered townships, Low Harrogate and High Harrogate, which have gradually been connected by a continuous range of handsome houses and villas. A common called the Stray, of 200 acres, secured by act of parliament from ever being built upon, stretches in front of the main line of houses, and on this account Harrogate, notwithstanding its rapid increase, has retained much of its rural charm. As regards climate a choice is offered between the more bracing atmosphere of High Harro- gate and the sheltered and warm climate of the low town. The waters are chalybeate, sulphureous and saline, and some of the springs possess all these qualities to a greater or less extent. The principal chalybeate springs are the Tewitt well, called by Dr Bright, who wrote the first account of it, the " English Spa," discovered by Captain William Slingsby of Bilton Hall near the close of the i6th century; the Royal Chalybeate Spa, more commonly known as John's Well, discovered in 1631 by Dr Stanhope of York; Muspratt's chalybeate or chloride of iron spring discovered in 1819, but first properly analysed by Dr Sheridan Muspratt in 1865; and the Starbeck springs midway between High Harrogate and Knaresborough. The principal sulphur springs are the old sulphur well in the centre of Low Harrogate, discovered about the year 1656; the Montpellier springs, the principal well of which was discovered in 1822, situated in the grounds of the Crown Hotel and surmounted by a handsome building in the Chinese style, containing pump-room, baths and reading-room; and the Harlow Car springs, situated in a wooded glen about a mile west from Low Harrogate. Near Harlow Car is Harlow observatory, a square tower 100 ft. in height, standing on elevated ground and commanding a very extensive view. A saline spring situated in Low Harrogate was discovered in 1783. Some eighty springs in all have been dis- covered. The principal bath establishments are the Victoria Baths (1871) and the Royal Baths (1897). There are also a handsome kursaal (1903), a grand opera house, numerous modern churches, and several hospitals and benevolent institutions, including the Royal Bath hospital. The corporation owns the Stray, and also the Spa concert rooms and grounds, Harlow Moor, Crescent Gardens, Royal Bath gardens and other large open spaces, as well as Royal Baths, Victoria Baths and Starbeck Baths. The mineral springs are vested in the corporation. The high-lying moorland of the surrounding district is diversified by picturesque dales; and Harrogate is not far from mony towns and sites of great interest, such as Ripon, Knaresborough and Fountains Abbey. The town was incorporated in 1884, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 3276 acres. HARROW,1 an agricultural implement used for (i) levelling ridges left by the plough and preparing a smooth surface for the reception of seeds; (2) covering in seeds after sowing; (3) tearing up and gathering weeds; (4) disintegrating and levelling the soil of meadows and pastures; (5) forming a surface tilth by pulverizing the top soil and so conserving moisture. The harrow rivals the plough in antiquity. In its simplest form it consists of the boughs of trees interlaced into a wooden frame, and this form survives in the " bush-harrow." Another old type, found in the middle ages and still in use, consists of a wooden framework in which iron pegs or " tines " are set. This is now generally superseded by the " zig-zag " harrow patented by Armstrong in 1839, built of iron bars in which the tines are so arranged that each follows its own track and" has a separate line of action. This harrow is usually made in two or three sections FIG. i. — Jointed Zig-zag Harrow. (Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies, Ltd.) which fold over one another and are thus easily portable, the arrangement at the same time giving a flexibility on uneven ground. Additional flexibility may be imparted to the imple- ment by jointing the stays of the frame which are in the line of draught. The liability that the tines may snap off is the chief weakness of this type, and improvements have consisted chiefly in alterations in their shape and the method of fixing them to the frame. The other type of harrow most used is the chain harrow', con- sisting of a number of square-link chains connected by cross links and attached to a draught-bar, the whole being kept expanded by stretchers and trailing weights. It is used for levelling and spreading manure over grass-land, from which it at the same time tears up moss and coarse herbage. Mention may also be made of the drag-harrow, a heavy implement with long tines, approximating closely to the cultivator, and of the Norwegian harrow with its revolving rows of spikes. A few variations and developments of the ordinary harrow require notice. In the adjustable harrow (fig. 2) the teeth are secured to bars pivoted at their ends in the side bars of the frame, and provided with crank arms connected to a common link bar, which may be moved horizontally by means of a lever for the purpose of adjusting 1 In Mid. Eng. harwe; the O. Eng. appears to have been hearge; the word is cognate with the Dutch hark, Swed. harke, Ger. Harke, rake, and with Danish ham, and Swed. harf, harrow, but the ultimate origin is unknown; the Fr. herse is a different word, cf. HEARSE. 28 HARROWBY— HARROWING OF HELL the angle which the teeth make with the ground, and thus convert the machine from a pulverizer to a smooching harrow. The small figure illustrates a spring connexion between the adjusting lever and its locking bar, which allows the teeth to yield upon striking an obstruction. As the briskness of the operation adds to its effective- Siiowing tooth mechanism of harrow. FIG. 2. — Adjustable Harrow. ness, the harrow is often made with a seat from which the operator can hasten the team without fatiguing himself. Fig. 3 illustrates a spring-tooth harrow. In this harrow the in- dependent frames are carried upon wheels, and a seat for the operator is mounted upon standards supported by the two frames. The teeth consist of flat steel springs of scroll form, which yield to rigid obstruc- tions and are mounted on rock shafts in the same manner as in the walking harrow before described. The levers enable the operator t o raise the teeth more or less, and thus free them from rubbish and also regulate the depth of action. Another variation of the harrow with great pulverizing and loosening capabilities consists of a main frame, having a pole and whipple-trees attached ; to this frame are pivoted two supplemental frames, each of which has mounted on it a shaft carrying a series of concavo-convex disks. The supplemental frames may be swung by FIG. 3. — Spring-tooth Harrow. the adjusting levers to any angle with relation to the line of draught, and the disks then act like that of the disk plough (see PLOUGH), throwing the soil outward with more or less force, according to the angle at which they are set, and thus thoroughly breaking up and pulverizing the clods. Above the disks is a bar to which are pivoted a series of scrapers, one for each disk, which are held to their work with a yielding action, being thrown out of operation when desired by the levers shown in connexion with the operating bar. Pans on the main frame are used to carry weights to hold the disks down to their work. The cut away disk narrow differs from the ordinary disk harrow in that its disks are notched and so have greater penetrating power. The curved knife-tooth harrow consists of a frame to which a row of curved blades is attached. Other forms of the implement are illustrated and discussed in Farm Machinery and Farm Motors by J. B. Davidson and L. W. Chase (New York, 1908). HARROWBY, DUDLEY RYDER, IST EARL OF (1762-1847), the eldest son of Nathaniel Ryder, ist Baron Harrowby (1735- 1803), was born in London on the 22nd of December 1762. His grandfather Sir Dudley Ryder (1691-1756) became a member of parliament and solicitor-general owing to the favour of Sir Robert Walpole in 1733; in 1737 he was appointed attorney- general and three years later he was knighted; in 1754 he was made lord chief justice of the king's bench and a privy councillor, the patent creating him a peer having been just signed by the king, but not passed, when he died on the 25th of May 1756. His only son Nathaniel, who was member of parliament for Tiverton for twenty years, was created Baron Harrowby in 1776. Edu- cated at St John's College, Cambridge, Dudley Ryder became member of parliament for Tiverton in 1784 and under-secretary for foreign affairs in 1789. In 1791 he was appointed paymaster of the forces and vice-president of the board of trade, but he resigned the positions and also that of treasurer of the navy when he succeeded to his father's barony in June 1803. In 1804 he was secretary of state for foreign affairs and in 1805 chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster under his intimate friend William Pitt; in the latter year he was sent on a special and important mission to the emperors of Austria and Russia and the king of Prussia, and for the long period between 1812 and 1827 he was lord president of the council. After Canning's death in 1827 he refused to serve George IV. as prime minister and he never held office again, although he continued to take part in politics, being especially prominent during the deadlock which preceded the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832. Harrowby's long association with the Tories did not prevent him from assisting to remove the disabilities of Roman Catholics and Protestant dissenters, or from supporting the movement for electoral reform; he was also in favour of the emancipation of the slaves. The earl died at his Staffordshire residence, Sandon Hall, on the 26th of December 1847, being, as Charles Greville says, " the last of his generation and of the colleagues of Mr Pitt, the sole survivor of those stirring times and mighty contests." Harrowby's eldest son, Dudley Ryder, 2nd earl (1798-1882), was born in London on the igih of May 1798, his mother being Susan (d. 1838), daughter of.Granville Leveson-Gower, marquess of Stafford, a lady of exceptional attainments. As Viscount Sandon he became member of parliament for Tiverton in 1819, in 1827 he was appointed a lord of the admiralty, and in 1830 secretary to the India board. From 1831 to 1847 Sandon represented Liverpool in the House of Commons. For a long time he was out of office, but in 1855, eight years after he had become earl of Harrowby, he was appointed chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster by Lord Palmerston; in a few months he was trans- ferred to the office of lord privy seal, a position which he resigned in 1857. He was chairman of the Maynooth commission and a member of other important royal commissions, and was among the most stalwart and prominent defenders of the established church. He died at Sandon on the loth of November 1882. His successor was his eldest son, Dudley Francis Stuart Ryder (1831- 1900), vice-president of the council from 1874 to 1878, president of the board olf trade from 1878 to 1880, and lord privy seal in 1885 and 1886. He died without sons on the 26th of March 1900, and was succeeded by his brother, Henry Dudley Ryder (1836-1900), whose son, John Herbert Dudley Ryder (b. 1864), became sth earl of Harrowby. HARROWING OF HELL, an English poem in dialogue, dating from the end of the I3th century. It is written in the East Midland dialect, and is generally cited as the earliest dramatic work of any kind preserved in the language, though it was in reality probably intended for recitation rather than performance. It is closely allied to the kind of poem known as a debat, and the opening words — " Alle herkneth to me nou A strif wille I tellen ou Of Jesu and of Satan " — seem to indicate that the piece was delivered by a single performer. The subject — the descent of Christ into Hades to succour the souls of the just, as related in the apocryphal gospel of Nicodemus — is introduced in a kind of prologue; then follows the dispute between " Dominus " and " Satan " at the gate of Hell; the gatekeeper runs away, and the just are set free, while Adam, Eve, Habraham, David, Johannes and Moyses do homage to the deliverer. The poem HARROW-ON-THE-HILL— HARSDORFFER 29 ends with a short prayer: " God, for his moder loue Let ous never thider come." Metrically, the poem is characterized by frequent alliteration imposed upon the rhymed octosyllabic couplet: — Welcome, louerd, god of londe Codes sone and godes sonde (ii. 149-150). The piece is obviously connected with the Easter cycle of litur- gical drama, and the subject is treated in the York and Townley plays. MSS. are: Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 2253; Edinburgh, Auchinteck MS W 41 ; Oxford, Bodleian, Digby 86. It was privately printed by J P Collier and by J. O. Halliwell, but is available in Appendix III of A. W. Pollard's English Miracle Plays . . . (4th ed., 1904) K Boddcker, Altengl. Dichtungen des MS. Harl. 2253 (Berlin, 1878) ; and E. Mall, The Harrowing of Hell (Breslau, 1871). See also E. K. Chambers, The Medieval Stage (2 vols., 1903). HARROW-ON-THE-HILL, an urban district in the Harrow parliamentary division of Middlesex, England, 12 m. W.N.W. of St Paul's cathedral, London, served by the London and North Western, Metropolitan and District railways. Pop. (1901), 10,220. It takes its name from its position on an isolated hill rising to a height of 345 ft. On the summit, and forming a conspicuous landmark, is the church of St Mary, said to have been founded by Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury, in the reign of William I., and Norman work appears at the base of the tower. The re- mainder of the church is of various later dates, and there are several ancient monuments and brasses. Harrow is celebrated for its public school, founded in 1571 by John Lyon, whose brass is in the church, a yeoman of the neighbouring village of Preston who had yearly during his life set aside 20 marks for the education of poor children of Harrow; though a school existed before his time. Though the charter was granted by Queen Elizabeth in 1571, and the statutes drawn up by the founder in 1590, two years before his death, it was not till 1611 that the first building was opened for scholars. Lyon originally settled about two-thirds of his property on the school, leaving the remainder for the maintenance of the highway between London and Harrow, but in the course of time the values of the respective endowments have changed so far that the benefit accruing to the school is a small proportion of the whole. About 1660 the headmaster, taking advantage of a con- cession in Lyon's statutes, began to receive " foreigners," i.e. boys from other parishes, who were to pay for their education. From this time the prosperity of the school may be dated. In 1809 the parishioners of Harrow appealed to the court of chan- cery against the manner in which the school was conducted, but the decision, while it recognized their privileges, confirmed the right of admission to foreigners. The government of the school was originally vested in six persons of standing in the parish who had the power of filling vacancies in their number by election among themselves; but under the Public Schools Act of 1868 the governing body now consists of the surviving members of the old board, besides six new members who are elected re- spectively by the lord chancellor, the universities of Oxford, Cambridge and London, the Royal Society, and the assistant masters of the school. There are several scholarships in con- nexion with the school to Oxford and Cambridge Universities. Harrow was originally an exclusively classical school, but mathematics became a compulsory study in 1837; modern languages, made compulsory in the upper forms in 1851, were extended to the whole school in 1855; while English history and literature began to be especially studied about 1869. The number of boys is about 600. The principal buildings are modern, including the chapel (1857), the library (1863), named after the eminent headmaster Dr Charles John Vaughan, and the speech-room (1877), the scene of the brilliant ceremony on " Speech Day " each summer term. The fourth form room however, dates from 161 1, and on its panels are cut the names ol many eminent alumni, such as Byron, Robert Peel, R. B Sheridan and Temple (Lord Palmerston). Several of the buildings were erected out of the Lyon Tercentenary Fund, sub- scribed after the tercentenary celebration in 1871. A considerable extension of Harrow as an outer residential 3uburb of London has taken place north of the hill, where is the urban district of Wealdstone (pop. 5901), and there are also mportant printing and photographic works. HARRY THE MINSTREL, or BLIND HARRY (fl. 1470-1492), author of the Scots historical poem The Actis and Deidis of the Ulustere and Vailzeand Campioun Schir William Wallace, Knicht ?/ Ellerslie, flourished in the latter half of the i $th century. The details of his personal history are of the scantiest. He appears to have been a blind Lothian man, in humble circumstances, who lad some reputation as a story-teller, and who received, on five occasions, in 1490 and 1491, gifts from James IV. The entries of these, in the Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer, occur among others to harpers and singers. He is alluded to by Dunbar (q.v.) in the fragmentary Interlude of the Droichis Part of the Play, where a " droich," or dwarf, personates " the nakit blynd Harry That lang has bene in the fary Farleis to find;" and again in Dunbar's Lament for the Makaris. John Major (q.v.) in his Latin History speaks of " one Henry, blind from his birth, who, in the time of my childhood, fashioned a whole book about William Wallace, and therein wrote down in our popular verse — and this was a kind of composition in which he had much skill — all that passed current among the people in his day. I, however, can give but partial credence to these writings. This Henry used to recite his tales before nobles, and thus received food and clothing as his reward " (Bk. iv. ch. xv.). The poem (preserved in a unique MS., dated 1488, in the Advocates' library, Edinburgh) is divided into eleven books and runs to 11,853 l'nes. Its poetic merits are few, and its historical accuracy is easily impugned. It has the formal interest of being one of the earliest, certainly one of the most extensive verse- documents in Scots written in five-accent, or heroic, couplets. It is also the earliest outstanding work which discloses that habit of Scotticism which took such strong hold of the popular Northern literature during the coming years of conflict with England. In this respect it is in marked contrast with all the patriotic verse of preceding and contemporary literature. This attitude of the Wallace may perhaps be accepted as corroborative evidence of the humble milieu and popular sentiment of its author. The poem owed its subsequent widespread reputation to its appeal to this sentiment rather than to its literary quality. On the other hand, there are elements in the poem which show that it is not entirely the work of a poor crowder; and these (notably references to historical and literary authorities, and occasional reminiscences of the literary tricks of the Scots Chaucerian school) have inclined some to the view that the text, as we have it, is an edited version of the minstrel's rough song- story. It has been argued, though by no means conclusively, that the " editor " was John Ramsay, the scribe of the Edinburgh MS. and of the companion Edinburgh MS. of the Brus by John Barbour (q.v.). The poem appears, on the authority of Laing, to have been printed at the press of Chepman & Myllar about 1508, but the fragments which Laing saw are not extantr. The first complete edition, now available, was printed by Lekprevik for Henry Charteris in 1570 (Brit. Museum). It was reprinted by Charteris in 1594 and IOOI, and by Andro Hart in 1611 and 1620. At least six other editions appealed in the I7th century. There are many later reprints, including some of William Hamilton of Gilbertfield's modern Scots version of 1722. The first critical edition was prepared by Dr Jamieson and published in 1820. In 1889 the Scottish Text Society completed their edition of the text, with prolegomena and notes by James Moir. See, in addition to Jamieson s and Moir s volumes (u.s.), J. 1. 1. Brown's The Wallace and the Bruce Resludied (Bonner, Beitrdge zur AnMstik. vi., 1900), a pica for Ramsay's authorship of the known text- also W. A. Craigie's article in The Scottish Review (July 1903), a comparative estimate of the Brus and Wallace, in favour of the latter. HARSDORFFER, GEORG PHILIPP (1607-1658), German poet, was born at Nuremberg on the ist of November 1607. He studied law at Altdorf and Strassburg, and subsequently travelled HARSHA— HART, SIR R. through Holland, England, France and Italy. His knowledge of languages gained for him the appellation " the learned," though he was as little a learned man as he was a poet. As a member of the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft he was called der Spielende (the player). Jointly with Johann Klaj (q.v.) he founded in 1644 at Nuremberg the order of the Pegnitzschafer, a literary society, and among the members thereof he was known by the name of Strephon. He died at Nuremberg on the 22nd of September 1658. His writings in German and Latin fill fifty volumes, and a selection of his poems, interesting mostly for their form, is to be found in Miiller's Bibliothek deutscher Dichter des i~tlen Jahrhunderts, vol. ix. (Leipzig, 1826). His life was written by Widmann (Altdorf, 1707). See also Tittmann, Die Nurnberger Dichterschule (Gottingen, 1847); Hoder- mann, Rine vornehme Gesellschaft, nach Hirsdorffers " Gesprdch- spielen " (Paderborn, 1890) ; T. Bischoff, " Georg Philipp Hars- dorffer " in the Festschrift zur 2$ojahrigen Jubelfeier des Peg- nesischen Blumenordens (Nuremberg, 1894); and Krapp, Die asthetischen Tendenzen Harsdorffers (Berlin, 1904). HARSHA, or HARSHA VARDHANA (fl. A.D. 606-648), an Indian king who ruled northern India as paramount monarch for over forty years. The events of his reign are related by Hsu'an Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, and by Bana, a Brahman author. He was the son of a raja of Thanesar, who gained prominence by success- ful wars against the Huns, and came to the throne in A.D. 606, though he was only crowned in 612. He devoted himself to a scheme of conquering the whole of India, and carried on wars for thirty years with success, until (A.D. 620) he came in contact with Pulakesin II., the greatest of the Chalukya dynasty, who made himself lord of the south, as Harsha was lord of the north. The Nerbudda river foimed the boundary between the two empires. In the latter years of his reign Harsha's sway over the whole basin of the Ganges from the Himalayas to the Nerbudda was undisputed. After thirty-seven years of war he set himself to emulate Asoka and became a patron of art and literature. He was the last native monarch who held paramount power in the north prior to the Mahommedan conquest; and was suc- ceeded by an era of petty states. See Bana, Sri-harsha-charita, trans. Cowell and Thomas (1897); Ettinghausen, Harsha Vardhana (Louvain, 1906). HARSNETT, SAMUEL (1561-1631), English divine, arch- bishop of York, was born at Colchester in June 1561, and was educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where he was success- ively scholar, fellow and master (1605-1616). He was also vice- chancellor of the university in 1606 and 1614. His ecclesiastical career began somewhat unpromisingly, for he was censured by Archbishop Whitgift for Romanist tendencies in a sermon which he preached against predestination in 1584. After holding the living of Chigwell (1597-1605) he became chaplain to Bancroft (then bishop of London), and afterwards archdeacon of Essex (1603-1609), rector of Stisted and bishop of Chichester (1609- 1619) and archbishop of York (1629). He died on the 25th of May 1631. Harsnett was no favourite with the Puritan com- munity, and Charles I. ordered his Considerations for the better Settling of Church Government (1629) to be circulated among the bishops. His Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures (1603) furnished Shakespeare with the names of the spirits mentioned by Edgar in King Lear. HART, ALBERT BUSHNELL (1854- ), American his- torian, was born at Clarksville, Mercer county, Pennsylvania, on the ist of July 1854. He graduated at Harvard College in 1880, studied at Paris, Berlin and Freiburg, and received the degree of Ph.D. at Freiburg in 1883. He was instructor in history at Harvard in 1883-1887, assistant professor in 1887- 1897, and became professor in 1897. Among his writings are: Introduction to the Study of Federal Government (1890), Forma- tion of the Union (1892, in the Epochs of American History series), Practical Essays on American Government (1893), Studies in American Education (1895), Guide to the Study of American History (with Edward Channing, 1897), Salmon Portland Chase (1899, in the American Statesman series), Foundations of American Foreign Policy (1901), Actual Government (1903), Slavery and Abolition (1906, the volume in the American Nation series dealing with the period 1831-1841), National Ideals Historically Traced (1907), the z6th volume of the American Nation series, and many historical pamphlets and articles. In addition he edited American History told by Con- temporaries (4 vols., 1898-1901), and Source Readers in American History (4 vols., 1901-1903), and two co-operative histories of the United States, the Epochs of American History series (3 small text-books), and, on a much larger scale, the American Nation series (27 vols., 1903-1907); he also edited the American Citizen series. HART, CHARLES (d. 1683), English actor, grandson of Shakespeare's sister Joan, is first heard of as playing women's parts at the Blackfriars' theatre as an apprentice of Richard Robinson. In the Civil War he was a lieutenant of horse in Prince Rupert's regiment, and after the king's defeat he played surreptitiously at the Cockpit and at Holland House and other noblemen's residences. After the Restoration he is known to have been in 1660 the original Dorante in The Mistaken Beauty, adapted from Corneille's Le Menleur. In 1663 he went to the Theatre Royal in Killigrew's company, with which he remained until 1682, taking leading parts in Dryden's, Jonson's and Beaumont and Fletcher's plays. He is highly spoken of by contemporaries in such Shakespearian parts as Othello and Brutus. He is often mentioned by Pepys. Betterton praised him, and would not himself play the part of Hotspur until after Hart's retirement. He died in 1683 and was buried on the 2oth of August. Hart is said to have been the first lover of Nell Gwyn, and to have trained her for the stage. HART, ERNEST ABRAHAM (1835-1898), English medical journalist, was born in London on the 26th of June 1835, the son of a Jewish dentist. He was educated at the City of London school, and became a student at St George's hospital. In 1856 he became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, making a specialty of diseases of the eye. He was appointed ophthalmic surgeon at St Mary's hospital at the age of 28, and occupied various other posts, introducing into ophthalmic practice some modifications since widely adopted. His name, too, is associated with a method of treating popliteal aneurism, which he was the first to use in Great Britain. His real life-work, however, was as a medical journalist, beginning with the Lancet in 1857. He was appointed editor of the British Medical Journal in 1866. He took a leading part in the exposures which led to the inquiry into the state of London workhouse infirmaries, and to the reform of the treatment of sick poor throughout England, and the Infant Life Protection Act of 1872, aimed at the evils of baby- farming, was largely due to his efforts. The record of his public work covers nearly the whole field of sanitary legislation during the last thrity years of his life. He had a hand in the amend- ments of the Public Health and of the Medical Acts; in the measures relating to notification of infectious disease, to vaccina- tion, to the registration of plumbers; in the improvement of factory legislation; in the remedy of legitimate grievances of Army and Navy medical officers; in the removal of abuses and deficiencies in crowded barrack schools; in denouncing the sanitary shortcomings of the Indian government, particularly in regard to the prevention of cholera. His work on behalf of the British Medical Association is shown by the increase from 2000 to 19,000 in the number of members, end the growth of the British Medical Journal from 20 to 64 pages, during his editor- ship. From 1872 to 1897 he was chairman of the Association's Parliamentary Bill Committee. He died on the 7th of January 1898. For his second wife he married Alice Marion Rowland, who had herself studied medicine in London and Paris, and was no less interested than her husband in philanthropic reform. She was most active in her encouragement of Irish cottage industries, and was the founder of the Donegal Industrial Fund. HART, SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1835- ), Anglo-Chinese statesman, was born at Milltown, Co. Armagh, on the 2oth of February 1835. He was educated at Taunton, Dublin and Belfast, and graduated at Queen's College, Belfast, in 1853. In the following year he received an appointemnt as student- HART, W.— HARTE, BRET interpreter in the China consular service, and after serving for a short time at the Ningpo vice-consulate, he was transferred to Canton, where after acting as secretary to the allied commis- sioners governing the city, he was appointed the local inspector of.customs. There he first gained an insight into custom-house work. One effect of the Taiping rebellion was to close the native custom-house at Shanghai; and as the corrupt alternatives proposed by the Chinese were worse than useless, it was arranged by Sir Rutherford Alcock, the British consul, with his French and American colleagues, that they should undertake to collect the duties on goods owned by foreigners entering and leaving the port. Sir T. Wade was appointed to the post of collector in the first instance, and after a short tenure of office was succeeded by Mr H. N. Lay, who held the post until 1863, when he resigned owing to a disagreement with the Chinese government in con- nexion with the Lay-Osborn fleet. During his tenancy of office the system adopted at Shanghai was applied to the other treaty ports, so that when on Mr Lay's resignation Mr Hart was appointed inspector-general of foreign customs, he found himself at the head of an organization which collected a revenue of up- wards of eight million taels per annum at fourteen treaty ports. From the date when Mr Hart took up his duties at Peking, in 1863, he unceasingly devoted the whole of his energies to the work of the department, with the result that the revenue grew from upwards of eight million taels to nearly twenty-seven million, collected at the thirty-two treaty ports, and the customs staff, which in 1864 numbered 200, reached in 1901 a total of 5704. From the first Mr .Hart gained the entire confidence of the members of the Chinese government, who were wise enough to recognize his loyal and able assistance. Of all their numerous sources of revenue, the money furnished by Mr Hart was the only certain asset which could be offered as security for Chinese loans. For many years, moreover, it was customary for the British minister, as well as the ministers of other powers, to consult him in every difficulty; and such complete confidence had Lord Granville in his ability and loyalty, that on the retirement of Sir T. Wade he appointed him minister plenipotentiary at Peking (1885). Sir Robert Hart, however — who was made a K.C.M.G. in 1882 — recognized the anomalous position in which he would have been placed had he accepted the proposal, and declined the proffered honour. On all disputed points, whether commercial, religious or political, his advice was invariably sought by the foreign ministers and the Chinese alike. Thrice only did he visit Europe between 1863 and 1902, the result of this long comparative isolation, and of his constant intercourse with the Peking officials, being that he learnt to look at events through Chinese spectacles; and his work, These froth the Land of Sinim, shows how far this affected his outlook. The faith which he put in the Chinese made him turn a deaf ear to the warnings which he re- ceived of the threatening Boxer movement in 1900. To the last he believed that the attacking force would at least have spared his house, which contained official records of priceless value, but he was doomed to see his faith falsified. The building was burnt to the ground with all that it contained, including his private diary for forty years. When the stress came, and he retreated to the British legation, he took an active part in the defence, and spared neither risk nor toil in his exertions. In addition to the administration of the foreign customs service, the establishment of a postal service in the provinces devolved upon him, and after the signing of the protocol of 1901 he was called upon to organize a native customs service at the treaty ports. The appointment of Sir Robert Hart as inspector-general of the imperial maritime customs secured the interests of European investors in Chinese securities, and helped to place Chinese finance generally on a solid footing. When, therefore, in May 1906 the Chinese government appointed a Chinese administrator and assistant administrator of the entire customs of China, who would control Sir Robert Hart and his staff, great anxiety was aroused. The Chinese government had bound itself in 1896 and 1898 that the imperial maritime customs services should remain as then constituted during the currency of the loan. The British government obtained no satisfactory answer to its remonstrances, and Sir Robert Hart, finding himself placed in a subordinate position after his long service, retired in July 1907. He received formal leave of absence in January 1908, when he received the title of president of the board of customs. Both the Chinese and the British govern- ments from time to time conferred honours upon Sir Robert Hart. By giving him a Red Button, or button of the highest rank, a Peacock's Feather, the order of the Double Dragon, a patent of nobility to his ancestors for three generations, and the title of Junior Guardian of the heir apparent, the Chinese showed their appreciation of his manifold and great services; while under the seal of the British government there were bestowed upon him theordersofC.M.G. (1880), K.C.M.G. (i882),G.C.M.G. (1889), and a baronetcy (1893). He has also been the recipient of many foreign orders. Sir Robert Hart married in 1886 Hester, the daughter of Alexander Bredon, Esq., M.D., of Portadown. See his life by Julia Bredon (Sir Robert Hart, 1909). HART, WILLIAM (1823-1894), American landscape and cattle painter, was born in Paisley, Scotland, on the 3ist of March 1823, and was taken to America in early youth. He was apprenticed to a carriage painter at Albany, New York, and his first efforts in art were in making landscape decorations for the panels of coaches. Subsequently he returned to Scotland, where he studied for three years. He opened a studio in New York in 1853, and was elected an associate of the National Academy of Design in 1857 and an academician in the following year. He was also a member of the American Water Colour Society, and was its president from 1870 to 1873. As one of the group of the Hudson River School he enjoyed considerable popularity, his pictures being in many well-known American collections. He died at Mount Vernon, New York, on the i7th of June 1894. His brother, JAMES McDouGAL HART (1828-1901), born in Kilmarnock, Scotland, was also a landscape and cattle painter. He was a pupil of Schirmer in Dusseldorf, and became an associate of the National Academy of Design in 1857 and a full member in 1859. He was survived by two daughters, both figure painters, Letitia B. Hart (b. 1867) and Mary Theresa Hart (b.i872). HARTE, FRANCIS BRET (1839-1902), American author, was born at Albany, New York, on the 25th of August 1839. His father, a professor of Greek at the Albany College, died during his boyhood. After a common-school education he went with his mother to California at the age of seventeen, afterwards working in that state as a teacher, miner, printer, express- messenger, secretary of the San Francisco mint, and editor. His first literary venture was a series of Condensed Novels (travesties of well-known works of fiction, somewhat in the style of Thackeray), published weekly in The Californian, of which he was editor, and reissued in book form in 1867. The Overland Monthly, the earliest considerable literary magazine on the Pacific coast, was established in 1868, with Harte as editor. His sketches and poems, which appeared in its pages during the next few years, attracted wide attention in the eastern states and in Europe. Bret Harte was an early master of the short story, and his Californian tales were regarded as introducing a new genre into fiction. " The Luck of Roaring Camp " (1868), " The Outcasts of Poker Flat " (1869), the later sketch " How Santa Claus came to Simpson's Bar," and the verses entitled " Plain Language from Truthful James," combined humour, pathos and power of character portrayal in a manner that indicated that the new land of mining-gulches, gamblers, unassimilated Asiatics, and picturesque and varied landscape had found its best delineator; so that Harte became, in his pioneer pictures, a sort of later Fenimore Cooper. Forty-four volumes were published by him between 1867 and 1898. After a year as professor in the university of California, Harte lived in New York, 1871-1878; was United States consul at Crefeld, Germany, 1878-1880; consul at Glasgow, 1880-1885; ar"d after 1885 resided in London, engaged HARTEBEEST— HARTFORD in literary work. He died at Camberley, England, on the 5th of May 1902. A library edition of his Writings (16 vols.) was issued in 1900, and increased to 19 vols. in 1904. See also H. W. Boynton, Bret Harte (I9°5) in the Contemporary Men of Letters series; T. E. Pemberton, Life of Bret Harte (1903), which contains a list of his poems, tales, &c. HARTEBEEST, the Boer name for a large South African antelope (also known as caama) characterized by its red colour, long face with naked muzzle and sharply angulated lyrate horns, which are present in both sexes. This antelope is the Cape Hartebeest (Bubalis cama). Bubalis cama or Alcelaphus cama of naturalists; but the name hartebeest has been extended to include all the numerous members of the same genus, some of which are to be found in every part of Africa, while one or two extend into Syria. Some of the species of the allied genus Damaliscus, such as Hunter's antelope (D. hunter f), are also often cailed hartebeests. (See ANTELOPE.) HARTFORD, a city and the capital of Connecticut, U.S.A., the county-seat of Hartford county, and a port of entry, coter- minous with the township of Hartford, in the west central part of the state, on the W. bank of the Connecticut river, and about 35 m. from Long Island Sound. Pop. (1890), 53,230; (1900), 79,850, of whom 23,758 were foreign-born (including 8076 Irish, 2700 Germans, 2260 Russians, 1952 Italians, 1714 Swedes, 1634 English and 1309 English Canadians); (1910 census) 98,915. Of the total population in 1900, 43,872 were of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), and of these 18,410 were of Irish parentage. Hartford is served by two divisions of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, by the Central New England railway, by the several electric lines of the Con- necticut Company which radiate to the surrounding towns, and by the steamboats of the Hartford & New York Transporta- tion Co., all of which are controlled by the N.Y., N.H. & H. The river, which is navigable to this point, is usually closed from the middle of December to the middle of March. The city covers an area of 17-7 sq. m.; it is well laid out and compactly built, and streets, parks, &c., are under a city-plan commission authorized in 1907. It is intersected by the sluggish Park river, which is spanned by ten bridges. A stone arch bridge, with nine arches, built of granite at a cost of $1,700,000 and dedicated in 1908, spans the Connecticut (replacing the old Connecticut river bridge built in 1818 and burned in 1895), and connects Hartford with the village of East Hartford in the town- ship of East Hartford (pop. 1900, 6406), which has important paper-manufacturing and tobacco-growing interests. The park system of Hartford is the largest in any city of the United States in proportion to the city's population. In 1908 there were 21 public parks, aggregating more than 1335 acres. In the extreme S. of the city is Goodwin Park (about 200 acres) ; in the S.E. is Colt Park (106 acres), the gift of Mrs Elizabeth Colt, the widow of Samuel Colt, inventor of the Colt revolver; in the S.W. is Pope Park (about 90 acres); in the W. is Elizabeth (100 acres); in the E., along the Connecticut river front, is Riverside (about 80 acres); and in the extreme N. is Keney Park (680 acres), the gift of Henry Keney, and, next to the Metropolitan Reservations near Boston, the largest park in the New England states. Near the centre of the city are the Capitol Grounds (27 acres; until 1872 the campus of Trinity College) and Bushnell Park (41 acres), adjoining Capitol Park. Bushnell Park, named in honour of Horace Bushnell, contains the Corning Memorial Fountain, erected in 1899 and designed by J. Massey Rhind, and three bronze statues, one, by J.Q. A. Ward, of General Israel Putnam; one, by Truman H. Bartlett, of Dr Horace Wells (1815-1848), the discoverer of anaesthesia; and one, by E. S. Woods, of Colonel Thomas Knowlton (1749-1776), a patriot soldier of the War of Independence, killed at the battle of Harlem Heights. On the Capitol Grounds is the state capitol (Richard M. Upjohn, archi- tect), a magnificent white marble building, which was completed in 1880 at a cost of $2,534,000. Its exterior is adorned with statues and busts of Connecticut statesmen and carvings of scenes in the history of the state. Within the building are regimental flags of the Civil War, a bronze statue by Olin L. Warner of Governor William A. Buckingham, a bronze statue by Karl Gerhardt of Nathan Hale, a bronze tablet (also by Karl Ger- hardt) in memory of John Fitch (1743-1798), the inventor; a portrait of Washington, purchased by the state in 1800 from the artist, Gilbert Stuart; and a series of oil portraits of the colonial and state governors. The elaborately carved chair of the lieutenant-governor in the senate chamber, made of wood from the historic Charter Oak, and the original charter of 1662 (or its duplicate of the same date) are preserved in a special vault in the Connecticut state library. A new state library and supreme court building and a new state armoury and arsenal, both of granite, have been (1910) erected upon lands recently added to the Capitol Grounds, thus forming a group of state buildings with the Capitol as the centre. Near the Capitol, at the approach of the memorial bridge across the Park river, is the Soldiers' and Sailors' memorial arch, designed by George Keller and erected by the city in 1885 in memory of the Hartford soldiers and sailors who served in the American Civil War. Near the centre of the city is the old town square (now known as the City Hall Square), laid off in 1637. Here, facing Main Street, stands the city hall, a beautiful example of Colonial architecture, which was designed by Charles Bulfinch, completed in 1796, and until 1879 used as a state capitol; it has subse- quently been restored. In Main Street is the present edifice of the First Church of Christ, known as the Centre Congregational Church, which was organized in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 163 2, and removed to Hartford, under the leadership of Thomas Hooker and Samuel Stone, in 1636. In the adjoining cemetery are the graves of Thomas Hooker, Governor William Leete (1603-1683), and Governor John Haynes, and a monument in memory of 100 early residents of Hartford. In the same thoroughfare is the Wadsworth Atheneum (built in 1842; enlarged in 1892-1893 and 1907) and its companion buildings, the Colt memorial (built in 1908 to accommodate the Elizabeth Colt art collection) and the Morgan art gallery (built in 1908 by J. Pierpont Morgan in memory of his father, Junius Morgan, a native of Hartford). In this group of buildings are the Hartford public library (containing 90,000 volumes in 1908), the Watkinson library of reference (70,000 volumes in 1908), the library of the Connecticut historical society (25,000 volumes in 1908) and a public art gallery. Other institutions of importance in Hartford are the American school for the deaf (formerly the American asylum for the deaf and dumb), founded in 1816 by Thomas H. Gallaudet; the retreat for the insane (opened for patients in 1824); the Hartford hospital; St Francis hospital; St Thomas's seminary (Roman Catholic); La Salette Missionary college (R.C.; 1898) ; Trinity college (founded by members of the Protestant Episcopal church, and now non-sectarian), which was HARTFORD 33 chartered as Washington College in 1823, opened in 1824, renamed Trinity College in 1845, and in 1907-1908 had 27 in- structors and 208 students; the Hartford Theological seminary, a Congregational institution, which was founded at East Windsor Hill in 1834 as the Theological Institute of Connecticut, was removed to Hartford in 1865, and adopted its present name in 1885; and, affiliated with the last mentioned institution, the Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy. The Hartford grammar school, founded in 1638, long managed by the town and in 1847 merged with the classical department of the Hartford public high school, is the oldest educational institution in the state. In Farmington Avenue is St Joseph's cathedral (Roman Catholic), the city being the seat of the diocese of Hartford. During the i8th century Hartford enjoyed a large and lucrative commerce, but the railway development of the igth century centralized commerce in New York and Boston, and consequently the principal source of the city's wealth has come to be manu- facturing and insurance. In 1905 the total value of the "factory" product was $25,975,651. The principal industries are the manufacture of small arms (by the Colt's Patent Fire-Arms Manufacturing Co., makers of the Colt revolver and the Catling gun) , typewriters (Royal and Underwood) , automobiles, bicycles, cyclometers, carriages and wagons, belting, cigars, harness, machinists' tools and instruments of precision, coil-piping, church organs, horse-shoe nails, electric equipment, machine screws, drop forgings, hydrants and valves, and engines and boilers. In 1788 the first woollen mill in New England was opened in Hartford; and here, too, about 1846, the Rogers process of electro-silver plating was invented. The city is one of the most important insurance centres in the United States. As early as 1794 policies were issued by the Hartford Fire Insurance Company (chartered in 1810). In 1909 Hartford was the home city of six fire insurance and six life insurance companies, the principal ones being the Aetna (fire), Aetna Life, Phoenix Mutual Life, Phoenix Fire, Travelers (Life and Accident), Hartford Fire, Hartford Life, National Fire, Connecti- cut Fire, Connecticut General Life and Connecticut Mutual Life. In 1906 the six fire insurance companies had an aggregate capital of more than $10,000,000; on the ist January 1906 they reported assets of about $59,000,000 and an aggregate surplus of $30,000,000. In the San Francisco disaster of that year they paid more than $15,000,000 of losses. Since the fire insurance business began in Hartford, the companies of that city now doing business there have paid about $340,000,000 in losses. Several large and successful foreign companies have made Hartford their American headquarters. The life insurance companies have assets to the value of about $225,000,000. The Aetna (fire), Aetna Life, Connecticut Fire, Connecticut Mutual Life, Connecticut General Life, Hartford Fire, Hartford Life, Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Co., National Fire, Orient Fire, Phoenix Mutual Life and Travelers companies have their own homes, some of these being among the finest buildings in Hartford. The city has also large banking interests. The first settlement on the site of Hartford was made by the Dutch from New Amsterdam, who in 1633 established on the bank of the Connecticut river, at the mouth of the Park river, a fort which they held until 1654. The township of Hartford was one of the first three original townships of Connecticut. The first English settlement was made in 1635 by sixty immi- grants, mostly from New Town (now Cambridge), Massachusetts; but the main immigration was in 1636, when practically all the New Town congregation led by Thomas Hooker and Samuel Stone joined those who had preceded them. Their settlement was called Newtown until 1637, when the present name was adopted from Hertford, England, the birthplace of Stone. In 1636 Hartford was the meeting-place of the first general court of the Connecticut colony; the Fundamental Orders, the first written constitution, were adopted at Hartford in 1639; and after the union of the colonies of New Haven and Connecticut, iccomplished by the charter of 1662, Hartford became the sole capital; but from 1701 until 1873 that honour was shared with XIII. 2 New Haven. At Hartford occurred in 1687 the meeting of Edmund Andros and the Connecticut officials (see CONNECTICUT). Hartford was first chartered in 1784, was rechartered in 1856 (the charter of that date has been subsequently revised) , and in 1881 was made coterminous with the township of Hartford. The city was the literary centre of Federalist ideas in the latter part of the iSth century, being the home of Lemuel Hopkins, John Trumbull, Joel Barlow and David Humphreys, the leading members of a group of authors known as the " Hartford Wits "; and in 1814-1815 the city was the meeting-place of the famous Hartford Convention, an event of great importance in the history of the Federalist party. The War of 1812, with the Embargo Acts (1807-1813), which were so destructive of New England's commerce, thoroughly aroused the Federalist leaders in this part of the country against the National government as ad- ministered by the Democrats, and in 1814, when the British were not only threatening a general invasion of their territory but had actually occupied a part of the Maine coast, and the National government promised no protection, the legislature of Massachusetts invited the other New England states to join with her in sending delegates to a convention which should meet at Hartford to consider their grievances, means of preserv- ing their resources, measures of protection against the British, and the advisability of taking measures to bring about a con- vention of delegates from all the United States for the purpose of revising the Federal constitution. The legislatures of Connecti- cut and Rhode Island, and town meetings in Cheshire and Grafton counties (New Hampshire) and in Windham county (Vermont) accepted the invitation, and the convention, composed of 12 delegates from Massachusetts, 7 from Connecticut, 4 from Rhode Island, 2 from New Hampshire and i from Vermont, all Federalists, met on the i5th of December 1814, chose George Cabot of Massachusetts president and Theodore Dwight of Connecticut secretary, and remained in secret session until the 5th of January 1815, when it adjourned sine die. At the con- clusion of its work it recommended greater military control for each of the several states and that the Federal constitution be so amended that representatives and direct taxes should be apportioned among the several states " according to their respective numbers of free persons," that no new state should be admitted to the Union without the concurrence of two-thirds of both Houses of Congress, that Congress should not have the power to lay an embargo for more than sixty days, that the concurrence of two-thirds of the members of both Houses of Congress should be necessary to pass an act " to interdict the commercial intercourse between the United States and any foreign nation or the dependencies thereof " or to declare war against any foreign nation except in case of actual invasion, that " no person who shall hereafter be naturalized shall be eligible as a member of the Senate or House of Representatives of the United States, nor capable of holding any civil office under the authority of the United States," and that " the same person shall not be elected president of the United States a second time; nor shall the president be elected from the same state two terms in succession." After making these recommendations concerning amendments the Convention resolved: " That if the application of these states to the government of the United States, recom- mended in a foregoing resolution, should be unsuccessful, and peace should not be concluded, and the defence of these states should be neglected, as it has been since the commencement of the war, it will, in the opinion of this convention, be expedient for the legislatures of the several states to appoint delegates to another convention, to meet at Boston in the state of Massachusetts on the third Thursday of June next, with such powers and instructions as the exigency of a crisis so momentous may require." The legislatures of Massachusetts and Connecticut approved of these proposed amendments and sent commissioners to Washington to urge their adoption, but before their arrival the war had closed, and not only did the amendments fail to receive the approval of any other state, but the legislatures of nine states expressed their disapproval of the Hartford Convention itself, some charging it with sowing "seeds of dissension and HARTFORD CITY— HARTLEPOOL disunion." The cessation of the war brought increased popularity to the Democratic administration, and the Hartford Convention was vigorously attacked throughout the country. Hartford was the birthplace of Noah Webster, who here published his Grammatical Institute of the English Language (1783-1785), and of Henry Barnard, John Fiske and Frederick Law Olmsted, and has been the home of Samuel P. Goodrich (Peter Parley), George D. Prentice, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Charles Dudley Warner, Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain) and Horace Bushnell. More than 100 periodicals have been established in Hartford, of which the oldest is the Hartford Courant(i?64), the oldest newspaper in the United States. This paper was very influential in shaping public opinion in the years preceding the War of Independence; after the war it was successively Federalist, Whig and Republican. The Times (semi- weekly 1817; daily 1841) was one of the most powerful Democratic organs in the period before the middle of the ipth century, and had Gideon Wells for editor 1826-1836. The Congregationalist (afterwards published in Boston) and the Churchman (afterwards published in New York) were also founded at Hartford. See Scaeva, Hartford in the Olden Times: Its First Thirty Years (Hartford, 1853), edited by W. M. B. Hartley; and J. H. Trumbull, Memorial History of Hartford County (Boston, 1886). For the Hartford Convention see History of the Hartford Convention (Boston, 1833), published by its secretary, Theodore Dwight; H. C. Lodge, Life and Letters of George Cabot (Boston, 1877); and Henry Adams, Documents Relating to New England Federalism (Boston, 1877). HARTFORD CITY, a city and the county-seat of Blackford county, Indiana, U.S.A., 62 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 2287; (1900) 5912 (572 foreign-born); (1910) 6187. The city is served by the Fort Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and the Indiana Union Traction line (electric) . There are oil and natural gas wells in the vicinity, and the city has pulp and paper mills, glass and tile works, and manufactories of woodenware, and nitro-glycerine and powder. The municipality owns and operates its water-works system. The first settlement in the vicinity was made in 1832. Hartford City became the county-seat of Black- ford county when that county was erected in 1837; it was laid out in 1839 and was first incorporated as a town in 1867. HARTIG, GEORG LUDWIG (1764-1837), German agricul- turist and writer on forestry, was born at Gladenbach, near Marburg, on the 2nd of September 1764. After obtaining a practical knowledge of forestry at Harzburg, he studied from 1781 to 1783 at the university of Giessen. In 1786 he became manager of forests to the prince of Solms-Braunfels at Hungen in the Wetterau, where he founded a school for the teaching of forestry. After obtaining in 1 797 the appointment of inspector of forests to the prince of Orange-Nassau, he continued his school of forestry at Dillenburg, where the attendance thereat increased considerably. On the dissolution of the principality by Napoleon I. in 1 805 he lost his position, but in 1 806 he went as chief inspector of forests to Stuttgart, whence in 1811 he was called to Berlin in a like capacity. There he continued his school of forestry, and succeeded in connecting it with the university of Berlin, where in 1830 he was appointed an honorary professor. He died at Berlin on the 2nd of February 1837. His son Theodor (1805-1880), and grandson Robert (1839-1901), were also distinguished for their contributions to the study of forestry. G. L. Hartig was the author of a number of valuable works: Lehrbuch fur Jdger (Stuttgart, 1810); Lehrbuch fiir Forster (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1808); Kubiktabellen fiir geschnittene, beschlagene, und runde Holzer (1815, loth ed. Berlin, 1871); and Lexikon fur Jager und Jagdfreunde (1836, 2nd ed. Berlin, 1859-1861). Theodor Hartig and his son Robert also published numerous works dealing with forestry, one of the latter's books being translated into English by W. Somerville and H. Marshall Ward as Diseases of Trees (1894). HARTLEPOOL, a parliamentary borough of Durham, England, embracing the municipal borough of Hartlepool or East Hartle- pool and the municipal and county borough of West Hartlepool. Pop. (1901) of Hartlepool, 22,723; of West Hartlepool, 62,627. The towns are on the coast of the North Sea separated by Hartle- pool Bay, with a harbour, and both have stations on branches of the North Eastern railway, 247 m. N. by W. from London. The surrounding country is bleak, and the coast is low. Caves occur in the slight cliffs, and protection against the attacks of the waves has been found necessary. The ancient market town of Hartle- pool lies on a peninsula which forms the termination of a south- eastward sweep of the coast and embraces the bay. Its naturally strong position was formerly fortified, and part of the walls, serving as a promenade, remain. The parish church of St Hilda, standing on an eminence above the sea, is late Norman and Early English, with a massive tower, heavily buttressed. There is a handsome borough hall in Italian style. West Hartlepool, a wholly modern town, has several handsome modern churches, municipal buildings, exchange, market hall, Athenaeum and public library. The municipal area embraces the three town- ships of Seaton Carew, a seaside resort with good bathing, and golf links; Stranton, with its church of All Saints, of the I4th century, on a very early site; and Throston. The two Hartlepools are officially considered as one port. The harbour, which embraces two tidal basins and six docks aggregat- ing 83! acres, in addition to timber docks of 57 acres, covers altogether 350 acres. There are five graving docks, admitting vessels of 550 ft. length and 10 to 21 ft. draught. The depth of water on the dock sills varies from 17 j ft. at neap tides to 25 ft. at spring tides. A breakwater three-quarters of a mile long protects the entrance to the harbour. An important trade is carried on in the export of coal, ships, machinery, iron and other metallic ores, woollens and cottons, and in the import of timber, sugar, iron and copper ores, and eggs. Timber makes up 59 % of the imports, and coal and ships each about 30% of the exports. The principal industries are shipbuilding (iron), boiler and engineer- ing works, iron and brass foundries, steam saw and planing mills, flour-mills, paper and paint factories, and soapworks. The parliamentary borough (falling within the south-east county division) returns one member. The municipal borough of Hartlepool is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors, and has an area of 972 acres. The municipal borough of West Hartlepool is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors, and has an area of 2684 acres. Built on the horns of a sheltered bay, Hartlepool (Hertepull, Hertipol), grew up round the monastery founded there in 640, but was destroyed by the Danes in 800 and rebuilt by Ecgred, bishop of Lindisfarne. In 1173 Bishop Hugh de Puiset allowed French and Flemish troops to land at Hartlepool to aid the Scots. It is not mentioned in Boldon Book as, being part of the royal manor of Sadberg held at this time by the family of Bruce, it did not become the property of the see of Durham until the purchase of that manor in 1189. The bishops did not obtain possession until the reign of John, who during the interval in 1201 gave Hartlepool a charter granting the burgesses the same privileges that the burgesses of Newcastle enjoyed; in 1230 Bishop Richard Poor granted further liberties, including a gild merchant. Edward II. seized the borough as a possession of Robert Bruce, but he could control it very slightly owing to the bishop's powers. In 1328 Edward III. granted the borough 100 marks towards the town-wall and Richard II. granted murage for seven years, the term being extended in 1400. In 1383 Bishop Fordham gave the burgesses licence to receive tolls within the borough for the maintenance of the walls, while Bishop Neville granted a com- mission for the construction of a pier or mole. In the i6th century Hartlepool was less prosperous; in 1523 the haven was said to be ruined, the fortifications decayed. An act of 1535 declared Hartlepool to be in Yorkshire, but in 1554 it was re- instated in the county of Durham. It fell into the hands of the northern earls in 1563, and a garrison was maintained there after the rebellion was crushed. In 1593 Elizabeth incorporated it, and gave the burgesses a town hall and court of pie powder. During the civil wars Hartlepool, which a few years before was said to be the only port town in the country, was taken by the Scots, who maintained a garrison there until 1647. As a borough of the Palatinate Hartlepool was not represented in parliament until the igth century, though strong arguments in its favour were advanced in the Commons in 1614. The markets of HARTLEY, SIR C.— HARTLIB 35 Hartlepool were important throughout the middle ages. In 1 2 1 6 John confirmed toRobertBruce the marketon Wednesday granted to his father and the fair on the feast of St Lawrence; this fair was extended to fifteen days by the grant of 1230, while the charter of 1 595 also granted a fair and market. During the i4th century trade was carried on with Germany, Spain and Holland, and in 1346 Hartlepool provided five ships for the French war, being considered one of the chief seaports in the kingdom. The markets were still considerable in Camden's day, but declined during the i8th century, when Hartlepool became fashionable as a watering-place. HARTLEY, SIR CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1825- ), English engineer, was born in 1825 at Heworth, Durham. Like most engineers of his generation he was engaged in railway work in the early part of his career, but subsequently he devoted himself to hydraulic engineering and the improvement of estuaries and harbours for the purposes of navigation. He was employed in connexion with some of the largest and most important water- ways of the world. After serving in the Crimea as a captain of engineers in the Anglo-Turkish contingent, he was in 1856 appointed engineer-in-chief for the works carried out by the European Commission of the Danube for improving the naviga- tion at the mouths of that river, and that position he retained till 1872, when he became consulting engineer to the Commission (see DANUBE). In 1875 he was one of the committee appointed by the authority of the U.S.A. Congress to report on the works necessary to form and maintain a deep channel through the south pass of the Mississippi delta; and in 1884 the British government nominated him a member of the international technical commission for widening the Suez Canal. In addition he was consulted by the British and other governments in connexion with many other river and harbour works, including the improvement of the navigation of the Scheldt, Hugli, Don and Dnieper, and of the ports of Odessa, Trieste, Kustendjie, Burgas, Varna and Durban. He was knighted in 1862, and became K.C.M.G. in 1884. HARTLEY, DAVID (1705-1757), English philosopher, and founder of the Associationist school of psychologists, was born on the 30th of August 1705* He was educated at Bradford grammar school and Jesus College, Cambridge, of which society he became a fellow in 1727. Originally intended for the Church, he was deterred from taking orders by certain scruples as to signing the Thirty-nine Articles, and took up the study of medicine. Nevertheless, he remained in the communion of the English Church, living on intimate terms with the most dis- tinguished churchmen of his day. Indeed he asserted it to be a duty to obey ecclesiastical as well as civil authorities. The doctrine to which he most strongly objected was that of eternal punishment. Hartley practised as a physician at Newark, Bury St Edmunds, London, and lastly at Bath, where he died on the 28th of August 1757. His Observations on Man was pub- lished in 1749, three years after Condillac's Essai sur I'origine des connaissances humaines, in which theories essentially similar to his were expounded. It is in two parts — the first dealing with the frame of the human body and mind, and their mutual connexions and influences, the second with the duty and expecta- tions of mankind. His two main theories are the doctrine of vibrations and the doctrine of associations. His physical theory, he tells us, was drawn from certain speculations as to nervous action which Newton had published in his Principia. His psychological theory was suggested by the Dissertation con- cerning the Fundamental Principles of Virtue or Morality, which was written by a clergyman named John Gay (1699-1745), and prefixed by Bishop Law to his translation 1 of Archbishop King's Latin work on the Origin of Evil, its chief object being to show that sympathy and conscience are developments by means of association from the selfish feelings. The outlines of Hartley's theory are as follows. With Locke he asserted that, prior to sensation, the human mind is a blank. By a growth from simple sensations those states of consciousness which appear most remote from sensation come into being. And the one 1 Anonymously in the 1731 ed., with acknowledgment in the 1758 ed. law of growth of which Hartley took account was -the law of con- tiguity, synchronous and successive. By this law he sought to explain, not only the phenomena of memory, which others had similarly explained before him, but also the phenomena of emotion, of reasoning, and of voluntary and involuntary action (see ASSOCIA- TION OF IDEAS). By his physical theory Hartley gave the first strong impulse to the modern study of the intimate connexion of physiological and psychical facts which has proved so fruitful, though his physical theory in itself is inadequate, and has not been largely adopted. He held that sensation is the result of a vibration of the minute particles of the medullary substance of the nerves, to account for which he postulated, with Newton, a subtle elastic ether, rare in the interstices of solid bodies and in their close neighbourhood, and denser as it recedes from them. Pleasure is the resujt of moderate vibrations, pain of vibrations so violent as to break the continuity of the nerves. These vibrations leave behind them in the brain a tendency to fainter vibrations or " vibratiuncles " of a similar kind, which correspond to " ideas of sensation." Thus memory is accounted for. The course of reminiscence and of the thoughts generally, when not immediately dependent upon external sensation, is accounted for on the ground that there are always vibrations in the brain on account of its heat and the pulsation of its arteries. What these vibrations shall be is determined by the nature of each man's past experience, and by the influence of the circumstances of the moment, which causes now one now another tendency to prevail over the rest. Sensations which are often associated together become each associated with the ideas corresponding to the others; and the ideas corresponding to the associated sensations become associated together, sometimes so intimately that they form what appears to be a new simple idea, not without careful analysis resolv- able into its component parts. Starting, like the modern Associationists, from a detailed account of the phenomena of the senses, Hartley tries to show how, by the above laws, all the emotions, which he analyses with considerable skill, may be explained. Locke's phrase " association of ideas " is employed throughout, " idea " being taken as including every mental state but sensation. He emphatically asserts the existence of pure disinterested sentiment, while declaring it to be a growth from the self-regarding feelings. Voluntary action is explained as the result of a firm connexion between a motion and a sensation or "idea," and, on the physical side, between an "ideal" and a motory vibration. Therefore in the Freewill controversy Hartley took his place as a determinist. It is singular that, as he tells us, it was only with reluctance, and when his speculations were nearly complete, that he came to a conclusion on this subject in accordance with his theory. See life of Hartley by his son in the 1801 edition of the Observations, which also contains notes and additions translated from the German of H. A. Pistorius; Sir Leslie Stephen, History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century (y& ed., 1902), and article fn the Dictionary of National Biography; G. S. Bower, Hartley and James Mill (1881); B. Schonlank, Hartley und Priestley die Begrilnder des Assoziatio- nismus in England (1882). See also the histories of philosophy and bibliography in J. M. Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (1905), vol. iii. HARTLEY, JONATHAN SCOTT (1845- ), American sculptor, was born at Albany, New York, on the 23rd of September 1845. He was a pupil of E. D. Palmer, New York, and of the schools of the Royal Academy, London; he later studied for a year in Berlin and for a year in Paris. His first important work (1882) was a statue of Miles Morgan, the Puritan, for Springfield, Mass. Among his other works are the Daguerre monument in Washington; " Thomas K. Beecher," Elmira, New York, and "Alfred the Great," Appellate Court House, New York. He devoted himself particularly to the making of portrait busts, in which he attained high rank. In 1891 he became a member of the National Academy of Design. HARTLIB, SAMUEL (c. 1599-6. 1670), English writer on education and agriculturist, was born towards the close of the 1 6th century at Elbing in Prussia, his father being a refugee merchant from Poland. His mother was the daughter of a rich English merchant at Danzig. About 1628 Hartlib went to England, where he carried on a mercantile agency, and at the same time found leisure to enter with interest into the public questions of the day. An enthusiastic admirer of Comenius, he published in 1637 his Conatuum Comenianorum praeludia, and in 1639 Comenii pansophiae prodromus el didaclica dissertatio. In 1641 appeared his Relation of that which hath been lately attempted to procure Ecclesiastical Peace among Protestants, and A Description of Macaria, containing his ideas of what a model state should be. During the civil war Hartlib occupied himself HARTMANN, K. R. E. VON — HARTMANN, M. with the peaceful study of agriculture, publishing various works by himself, and printing at his own expense several treatises by others on the subject. In 1652 he issued a second edition of the Discourse of Flanders Husbandry by Sir Richard Weston (1645); and in 1651 Samuel Hartlib, his Legacy, or an Enlarge- ment of the Discourse of Husbandry used in Brabant and Flanders, by Robert Child. For his various labours Hartlib received from Cromwell a pension of £100, afterwards increased to £300, as he had spent all his fortune on his experiments. He planned a school for the sons of gentlemen, to be conducted on new principles, and this probably was the occasion of his friend Milton's Tractate on Education, addressed to him in 1644, and of Sir William Petty 's Two Letters on the same subject, in 1647 and 1648. At the Restoration Hartlib lost his pension, which had already fallen into arrears; he petitioned parliament for a new grant of it, but what success he met with is unknown, as his latter years and death are wrapped in obscurity. A letter from him is known to have been written in February 1661-1662, and apparently he is referred to by Andrew Marvell as alive in 1670 and fleeing to Holland from his creditors. A Biographical Memoir of Samuel Hartlib, by H. Dircks, appeared in 1865. HARTMANN, KARL ROBERT EDUARD VON (1842-1906), German philosopher, was born in Berlin on the 23rd of February 1842. He was educated for the army, and entered the artillery of the Guards as an officer in 1860, but a malady of the knee, which crippled him, forced him to quit the service in 1865. After some hesitation between music and philosophy, he decided to make the latter the serious work of his life, and in 1867 the university of Rostock conferred on him the degree of doctor of philosophy. He subsequently returned to Berlin, and died at Grosslichterfelde on the 5th of June 1906. His reputation as a philosopher was established by his first book, The Philosophy of the Unconscious (1869; loth ed. 1890). This success was largely due to the originality of its title, the diversity of its contents (von Hartmann professing to obtain his speculative results by the methods of inductive science, and making plentiful use of concrete illustrations), the fashionableness of its pessimism and the vigour and lucidity of its style. The conception of the Unconscious, by which von Hartmann describes his ultimate metaphysical principle, is not at bottom as paradoxical as it sounds, being merely a new and mysterious designation for the Absolute of German metaphysicians. The Unconscious appears as a combination of the metaphysic of Hegel with that of Schopen- hauer. The Unconscious is both Will and Reason and the absolute all-embracing ground of all existence. Von Hartmann thus combines " pantheism " with " panlogism " in a manner adumbrated by Schelling in his " positive philosophy." Never- theless Will and not Reason is the primary aspect of the Un- conscious, whose melancholy career is determined by the primacy of the Will and the subservience of the Reason. Precosmically the Will is potential and the Reason latent, and the Will is void of reason when it passes from potentiality to actual willing. This latter is absolute misery, and to cure it the Unconscious evokes its Reason and with its aid creates the best of all possible worlds, which contains the promise of its redemption from actual existence by the emancipation of the Reason from its subjugation to the Will in the conscious reason of the enlightened pessimist. When the greater part of the Will in existence is so far enlightened by reason as to perceive the inevitable misery of existence, a collective effort to will non-existence will be made, and the world will relapse into nothingness, the Unconscious into quiescence. Although von Hartmann is a pessimist, his pessim- ism is by no means unmitigated. The individual's happiness is indeed unattainable either here and now or hereafter and in the future, but he does not despair of ultimately releasing the Unconscious from its sufferings. He differs from Schopenhauer in making salvation by the " negation of the Will-to-live " depend on a collective social effort and not on individualistic asceticism. The conception of a redemption of the Unconscious also supplies the ultimate basis of von Hartmann's ethics. We must provisionally affirm life and devote ourselves to social evolution, instead of striving after a happiness which is impossible; in so doing we shall find that morality renders life less unhappy than it would otherwise be. Suicide, and all other forms of selfishness, are highly reprehensible. Epistemologically von Hartmann is a transcendental realist, who ably defends his views and acutely criticizes those of his opponents. His realism enables him to maintain the reality of Time, and so of the process of the world's redemption. Von Hartmann's numerous works extend to more than 12,000 pages. They may be classified into — A. Systematical, including Grundprobleme der Erkenntnistheorie ; Kategorienlehre; Das sittliche Bewusstsein; Die Philosophic des Schonen; Die Religion des Geistes; Die Philosophic des Unbewusslen (3 vols., which now include his, originally anonymous, self-criticism, Das Unbewusste vom Stand- punkte der Physiologic und Descendenztheorie, and its refutation, Eng. trs. by W. C. Coupland, 1884) ; System der Philosophic im Crundriss, i.; Grundriss der Erkennlnislehre. B. Historical and critical — Das religiose Bewusstsein der Menschheil; Geschichte der Metaphysik (2 vols.); Kant's Erkenntnistheorie; Kritische Grundlegung des transcendentalen Realismus; Vber die dialektische Methode; studies of Schelling, Lotze, von Kirchmann; Zur Geschichte des Pessimismus; Neukantianismus, Schopenhauerismus, Hegelianismus ; Geschichte der deutschen Aslhetik seit Kant; Die Krisis des Christentums in der modernen Theologie; Philosophische Fragen der Gegenwart; Ethische Studien; Moderne Psychologic; Das Christentum des neuen Testaments; Die Weltanschauung der modernen Physik. C. Popular — Soziale Kernfragen; Moderne Probleme; Tagesfragen; Zwei Jahrzehnte deutscher Politik; Das Judentum in Gegenwart und Zukunft; Die Selbslzersetzung des Christentums; Gesammelte Sludien; Der Spiritismus and Die Geisterhypothese des Spiritismus; Zur Zeitgeschichle. His select works have been published in 10 volumes (2nd ed., 1885-1896). On his philosophy see R. Kober, Das philosophische System Eduard von Hartmanns (1884); O. Plumacher, Der Kampf urns Unbewusste (2nd ed., 1890), with a chronological table of the Hartmann literature from 1868 to 1890; A. Drews, E. von Hartmanns Philosophic und der Materialismus in der modernen Kultur (1890) and E. von Hartmanns philosophisches System im Grundriss (1902), with biographical introduction; and for further authorities, J. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (1901-1905). HARTMANN, MORITZ (1821-1872), German poet and author, was born of Jewish parentage at Duschnik in Bohemia on the isth of October 1821. Having studied philosophy at Prague and Vienna, he travelled in south Germany, Switzerland and Italy, and became tutor in a family at Vienna. In 1845 he proceeded to Leipzig and there published a volume of patriotic poems, Kelch und Schwert (1845). Fearing in consequence prosecution at the hands of the authorities, he abided events in France and Belgium, and after issuing in Leipzig Neuere Gedichte (1846) returned home, suffered a short term of imprisonment, and in 1848 was elected member for Leitmeritz in the short-lived German parliament at Frankfort-on-Main, in which he sided with the extreme Radical party. He took part with Robert Blum (1807-1848) in the revolution of that year in Vienna, but contrived to escape to London and Paris. In 1849 he published Reimclironik des Pfaffen Mauritius, a satirical political poem in the style of Heine. During the Crimean War (1854-56) Hart- mann was correspondent of the Kolnische Zeitung, settled in 1860 in Geneva as a teacher of German literature and history, became in 1865 editor of the Frcya in Stuttgart and in 1868 a member of the staff of the Neue Freie Presse in Vienna. He died at Oberdobling near Vienna on the i3th of May 1872. Among Hartmann's numerous works may be especially mentioned Der Krieg urn den Wald (1850), a novel, the scene of which is laid in Bohemia; Tagebuch aus Languedoc und Provence (1852); Erzahlungen eines Unstelen (1858); and Die lelzlen Tage eines Kdnigs (1867). His idyll, Adam und Eva (1851), and his collection of poetical tales, Schatten (1851), show that the author possessed but little talent for epic narrative. Hartmann's poems are often lacking in genuine poetical feeling, but the love of liberty which inspired them, and the fervour, ease and clear- ness of their style compensated for these shortcomings and gained for him a wide circle of admirers. His Gesammelte Werke were published in 10 vols. in 1873-1874, and a selection of his Gedichte in the latter year. The first two volumes of a new edition of his works contain a biography of Hart- mann by O. Wittner. See also E. Ziel, " Moritz Hartmann " (in Unsere Zeit, 1872); A. Marchand, Les Poetes lyriques de I'Autriche (1892) ; Brandes, Dasjunge Deutschland (Charlottenburg, 1899). HARTMANN VON AUE— HARUSPICES 37 HARTMANN VON AUE (c. ii^o-c. 1210), one of the chief Middle High German poets. He belonged to the lower nobility of Swabia, where he was born about 1170. After receiving a monastic education, he became retainer (dienstman) of a noble- man whose domain, Aue, has been identified with Obernau on the Neckar. He also took part in the Crusade of 1196-97. The date of his death is as uncertain as that of his birth; he is mentioned by Gottfried von Strassburg (c. 1210) as still alive, and in the Krone of Heinrich von dem Tiirlin, written about 1220, he is mourned for as dead. Hartmann was the author of four narrative poems which are of importance for the evolution of the Middle High German court epic. The oldest of these, Erec, which may have been written as early as 1191 or 1192, and the latest and ripest, Iwein, belong to the Arthurian cycle and are based on epics by Chretien de Troyes (q.v.) ; between them lie the romance, Gregorius, also an adaptation of a French epic, and Der arme Heinrich, one of the most charming specimens of medieval German poetry. The theme of the latter — the cure of the leper, Heinrich, by a young girl who is willing to sacrifice her life for him — Hartmann had evidently found in the annals of the family in whose service he stood. Hartmann's most con- spicuous merit as a poet lies in his style; his language is care- fully chosen, his narrative lucid, flowing and characterized by a sense of balance and proportion which is rarely to be found in German medieval poetry. Gregorius, Der arme Heinrick and his lyrics, which are all fervidly religious in tone, imply a tendency towards asceticism, but, on the whole, Hartmann's striving seems rather to have been to reconcile the extremes of life; to establish a middle way of human conduct between the worldly pursuits of knighthood and the ascetic ideals of medieval religion. Erec has been edited by M. Haupt (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1871); Gregorius, by H. Paul (2nd ed., Halle, 1900); Der arme Heinrich, by W. Wackernagel and W. Toischer (Basel, 1885) and by H. Paul (2nd ed., Halle, 1893); by J. G. Robertson (London, 1895), with English notes; Iwein, by G. F. Benecke and K. Lach- mann (4th ed., Berlin, 1877) and E. Henrici (Halle, 1891-1893). A convenient edition of all Hartmann's poems by F. Bech, 3 vols. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1891-1893, vol. 3 in 4th ed., 1902). The literature on Hartmann is extensive. See especially L. Schmid. Des Minnesingers Hartmann von Aue Stand, Heimat und Ceschlecht (Tubingen, 1874); H. Rotteken, Die epische Kunst Heinrichs von Veldeke und Hartmanns von Aue (Halle, 1887); F. Saran, Hartmann von Aue als Lyriker (Halle, 1889) ; A. E. Schonbach, (Jber Hartmann von Aue (Graz, 1894); F. Piquet, Ittude sur Hart- mann d'Aue (Paris, 1898). Translations have been made into modern German of all Hartmann's poems, while Der arme Heinrich has repeatedly attracted the attention of modern poets, both English (Longfellow, Rossetti) and German (notably, Gerhart Hauptmann). See H. Tardel, Der arme Heinrich in der neueren Dichtung (Berlin, HARTSHORN, SPIRITS OF, a name signifying originally the ammoniacal liquor obtained by the distillation of horn shavings, afterwards applied to the partially purified similar products of the action of heat on nitrogenous animal matter generally, and now popularly used to designate the aqueous solution of ammonia (q.ti). HARTZENBUSCH, JUAN EUGENIO (1806-1880), Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid on the 6th of September 1806. The son of a German carpenter, he was educated for the priest- hood, but he had no religious vocation and, on leaving school, followed his father's trade till 1830, when he learned shorthand and joined the staff of the Gaceta. His earliest dramatic essays were translations from Moliere, Voltaire and the elder Dumas; he next recast old Spanish plays, and in 1837 produced his first original play, Los Amantes de T cruel, the subject of which had been used by Rey de Artieda, Tirso de Molina and Perez de Montalban. Los Amantes de Teruel at once made the author's reputation, which was scarcely maintained by Dona Mencia (1839) and Alfonso el Casto (1841); it was not till 1845 that he approached his former success with La Jura en Santa Gadea. Hartzenbusch was chief of the National Library from 1862 to 1875, and was an indefatigable — though not very judicious — editor of many national classics. Inferior in inspiration to other contemporary Spanish dramatists, Hartzenbusch excels his rivals in versatility and in conscientious workmanship. HARUN AL-RASHID (763 or 766-809), i.e. "Harun the Orthodox," the fifth of the 'Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad, and the second son of the third caliph Mahdi. His full name was Harun ibn Muhammad ibn 'Abdallah ibn Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn 'Abdallah ibn 'Abbas. He was born at Rai (Rhagae) on the 2oth of March A.D. 763, according to some accounts, and according to others on the isth of February A.D. 766. Harun al-Rashld was twenty-two years old when he ascended the throne. His father Mahdi just before his death conceived the idea of superseding his elder son Musa (afterwards known as Hadi, the fourth caliph) by Harun. But on Mahdi's death Harun gave way to his brother. For the campaigns in which he took part prior to his accession see CALIPHATE, section C, The Abbasids, §§ 3 and 4. Rashid owed his succession to the throne to the prudence and sagacity of Yahya b. Khalid the Barmecide, his secretary, whom on his accession he appointed his lieutenant and grand vizier (se.e BARMECIDES). Under his guidance the empire flourished on the whole, in spite of several revolts in the provinces by members of the old Alid family. Successful wars were waged with the rulers of Byzantium and the Khazars. In 803, however, Harun became suspicious of the Barmecides, whom with only a single exception he caused to be executed. Henceforward the chief power was exercised by Fadl b. Rabi', who had been chamberlain not only under Harun himself but under his predecessors, Mansur, Madhi and Hadi. In the later years of Harun's reign troubles arose in the eastern parts of the empire. These troubles assumed proportions so serious that Harun himself decided to go to Khorasan. He died, however, at Tus in March 809. The reign of Harun (see CALIPHATE, section C, § 5) was one of the most brilliant in the annals of the caliphate, in spite of losses in north-west Africa and Transoxiana. His fame spread to the West, and Charlemagne and he exchanged gifts and com- pliments as masters respectively of the West and the East. No caliph ever gathered round him so great a number of learned men, poets, jurists, grammarians, cadis and scribes, to say nothing of the wits and musicians who enjoyed his patronage. Harun himself was a scholar and poet, and was well versed in history, tradition and poetry. He possessed taste and discernment, and his dignified demeanour is extolled by the historians. In religion he was extremely strict; he prostrated himself a hundred times daily, and nine or ten times made the pilgrimage to Mecca. At the same time he cannot be regarded as a great administrator. He seems to have left everything to his viziers Yahya and Fadl, to the former of whom especially was due the prosperous con- dition of the empire. Harun is best known to Western readers as the hero of many of the stories in the Arabian Nights; and in Arabic literature he is the central figure of numberless anecdotes and humorous stories. Of his incognito walks through Bagdad, however, the authentic histories say nothing. His Arabic biographers are unanimous in describing him as noble and generous, but there is little doubt that he was in fact a man of little force of character, suspicious, untrustworthy and on occasions cruel. See the Arabic histories of Ibn al-Athir and Ibn Khaldun. Among modern works see Sir W. Muir, The Caliphate (London, 1891); R. D. Osborn, Islam under the Khalifs of Bagdad (London, 1878); Gustav Weil, Geschichte der Chalifen (Mannheim and Stuttgart, 1846-1862); G. le Strange, Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate (Oxford, 1900); A. Miiller, Der Islam, vol. i. (Berlin, 1885); E. H. Palmer, The Caliph Haroun Alraschid (London, 1880); J. B. Bury's edition of Gibbon's Decline and Fall (London, 1898), vol. vi. pp. 34 foil. HARUSPICES, or ARUSPICES (perhaps " entrail observers," cf. Skt. hira, Gr. xopSy), a class of soothsayers in Rome. Their art (disciplina) consisted especially in deducing the will of the gods from the appearance presented by the entrails of the slain victim . They also interpreted all portents or unusual phenomena of nature, especially thunder and lightning, and prescribed the expiatory ceremonies after such events. To please the god, the victim must be without spot or blemish, and the practice of ob- serving whether the entrails presented any abnormal appearance, HARVARD UNIVERSITY and thence deducing the will of heaven, was also very im- portant in Greek religion. This art, however, appears not to have been, as some other modes of ascertaining the will of the gods undoubtedly were, of genuine Aryan growth. It is foreign to the Homeric poems, and must have been introduced into Greece after their composition. In like manner, as the Romans themselves believed, the art was not indigenous in Rome, but derived from Etruria.1 The Etruscans were said to have learned it from a being named Tages, grandson of Jupiter, who had suddenly sprung from the ground near Tarquinii. Instructions were contained in certain books called libr i haruspicini, fulgurates, rituales. The art was practised in Rome chiefly by Etruscans, occasionally by native-born Romans who had studied in the priestly schools of Etruria. From the regal period to the end of the republic, haruspices were summoned from Etruria to deal with prodigies not mentioned in the pontifical and Sibylline books, and the Roman priests carried out their instructions as to the offering necessary to appease the anger of the deity con- cerned. Though the art was of great importance under the early republic, it never became a part of the state religion. In this respect the haruspices ranked lower than the augurs, as is shown by the fact that they received a salary; the augurs were a more ancient and purely Roman institution, and were a most important element in the political organization of the city. In later times the art fell into disrepute, and the saying of Cato the Censor is well known, that he wondered how one haruspex could look another in the face without laughing (Cic. De div. ii. 24). Under the empire, however, we hear of a regular collegium of sixty haru- spices; and Claudius is said to have tried to restore the art and put it under the control of the pontifices. This collegium con- tinued to exist till the time of Alaric. See A. Bouche'-Leclercq, Hisloire de la divination dans_ I'antiquite (1879-1881); Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii. (1885), pp. 410-415; G. Schmeisser, Die etruskische Disciplin vom Bundes- genossenkriege bis zum Untergang des Heidentums (1881), and Quaestionum de Etrusca disciplina particula (1872); P. Clairin, De haruspicibus apud Romanes (1880). Also OMEN. HARVARD UNIVERSITY, the oldest of American educational institutions, established at Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 1636 the General Court of the colony voted £400 towards " a schoale or colledge," which in the next year was ordered to be at " New Towne." In memory of the English university where many (probably some seventy) of the leading men of the colony had been educated, the township was named Cambridge in 1638. In the same year John Harvard (1607-1638), a Puritan minister lately come to America, a bachelor and master of Emmanuel college, Cambridge, dying in Charlestown (Mass.), bequeathed to the wilderness seminary half his estate (£780) and some three hundred books; and the college, until then unorganized, was named Harvard College (1639) in his honour. Its history is unbroken from 1640, and its first commencement was held in 1642. The spirit of the founders is beautifully expressed in the words of a contemporary letter which are carved on the college gates: " After God had carried us safe to New-England, and wee had builded our houses, provided necessaries for our liveli-hood, rear'd convenient places for Gods worship, and setled the Civill Government; One of the next things we longed for, and looked after was to advance Learning, and perpetuate it to Posterity; dreading to leave an illiterate Ministry to the Churches, when our present Ministers shall lie in the Dust." The college charter of 1650 dedicated it to " the advancement of all good literature, arts, and sciences," and " the education of the English and Indian youth ... in knowledge and godly nes." The second building (1654) on the college grounds was called " the Indian College." In it was set up the College press, which since 1638 had been in the president's house, and here, it is believed, was printed the trans- lation of the Bible (1661-1663) by John Eliot into the language of the natives, with primer, catechisms, grammars, tracts, &c. A fair number of Indians were students, but only one, Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck, took a bachelor's degree(i665). By generous 1 The statement of Dionysius of Halicarnassus (ii. 22) that the haruspices were instituted by Romulus is due to his confusing them with the augurs. aid received from abroad for this special object, the college was greatly helped in its infancy. The charter of 1650 has been in the main, and uninterruptedly since 1707, the fundamental source of authority in the administra- tion of the university. It created a co-optating corporation consisting of the president, treasurer and five fellows, who formally initiate administrative measures, control the college funds, and appoint officers of instruction and government; subject, however, to confirmation by the Board of Overseers (established in 1642), which has a revisory power over all acts of the corporation. Circumstances gradually necessitated ordinary government by the resident teachers; and to-day the various faculties, elaborately organized, exercise immediate government and discipline over all the students, and individually or in the general university council consider questions of policy. The Board of Overseers was at first jointly representative of state and church. The former, as founder and patron, long regarded Harvard as a state institution, controlling or aiding it through the legislature and the overseers; but the contro- versies and embarrassments incident to legislative action proved prejudicial to the best interests of the college, and its organic connexion with the state was wholly severed in 1866. Financial aid and practical dependence had ceased some time earlier; indeed, from the very beginning, and with steadily increasing preponderance, Harvard has been sustained and fostered by private munificence rather than by public money. The last direct subsidy from the state determined in 1824, although state aid was afterwards given to the Agassiz museum, later united with the university. The church was naturally sponsor for the early college. The changing composition of its Board of Overseers marked its liberation first from clerical and later from political control; since 1865 the board has been chosen by the alumni (non-residents of Massachusetts being eligible since 1880), who therefore really control the university. When the state ceased to repress effectually the rife speculation characteristic of the first half of the seventeenth century, in religion as in politics, and in America as in England, the unity of Puritanism gave way to a variety of intense sectarianisms, and this, as also the incoming of Anglican churchmen, made the old faith of the college insecure. President Henry Dunster (c. 1612-1659), the first president, was censured by the magistrates and removed from office for questioning infant baptism. The conservatives, who clung to pristine and undiluted Calvinism, sought to intrench themselves in Harvard, especially in the Board of Overseers. The history of the college from about 1673 to 1725 was exceedingly troubled. Increase and Cotton Mather, forceful but bigoted, were the bulwarks of reaction and fomenters of discord. One episode in the struggle was the foundation and encouragement of Yale College by the reaction- aries of New England as a truer " school of the prophets " (Cotton Mather being particularly zealous in its interests), after they had failed to secure control of the government of Harvard. It represented conservative secession. In 1792 the first layman was chosen to the corporation; in 1805 a Unitarian became professor of theology; in 1843 the board of overseers was opened to clergymen of all denominations; in 1886 attendance on prayers by the students ceased to be compulsory. Thus Harvard, in response to changing ideas and conditions, grew away from the ideas of its founders. Harvard, her alumni, and her faculty have- been very closely connected with American letters, not only in the colonial period, when the Mathers, Samuel Sewall and Thomas Prince were important names, or in the revolutionary and early national epoch with the Adamses, Fisher Ames, Joseph Dennie and Robert Treat Paine, but especially in the second third of the ipth century, when the great New England movements of Unitarianism and Transcendentalism were led by Harvard graduates. In 1805 Henry Ware (1764-1845) was elected the first anti-Trinitarian to be Hollis professor of divinity, and this marked Harvard's close connexion with Unitarianism, in the later history of which Ware, his son Henry (1794-1843), and Andrews Norton (1786-1852)^1! Harvard alumni and professors, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 39 and Joseph Buckminster (1751-1812) and William Ellery Channing were leaders of the conservative Unitarians, and Joseph Stevens Buckminster (1784-1812), James Freeman Clarke, and Theodore Parker were liberal leaders.- Of the " Transcendentalists," Emerson, Francis Henry Hedge (1805- 1890), Clarke, Convers Francis (1795-1863), Parker, Thoreau and Christopher Pearse Cranch (1813-1892) were Harvard graduates. Longfellow's professorship at Harvard identified him with it rather than with Bowdoin; Oliver Wendell Holmes was professor of anatomy and physiology at Harvard in 1847- 1882; and Lowell, a Harvard alumnus, was Longfellow's successor in 1855-1886 as Smith Professor of the French and Spanish languages and literatures. Ticknor and Charles Eliot Norton are other important names in American literary criticism. The historians Sparks, Bancroft, Hildreth, Palfrey, Prescott, Motley and Parkman were graduates of Harvard, as were Edward Everett, Charles Sumner and Wendell Phillips. In organization and scope of effort Harvard has grown, especially after 1869, under the direction of President Charles W. Eliot, to be in the highest sense a university; but the " college " proper, whose end is the liberal culture of under- graduates, continues to be in many ways the centre of university life, as it is the embodiment of university traditions. The medical school (in Boston) dates from 1782, the law school from 1817, the divinity school 1 (though instruction in theology was of course given from the foundation of the college) from 1819, and the dental school (in Boston ) from 1867. The Bussey Institution at Jamaica Plain was established in 1871 as an undergraduate school of agriculture, and reorganized in 1908 for advanced instruction and research in subjects relating to agriculture and horticulture. The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences dates from 1872, the Graduate School of Applied Science (growing out of the Lawrence Scientific School) from 1906, and the Graduate School of Business Administration (which applies to commerce the professional methods used in post-graduate schools of medicine, law, &c.) from 1908. The Lawrence Scientific School, established in 1847, was practically abolished in 1907-1908, when its courses were divided between the College (which thereafter granted a degree of S.B.) and the Graduate School of Applied Science, which was established in 1906 and gives professional degrees in civil, mechanical and electrical engineering, mining, metallurgy, architecture, landscape archi- tecture, forestry, applied physics, applied chemistry, applied zoology and applied geology. A school of veterinary medicine, established in 1882, was discontinued in 1901. The university institutions comprise the botanic garden (1807) and the (Asa) Gray herbarium (1864); the Arnold arboretum (1872), at Jamaica Plain, for the study of arboriculture, forestry and dendrology; the university museum of natural history, founded in 1859 by Louis Agassiz as a museum of comparative zoology, enormously developed by his son, Alexander Agassiz, and transferred to the university in 1876, though under an inde- pendent faculty; the Peabody museum of American archaeology and ethnology, founded in 1866 by George Peabody; the William Hayes Fogg art museum (1895); the Semitic museum (1889); the Germanic Museum (1902), containing rich gifts from Kaiser Wilhelm II., the Swiss government, and individuals and societies of Germanic lands; the social museum (1906); and the astronomical observatory (1843; location 42° 22' 48" N. lat., 71° 8' W. long.), which since 1891 has maintained a station near Arequipa, Peru. A permanent summer engineering camp is maintained at Squam Lake, New Hampshire. In Petersham, Massachusetts, is the Harvard Forest, about 2000 acres of hilly wooded country with a stand in 1908 of 10,000,000 ft. B.M. of merchantable timber (mostly white pine) ; this forest was given to the university in 1907, and is an important part of the equip- ment of the division of forestry. The university library is the largest college library in the country, and from its slow and competent selection is of exceptional value. In 1 908 it numbered, 1 Affiliated with the university, but autonomous and independent, is the Andovcr Theological Seminary, which in 1908 removed from Andover to Cambridge. including the various special libraries, 803,800 bound volumes, about 496,600 pamphlets, and 27,450 maps. Some of its collec- tions are of great value from associations or special richness, such as Thomas Carlyle's collection on Cromwell and Frederick the Great; the collection on folk-lore and medieval romances, supposed to be the largest in existence and including the material used by Bishop Percy in preparing his Reliques; and that on the Ottoman empire. The law library has been described by Professor A. V. Dicey of Oxford as " the most perfect collection of the legal records of the English people to be found in any part of the English-speaking world." There are department libraries at the Arnold arboretum, the Gray herbarium, the Bussey Institution, the astronomical observatory, the dental school, the medical school, the law school, the divinity school, the Peabody museum, and the museum of comparative zoology. In 1878 the library published the first of a valuable series of Bibliographical Contributions. Other publications of the univer- sity (apart from annual reports of various departments) are: the Harvard Oriental Series (started 1891), Harvard Studies in Classical Philology (1890), Harvard Theological Review (1907), the Harvard Law Review (1889), Harvard Historical Studies (1897), Harvard Economic Studies (1906), Harvard Psychological Studies (1903), the Harvard Engineering Journal (1902), the Bulletin (1874) of the Bussey Institution, the Archaeological and Ethnological Papers (1888) of the Peabody museum, and the Bulletin (-1863), Contributions and M emoirs (1865) of the museum of comparative zoology. The students' publications include the Crimson (1873), a daily newspaper; the Advocate (1831), a literary bi-weekly; the Lampoon (1876), a comic bi-weekly; and the Harvard Monthly (1885), a literary monthly. The Harvard Bulletin, a weekly, and the Harvard Graduates' Magazine (1892), a quarterly, are published chiefly for the alumni. In 1908-1909 there were 743 officers of instruction and ad- ministration (including those for Radcliffe) and 5250 students (1059 in 1869), the latter including 2238 in the college, 1641 in the graduate and professional schools, and 1332 in the summer school. Radcliffe College, for women, had 449 additional students. The whole number of degrees conferred up to 1905 was 31,805 (doctors of science and of philosophy by examination, 408; masters of arts and of science by examination, 1759). The conditions of the time when Harvard was a theological seminary for boys, governed like a higher boarding school, have left traces still discernible in the organization and discipline, though no longer in the aims of the college. The average age of students at entrance, only 14 years so late as 1820, had risen by 1890 to 19 years, making possible the transition to the present regime of almost entire liberty of life and studies without detriment, but with positive improvement, to the morals of the student body. A strong development toward the university ideal marked the opening of the igth century, especially in the widen- ing of courses, the betterment of instruction, and the suggestions of quickening ideas of university freedom, whose realization, along with others, has come since 1870. The elimination of the last vestiges of sectarianism and churchly discipline, a lessening of parietal oversight, a lopping off of various outgrown colonial customs, a complete reconstruction of professional standards and methods, the development of a great graduate school in arts and sciences based on and organically connected with the undergraduate college, a great improvement in the college standard of scholarship, the allowance of almost absolute freedom to students in the shaping of their college course (the " elective " system), and very remarkable material prosperity marked the administration (1869-1909) of President Eliot. In the readjustment in the curricula of American colleges of the elements of professional training and liberal culture Harvard has been bold in experiment and innovation. With Johns Hopkins University she has led the movement that has trans- formed university education, and her influence upon secondary education in America has been incomparably greater than that of any other university. Her entrance requirements to the college and to the schools of medicine, law, dentistry and divinity have been higher than those of any other American university. HARVEST A bachelor's degree is requisite for entrance to the professional schools (except that of dentistry), and the master's degree (since •1872) is given to students only for graduate work in residence, and rarely to other persons as an honorary degree. In scholarship and in growth of academic freedom Germany has given the quickening impulse. This influence began with George Ticknor and Edward Everett, who were trained in Germany, and was continued by a number of eminent German scholars, some driven into exile for their liberalism, who became professors in the second half of the ipth century, and above all by the many members of the faculty still later trained in German universities. The ideas of recognizing special students and introducing the elective system were suggested in 1824, attaining establishment even for freshmen by 1885, the movement characterizing particu- larly the years 1865-1885. The basis of the elective system (as in force in 1910) is freedom in choice of studies within liberal limits; and, as regards admission to college1 (completely established 1891), the idea that the admission is of minds for the quality of their training and not for their knowledge of particular subjects, and that any subject may be acceptable for such training if followed with requisite devotion and under proper methods. Except for one course in English in the Freshman year, and one course in French or German for those who do not on entrance present both of these languages, no study is pre- scribed, but the student is compelled to select a certain number of courses in some one department or field of learning, and to distribute the remainder among other departments, the object being to secure a systematic education, based on the principle of knowing a little of everything and something well. The material equipment of Harvard is very rich. In 1909 it included invested funds of $22,716,760 ($2,257,990 in 1869) and lands and buildings valued at $i 2,000,000 at least. In 1908- 1909 an income of more than $130,000 was distributed in scholarships, fellowships, prizes and other aids to students. The yearly income available for immediate use from all sources in 1899-1904 averaged $1,074,229, of which $452,760 yearly represented gifts. The total gifts, for funds and for current use, in the same years aggregated $6,152,988. The income in 1907- 1908 was $1,846,976; $241,924 was given for immediate use, and $449,822 was given for capital. The medical school is well endowed and is housed in buildings (1906) on Longwood Avenue, Boston; the gifts for its buildings and endowments made in 1901-1902 aggregate $5,000,000. Among the university buildings are two dining-halls accommodating some 2500 students, a theatre for public ceremonies, a chapel, a home for religious societies, a club-home (the Harvard Union) for graduates and undergraduates, an infirmary, gymnasium, boat houses and large playgrounds, with a concrete stadium capable of seating 27,000 spectators. Massachusetts Hall (1720) is the oldest building. University Hall (1815), the administration building, dignified, of excellent proportions and simple lines, is a good example of the work of Charles Bulfinch. Memorial Hall (1874), an ambitious building of cathedral suggestion, commemorates the Harvard men who fell in the Civil War, and near it is an ideal statue (1884) of John Harvard by Daniel C. French. The medical and dental schools are in Boston, and the Bussey Institution and Arnold Arboretum are at Jamaica Plain. RADCLIFFE COLLEGE, essentially a part of Harvard, dates from the beginning of systematic instruction of women by members of the Harvard faculty in 1879, the Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women being formally organized in 1882. The present name was adopted in 1894 in honour of Ann 1 The requirements for admission as changed in 1908 are based on the " unit system "; satisfactory marks must be got in subjects aggregating 26 units, the unit being a measure of preparatory study. Of these 26 units, English (4 units), algebra (2), plane geometry (2), some science or sciences (2), history (2; either Greek and Roman, or American and English), a modern language (2; French and German) are prescribed ; prospective candidates for the degree of A.B. are required to take examinations for 4 additional units in Greek or Latin, and for the other 8 points have large range of choice; and candidates for the degree of S.B. must take additional examina- tions in French or German (2 units) and have a similar freedom of choice in making up the remaining 10 units. Radcliffe, Lady Mowlson (ob. c. 1661), widow of Sir Thomas Mowlson, alderman and (1634) lord mayor of London, who in 1643 founded the first scholarship in Harvard College. From 1894 alsa dates the present official connexion of Radcliffe with Harvard. The requirements for admission and for degrees are the same as in Harvard (whose president countersigns all diplomas), and the president and fellows of Harvard control absolutely the administration of the college, although it has for immediate ad- ministration a separate government. Instruction is given by members of the university teaching force, who repeat in Rad- cliffe many of the Harvard courses. Many advanced courses in Harvard, and to a certain extent laboratory facilities, are directly accessible to Radcliffe students, and they have unrestricted access to the library. The presidents of Harvard have been: Henry Dunster (1640- 1654); Charles Chauncy (1654-1672); Leonard Hoar (1672- 1675); Urian Oakes (1675-1681); John Rogers (1682-1684); Increase Mather (1685-1701); Charles Morton (vice-president) (1697-1698); Samuel Willard (1700-1707); John Leverett (1708- 1724); Benjamin Wadsworth (1725-1737); Edward Holyoke (1737-1769); Samuel Locke (1770-1773); Samuel Langdon (1774-1780); Joseph Willard (1781-1804); Samuel Webber (1806-1810); John Thornton Kirkland (1810-1828); Josiah Quincy (1829-1845); Edward Everett (1846-1849); Jared Sparks (1849-1853); James Walker (1853-1860); Cornelius Conway Felton (1860-1862); Thomas Hill (1862-1868); Charles William Eliot (1869-1909); Abbott Lawrence Lowell (appointed 1909). AUTHORITIES. — Benjamin Peirce, A History of Harvard University 1636-1775 (Boston, 1883); Josiah Quincy, A History of Harvard University (2 vols., Boston, 1840) ; Samuel A. Eliot, Harvard College and its Benefactors (Boston, 1848); H. C. Shelley, John Harvard and his Times (Boston, 1907) ; The Harvard Book (2 vols., Cambridge, 1874) ; G. Birkbeck Hill, Harvard College, by an Oxonian (New York, 1894); William R. Thayer, "History and Customs of Harvard University," in Universities and their Sons, vol. i. (Boston, 1898) ; Official Guide to Harvard, and the various other publications of the university; also the Harvard Graduates' Magazine (1892 sqq.). HARVEST (A.S. harfest "autumn," O.K. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. carpere, ' ' to pluck ") , the season of the ingathering of crops. Harvest has been a season of rejoicing from the remotest ages. The ancient Jews celebrated the Feast of Pentecost as their harvest festival, the wheat ripening earlier in Palestine. The Romans had their Cerealia or feasts in honour of Ceres. The Druids celebrated their harvest on the ist of November. In pre-reformation England Lammas Day (Aug. ist, O.S.) was observed at the be- ginning of the harvest festival, every member of the church presenting a loaf made of new wheat. Throughout the world harvest has always been the occasion for many queer customs which all have their origin in the animistic belief in the Corn- Spirit or Corn-Mother. This personification of the crops has left its impress upon the harvest customs of modern Europe. In west Russia, for example, the figure made out of the last sheaf of corn is called the Bastard, and a boy is wrapped up in it. The woman who binds this sheaf represents the " Cornmother," and an elaborate simulation of childbirth takes place, the boy in the sheaf squalling like a new-born child, and being, on his liberation, wrapped in swaddling bands. Even in England vestiges of sympathetic magic can be detected. In Northumberland, where the harvest rejoicing takes place at the close of the reaping and not at the ingathering, as soon as the last sheaf is set on end the reapers shout that they have " got the kern." An image formed of a wheatsheaf, and dressed in a white frock and coloured ribbons, is hoisted on a pole. This is the " kern-baby " or harvest-queen, and it is carried back in triumph with music and shouting and set up in a prominent place during the harvest supper. In Scotland the last sheaf if cut before Hallowmas is called the " maiden," and the youngest girl in the harvest-field is given the privilege of cutting it. If the reaping finishes after Hallowmas the last corn cut is called the Cailleach (old woman). In some parts of Scotland this last sheaf is kept till Christmas morning and then divided among the cattle " to make them HARVEST-BUG—HARVEY thrive all the year round," or is kept till the first mare foals and is then given to her as her first food. Throughout the world, as J. G. Frazer shows, the semi-worship of the last sheaf is or has been the great feature of the harvest-home. Among harvest customs none is more interesting than harvest cries. The cry of the Egyptian reapers announcing the death of the corn-spirit, the rustic prototype of Osiris, has found its echo on the world's harvest-fields, and to this day, to take an English example, the Devonshire reapers utter cries of the same sort and go through a ceremony which in its main features is an exact counterpart of pagan worship. " After the wheat is cut they ' cry the neck.' . . . An old man goes round to the shocks and picks out a bundle of the best ears he can find. . . this bundle is called ' the neck '; the harvest hands then stand round in a ring, the old man holding ' the neck ' in the centre. At a signal from him they take off their hats, stooping and holding them with both hands towards the ground. Then all together they utter in a prolonged cry ' the neck! ' three times, raising themselves upright with their hats held above their heads. Then they change their cry to ' Wee yen! way yen! ' or, as some report, ' we haven!' " On a fine still autumn evening " crying the neck " has a wonderful effect at a distance. In East Anglia there still survives the custom known as " Hallering Largess." The harvesters beg largess from passers, and when they have received money they shout thrice " Halloo, largess," having first formed a circle, bowed their heads low crying " Hoo-Hoo-Hoo," and then jerked their heads back- wards and uttered a shrill shriek of " Ah ! Ah ! " For a very full discussion of harvest customs see J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, and Brand's Antiquities of Great Britain (Hazlitt's edit., 1905). HARVEST-BUG, the familiar name for mites of the family Trombidiidae, belonging to the order Acari of the class Arachnida. Although at one time regarded as constituting a distinct species, described as Leptus aulumnalis, harvest-bugs are now known to be the six-legged larval forms of several British species of mites of the genus Trombidium, They are minute, rusty-brown organisms, barely visible to the naked eye, which swarm in grass and low herbage in the summer and early autumn, and cause considerable, sometimes intense, irritation by piercing and adhering to the skin of the leg, usually lodging themselves in some part where the clothing is tight, such as the knee when covered with gartered stockings. They may be readily destroyed, and the irritation allayed, by rubbing the affected area with some insecticide like turpentine or benzine. They are not permanently parasitic, and if left alone will leave their temporary host to resume the active life characteristic of the adult mite, which is predatory in habits, preying upon minute living animal organisms. HARVESTER, HARVEST-SPIDER, or HARVEST-MAN, names given to Arachnids of the order Opiliones, referable to various species of the family Phalangiidae. Harvest-spiders or harvest- men, so-called on account of their abundance in the late summer and early autumn, may be at once distinguished from all true spiders by the extreme length and thinness of their legs, and by the small size and spherical or oval shape of the body, which is not divided by a waist or constriclion into an anterior and a posterior region. They may be met with in houses, back yards, fields, woods and heaths; either climbing on walls, running over the grass, or lurking under stones and fallen tree trunks. They are predaceous, feeding upon small insects, mites and spiders. The males are smaller than the females, and often differ from them in certain well-marked secondary sexual characters, such as the mandibular protuberance from which one of the common English spiders, Phalangium cormitum, takes its scientific name. The male is also furnished with a long and protrusible penis, and the female with an equally long and protrusible ovipositor. The sexes pair in the autumn, and the female, by means of her ovipositor, lays her eggs in some cleft or hole in the soil and leaves them to their fate. After breeding, the parents die with the autumn cold; but the eggs retain their vitality through the winter and hatch with the warmth of spring and early summer, the young gradually attaining maturity as the latter season progresses. Hence the prevalence of adult individuals in the late summer and autumn, and at no other time of the year. They are provided with a pair of glands, situated one on each side of the carapace, which secrete an evil-smelling fluid believed to be protective in nature. Harvest-men are very widely distributed and are especially abundant in temperate countries of the FIG. i. — Harvest-man (Phalangium cprnutum, Linn.); profile of male, with legs and palpi truncated. a, Ocular tubercle. d, Sheath of penis protruded. b, Mandible e. Penis. c, Labrum (upper lip). /, The glans. northern hemisphere. They are also, however, common in India, where they are well known for their habit of adhering together in great masses, comparable to a swarm of bees, and of swaying gently backwards and forwards. The long legs of harvest-men serve them not only as organs of rapid locomotion, but also as props to raise the body well off the ground, thus enabling the animals to stalk unmolested from the midst of an army of raiding ants. (R. I. P.) HARVEY, GABRIEL (c. 1545-1630), English writer, eldest son of a ropemaker of Saffron- Walden, Essex, was born about 1545. He matriculated at Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1566, and in 1570 was elected fellow of Pembroke Hall. Here he formed a lasting friendship with Edmund Spenser, and it has been sug- gested (A then. Cantab, ii. 258) that he may have been the poet's tutor. Harvey was a scholar of considerable weight, who has perhaps been judged too exclusively from the brilliant invectives directed against him by Thomas Nashe. Henry Morley, writing in the Fortnightly Review (March 1869), brought evidence from Harvey's Latin writings which shows that he was distinguished by quite other qualities than the pedantry and conceit usually associated with his name. He desired to be " epitaphed as the Inventour of the English Hexameter," and was the prime mover in the literary clique that desired to impose on English verse the Latin rules of quantity. In a " gallant, familiar letter " to M. Immerito (Edmund Spenser) he says that Sir Edward Dyer and Sir Philip Sidney were helping forward " our new famous enter- prise for the exchanging of Barbarous and Balductum Rymes with Artificial Verses." The document includes a tepid apprecia- tion of the Faerie Queene which had been sent to him for his opinion, and he gives examples of English hexameters illustrative of the principles enunciated in the correspondence. The opening lines — " What might I call this Tree ? A Laurell ? O bonny Laurell Needes to thy bowes will I bow this knee, and vayle my bonetto " — afford a fair sample of the success of Harvey's metrical experi- ments, which presented a fair mark for the wit of Thomas Nashe. " He (Harvey) goes twitching and hopping in our language like a man running upon quagmires, up the hill in one syllable, and down the dale in another," says Nashe in Strange Newes, and he mimics him in the mocking couplet: " But eh ! what news do you hear of that good Gabriel Huffe-Snuffe, Known to the world for a foole, and clapt in the Fleete for a Runner ? " Harvey exercised great influence over Spenser for a short time, and the friendship lasted even though Spenser's genius refused HARVEY, SIR G.— HARVEY, WILLIAM 42 to be bound by the laws of the new prosody. Harvey is the Hobbinoll of his friend's Shepheards Calender, and into his mouth is put the beautiful song in the fourth eclogue in praise of Eliza. If he was really the author of the verses " To the Learned Shepheard " signed " Hobynoll " and prefixed to the Faerie Queene, he was a good poet spoiled. But Harvey's genuine friendship for Spenser shows the best side of a disposition un- compromising and quarrelsome towards the world in general. In 1573 ill-will against him in his college was so strong that there was a delay of three months before the fellows would agree to grant him the necessary grace for his M.A. degree. He be- came reader in rhetoric aboat 1576, and in 1378, on the occasion of Queen Elizabeth's visit to Sir Thomas Smith at Audley End, he was appointed to dispute publicly before her. In the next year he wrote to Spenser complaining of the unauthorized publi- cation of satirical verses of his which were supposed to reflect on high personages, and threatened seriously to injure Harvey;s career. In 1583 he became junior proctor of the university, and in 1 585 he was elected master of Trinity Hall, of which he had been a fellow from 1578, but the appointment appears to have been quashed at court. He was a protege of the Earl of Leicester, to whom he introduced Spenser, and this connexion may account for his friendship with Sir Philip Sidney. But in spite of patron- age, a second application for the mastership of Trinity Hall failed in 1598. In 1585 he received the degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford, and is found practising at the bar in London. Gabriel's brother, Richard, had taken part in the Marprelate controversy, and had given offence to Robert Greene by contemptuous references to him and his fellow wits. Greene retorted in his Quip for an Upstart Courtier with some scathing remarks on the Harveys, the worst of which were expunged in later editions, drawing attention among other things to Harvey's modest parentage. In 1599 Archbishop Whitgift made a raid on contemporary satire in general, and among other books the tracts of Harvey and Nashe were destroyed, and it was forbidden to reprint them. Harvey spent the last years of his life in retire- ment at his native place, dying in 1630. His extant Latin works are: Ciceronianus (1577); G. Harveii rhetor, sive 2 dierum oratio de natura, arte et exercitatione rhetorica ('577); Smithus, vel Musarum lachrymae (1578), in honour of Sir Thomas Smith; and G, Harveii gratulationum Valdensium libri quatuour (sic), written on the occasion of the queen's visit to Audley End (1578). The Letter-Book of Gabriel Harvey, A,D. 1573-80 (1884, ed. E. J. L. Scott, Camden Society), contains rough drafts of the correspondence between Spenser and Harvey, letters relative to the disputes at Pembroke Hall, and an extraordinary correspondence dealing with the pursuit of his sister Mercy by a young nobleman. A copy of Quintilian (1542), in the British Museum, is extensively annotated by Gabriel Harvey. After Greene's death Harvey pub- lished Foure Letters and certaine Sonnets (1592), in which in a spirit of righteous superiority he laid bare with spiteful fulness the miser- able details of Greene's later years. Thomas Nashe, who in power of invective and merciless wit was far superior to Harvey, took upon himself to avenge Greene's memory, and at the same time settle his personal account with the Harveys, in Strange Nnues (1593). Harvey refuted the personal charges made by Nashe /in Pierce' s Superero- gation, or a New Prayse of the Old Asse . . . (1593). InChristesTeares over Jerusalem (1593) Nashe made a full apology to Harvey, who refused to be appeased, and resumed what had become a very scur- rilous controversy in a New Letter of Notable Contents (1593). Nashe thereupon withdrew his apology in a new edition (1594) of Christes Teares, and hearing that Harvey had boasted of victory he produced the most biting satire of the series in Have with you to Saffron Walden (1596). Harvey retorted in The Trimming of Thomas Nashe Gentle- man, by the high-tituled patron Don Richardo de Medico campo • • • (1597). His complete works were edited by Dr A. B. Grosart with a " Memorial Introduction " for the Huth Library (1884-1885). See also Isaac Disraeli, on " Literary Ridicule," in Calamities of Authors (ed. 1840) ; T. Warton's History of English Poetry (ed. W. C. Hazlitt, 1871); J. P. Collier's Bibliographical and Critical Account of the Rarest Books in the English Language (1865), and the Works of Thomas Nashe. HARVEY, SIR GEORGE (1806-1876), Scottish painter, the son of a watchmaker, was born at St Ninians, near Stirling, in February 1806. Soon after his birth his parents removed to Stirling, where George was apprenticed to a bookseller. His love for art having, however, become very decided, in his eighteenth year he entered the Trustees' Academy at Edinburgh. Here he so distinguished himself that in 1826 he was invited by the Scottish artists, who had resolved to found a Scottish academy, to join it as an associate. Harvey's first picture, "A Village School," was exhibited in 1826 at the Edinburgh Institution; and from the time of the opening of the Academy in the following year he continued annually to exhibit. His best-known pictures are those depicting historical episodes in religious history from a puritan or evangelical point of view, such as " Covenanters Preaching," " Covenanters' Communion," " John Bunyan and his Blind Daughter," " Sabbath Evening," and the " Quitting of the Manse." He was, however, equally popular in Scotland for subjects not directly religious; and " The Bowlers," " A Highland Funeral," " The Curlers," "A Schule Skailin'," and " Children Blowing Bubbles in the Church- yard of Greyfriars', Edinburgh," manifest the same close observa- tion of character, artistic conception and conscientious elabora- tion of details. In " The Night Mail" and " Dawn Revealing the New World to Columbus " the aspects of nature arc made use of in different ways, but with equal happiness, to lend impressiveness and solemnity to human concerns. He also painted landscapes and portraits. In 1829 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Scottish Academy; in 1864 he succeeded Sir J. W. Gordon as president; and he was knighted in 1867. He died at Edinburgh on the 22nd of January 1876. Sir George Harvey was the author of a paper on the " Colour of the Atmosphere," read before the Edinburgh Royal Society, and afterwards published with illustrations in Good Words; and in 1870 he published a small volume entitled Notes of the Early History of the Royal Scottish Academy. Selections from the Works of Sir George Harvey, P.R.S.A., described by the Rev. A. L. Simpson, F.S.A. Scot., and photographed by Thomas Annan, appeared at Edinburgh in 1869. HARVEY, WILLIAM (1578-1657), English physician, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, was the eldest son of Thomas Harvey, a prosperous Kentish yeoman, and was born at Folkestone on the ist of April 1578. After passing through the grammar school of Canterbury, on the 3ist of May 1593, having just entered his sixteenth year, he became a pensioner of Caius College, Cambridge, at nineteen he took his B.A. degree, and soon after, having chosen the profession of medicine, he went to study at Padua under H. Fabricius and Julius Casserius. At the age of twenty-four Harvey became doctor of medicine, in April 1602. Returning to England in the first year of James I., he settled in London; and two years later he married the daughter of Dr Lancelot Browne, who had been physician to Queen Elizabeth. In the same year he became a candidate of the Royal College of Physicians, and was duly admitted a fellow (June 1607). In 1609 he obtained the reversion of the post of physician to St Bartholomew's hospital. His application was supported by the king himself and by Dr Henry Atkins (1558-1635), the president of the college, and on the death of Dr Wilkinson in the course of the same year he succeeded to the post. He was thrice censor of the college, and in 1615 was appointed Lumleian lecturer. In 1616 he began his course of lectures, and first brought forward his views upon the movements of the heart and blood. Meantime his practice increased, and he had the lord chancellor, Francis Bacon, and the earl of Arundel among his patients. In 1618 he was appointed physician extraordinary to James I., and on the next vacancy physician in ordinary to his successor. In 1628, the year of the publication of the Exercilatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis, he was elected treasurer of the College of Physicians, but at the end of the following year he resigned the office, in order, by command of Charles I., to accom- pany the young duke of Lennox (James Stuart, afterwards duke of Richmond) on his travels. He appears to have visited Italy, and returned in 1632. Four years later he accompanied the earl of Arundel on his embassy to the emperor Ferdinand II. He was eager in collecting objects of natural history, sometimes causing the earl anxiety for his safety by his excursions in a country infested by robbers in consequence of the Thirty Years' War. In a letter written on this journey, he says: " By the HARVEY, WILLIAM 43 way we could scarce see a dogg, crow, kite, raven, or any bird, or anything to anatomise; only sum few miserable people, the reliques of the war and the plague, whom famine had made anatomies before I came." Having returned to his practice in London at the close of the year 1636, he accompanied Charles I. in one of his journeys to Scotland (1639 or 1641). While at Edinburgh he visited the Bass Rock; he minutely describes its abundant population of sea-fowl in his treatise De generatione, and incidentally speaks of the account then credited of the solan goose growing on trees as a fable. He was in attendance on the king at the battle of Edgehill (October 1642), where he withdrew under a hedge with the prince of Wales and the duke of York (then boys of twelve and ten years old), " and took out of his pocket a book and read. But he had not read very long before a bullet of a great gun grazed on the ground near him, which made him remove his station," as he afterwards told John Aubrey. After the indecisive battle, Harvey followed Charles I. to Oxford, " where," writes the same gossiping narrator, " I first saw him, but was then too young to be acquainted with so great a doctor. I remember he came several times to our college (Trinity) to George Bathurst, B.D. who had a hen to hatch eggs in his chamber, which they opened daily to see the progress and way of generation. " In Oxford he remained three years, and there was some chance of his being superseded in his office at St Bartholomew's hospital, " because he hath withdrawn himself from his charge, and is retired to the party in arms against the Parliament." It was no doubt at this time that his lodgings at Whitehall were searched, and not only the furniture seized but also invaluable manuscripts and anatomical preparations.1 While with the king at Oxford he was made warden of Merton College, but a year later, in 1646, that city surrendered to Fairfax, and Harvey returned to London. He was now sixty-eight years old, and, having resigned his appointments and relinquished the cares of practice, lived in learned retirement with one or other of his brothers. It was in his brother Daniel's house at Combe that Dr (afterwards Sir George) Ent, a faithful friend and disciple (1604-1689), visited him in 1650. " I found him," he says. " with a cheeerful and sprightly countenance investigating, like Democritus, the nature of things. Asking if all were well with him — 'How can that be,' he replied, 'when the state is so agitated with storms and I myself am yet in the open sea? And indeed, were not my mind solaced by my studies and the recollec- tion of the observations I have formerly made, there is nothing which should make me desirous of a longer continuance. But thus employed, this obscure life and vacation from public cares which would disgust other minds is the medicine of mine.' ' The work on which he had been chiefly engaged at Oxford, and indeed since the publication of his treatise on the circulation in 1628, was an investigation into the recondite but deeply interesting subject of generation. Charles I. had been an enlightened patron of Harvey's studies, had put the royal deer parks at Windsor and Hampton Court at his disposal, and had watched his demonstration of the growth of the chick with no less interest than the movements of the living heart. Harvey had now collected a large number of observations, though he would probably have delayed their publication. But Ent succeeded in obtaining the manuscripts, with authority to print them or not as he should find them. " I went from him," he says, " like another Jason in possession of the golden fleece, and when Ignoscant mihi niveae animae, si, summarum injuriarum memor, levem gemitum effudero. Doloris mihi haec causa est : cum, inter nuperos_ nostros tumultus et bella plusquam civilia, serenissimum regem (idque non solum senatus permissione sed et jussu) sequor, rapaces quaedam manus non modo aedium mearum supellectilem omnem expilarunt, sed etiam, quae mihi causa gravior querimoniae, adversaria mea, multorum annorum laboribus parta, e museo meo summoverunt. Quo factum est ut observations plurimae, prae- sertim de generatione insectorum, cum republicae Hterariae (ausim dicere) detrimento, perierint." — De gen., Ex. Ixviii. To this loss Cowley refers — " O cursed war! who can forgive thee this? Houses and towns may rise again, And ten times easier 'tis To rebuild Paul's than any work of his." I came home and perused the pieces singly, I was amazed that so vast a treasure should have been so long hidden." The result was the publication of the Exercilaliones de generatione (1651). This was the last of Harvey's labours. He had now reached his seventy-third year. His theory of the circulation had been opposed and defended, and was now generally accepted by the most eminent anatomists both in his own country and abroad. He was known and honoured throughout Europe, and his own college (Caius) voted a statue in his honour (1652) viro monti- mentis suis immorlali. In 1654 he was elected to the highest post in his profession, that of president of the college; but the follow- ing day he met the assembled fellows, and, declining the honour for himself on account of the infirmities of age, recommended the re-election of the late president Dr Francis Prujean (1593- 1666). He accepted, however, the office of consiliarius, which he again held in the two following years. He hati already enriched the college with other gifts besides the honour of his name. He had raised for them " a noble building of Roman architecture (rustic work with Corinthian pilasters) , comprising a great parlour or conversation room below and a library above"; he had furnished the library with books, and filled the museum with " simples and rarities," as well as with specimens of instru- ments used in the surgical and obstetric branches of medicine. At last he determined to give to his beloved college his paternal estate at Burmarsh in Kent. His wife had died some years before, his brothers were wealthy men, and he was childless, so that he was defrauding no heir when, in July 1656, he made the transfer of this property, then valued at £56 per annum, with provision for a salary to the college librarian and for the endowment of an annual oration, which is still given on the anniversary of the day. The orator, so Harvey orders in his deed of gift, is to exhort the fellows of the college " to search out and study the secrets of nature by way of experiment, and also for the honour of the profession to continue mutual love and affection among themselves." Harvey, like his contemporary and great successor Thomas Sydenham, was long afflicted with gout, but he preserved his activity of mind to an advanced age. In his eightieth year, on the 3rd of June 1657, he was attacked by paralysis, and though deprived of speech was able to send for his nephews and distribute his watch, ring, and other personal trinkets among them. He died the same evening, " the palsy giving him an easy passport," and was buried with great honour in his brother Eliab's vault at Hempstead in Essex, annorum etfamae satur. In 1883 the lead coffin containing his remains was enclosed in a marble sarcophagus and moved to the Harvey chapel within the church. John Aubrey, to whom we owe most of the minor particulars about Harvey which have been preserved, says: " In person he was not tall, but of the lowest stature; round faced, olivaster complexion, little eyes, round, very black, full of spirits; his hair black as a raven, but quite white twenty years before he died." The best portrait of him extant is by Cornelius Jansen in the library of the College of Physicians, one of those rescued from the great fire, which destroyed their original hall in 1666. It has been often engraved, and is prefixed to the fine edition of his works published in 1766. Han'ey's Work on the Circulation. — In estimating the character and value of the discovery announced in the Exercilatio de molu cordis et sanguinis, it is necessary to bear in mind the previous state of knowledge on the subject. Aristotle taught that in man and the higher animals the blood was elaborated from the food in the liver, thence carried to the heart, and sent by it through the veins over the body. His successors of the Alexandrian school of medicine, Erasistratus and Herophilus, further elabor- ated his system, and taught that, while the veins carried blood from the heart to the members, the arteries carried a subtle kind of air or spirit. For the practical physician only two changes had been made in this theory of the circulation between the Christian era and the i6th century. Galen had discovered that the arteries were not, as their name implies, merely air-pipes, but that they contained blood as well as vital air or spirit. And it had been gradually ascertained that the nerves (vtvpa) which 44- HARVEY, WILLIAM arose from the brain and conveyed " animal spirits " to the body were different from the tendons or sinews (vevpa) which attach muscles to bones. First, then, the physicians of the time of Thomas Linacre knew that the blood is not stagnant in the body. So did Shakespeare and Homer, and every augur who inspected the entrails of a victim, and every village barber who breathed a vein. Plato even uses the expression rt> alfia Kara wavra TO. fjx\rj acfroSpSis 7repi<£«pe was proclaimed caliph, but the strength of Moawiya who had rebelled against Ali was such that he resigned his claim on condition that he should have the disposal of the treasure stored at Kufa, with the revenues of Darabjird. This secret negotiation came to the ears of Hasan's supporters, a mutiny broke out and Hasan was wounded. He retired to Medina where he died about 669. The story that he was poisoned at Moawiya's instigation is generally discredited (see CALIPHATE, sect. B, § i). Subsequently his brother Hosain was invited by partisans in Kufa to revolt against Moawiya's successor Yazid. He was, however, defeated and killed at Kerbela on the loth of October (Muharram) 680 (see CALIPHATE, sect. B, § 2 ad init.). Hosain is the hero of the Passion Play which is performed annually (e.g. at Kerbela) on the anniversary of his death by the Shi'ites of Persia and India, to whom from the earliest times the family of Ali are the only true descendants of Mahomet. The play lasts for several days and concludes with the carrying out of the coffins (tabut) of the martyrs to an open place in the neighbourhood. See Sir VVm. Muir, The Caliphate (1883); Sir Lewis Pelly, The Miracle Play of Hasan and Hosein (1879). HASAN UL-BA§Rl [Abu Sa'ud ul-flasan ibn Abi-1-Hasan Yassar ul-Basri], (642-728 or 737), Arabian theologian, was born at Medina. His father was a freedman of Zaid ibn Thabit, one of the An^ar (Helpers of the Prophet), his mother a client of Umm Salama, a wife of Mahomet. Tradition says that Umm Salama often nursed Hasan in his infancy. He was thus one of the Tdbi'un (i.e. of the generation that succeeded the Helpers). He became a teacher of Basra and founded a school there. Among his pupils was Wasil ibn 'Ata, the founder of the Mo'tazilites. He himself was a great supporter of orthodoxy and the most important representative of asceticism in the time of its first development. With him fear is the basis of morality, and sadness the characteristic of his religion. Life is only a pilgrimage, and comfort must be denied to subdue the passions. Many writers testify to the purity of his life and to his excelling in the virtues of Mahomet's own companions. He was " as if he were in the other world." In politics, too, he adhered to the earliest principles of Islam, being strictly opposed to the in- herited caliphate of the Omayyads and a believer in the election of the caliph. His life is given in Nawawi's Biographical Dictionary (ed. F. Wiistenfeld, Gottingen, 1842-1847). Cf. R. Dozy, Essai sur I'his- toire de I'islamisme, pp. 201 sqq. (Leiden and Paris, 1879); A. von Kremer, Culturgeschichtliche Streifzuge, p. 5 seq. ; R. A. Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs, pp.225-227 (London, 1907). (G.W.T.) HASBEYA, or HASBEIYA, a town of the Druses, about 36 m. W. of Damascus, situated at the foot of Mt. Hermon in Syria, overlooking a deep amphitheatre from which a brook flows to the Hasbani. The population is about 5000 (4000 Christians). Both sides of the valley are planted in terraces with olives, vines and other fruit trees. The grapes are either dried or made into a kind of syrup. In 1846 an American Protestant mission was established in the town. This little community suffered much persecution at first from the Greek Church, and afterwards from the Druses, by whom in 1860 nearly 1000 Christians were massacred, while others escaped to Tyre or Sidon. The castle in Hasbeya was held by the crusaders under Count Oran; but in 1171 the Druse emirs of the great Shehab family (see DRUSES) recaptured it. In 1205 this family was confirmed in the lordship of the town and district, which they held till the Turkish authorities took possession of the castle in the igth century. Near Hasbeya are bitumen pits let by the government; and to the north, at the source of the Hasbani, the ground is volcanic. Some travellers have attempted to identify Hasbeya with the biblical Baal-Gad or Baal-Hermon. HASDAI IBN SHAPRUT, the founder of the new culture of the Jews in Moorish Spain in the loth century. He was both physician and minister to Caliph Abd ar-Rahman III. in Cordova. A man of wide learning and culture, he encouraged the settlement of Jewish scholars in Andalusia, and his patronage of literature, science and art promoted the Jewish renaissance in Europe. Poetry, philology, philosophy all flourished under his encourage- ment, and his name was handed down to posterity as the first of the many Spanish Jews who combined diplomatic skill with artistic culture. This type was the creation of the Moors in Andalusia, and the Jews ably seconded the Mahommedans in the effort to make life at once broad and deep. (I. A.) HASDEU, or HAJDEU, BOGDAN PETRICEICU (1836-1907), Rumanian philologist, was born at Khotin in Bessarabia in 1836, and studied at the university of Kharkov. In 1858 he first settled in Jassy as professor of the high school and librarian. He may be considered as the pioneer in many branches of Rumanian philology and history. At Jassy he started his A rchiva historica a Romaniei (1865-1867), in which a large number of old documents in Slavonic and Rumanian were published for the first time. In 1870 he inaugurated Columna lui Traian, the best philological review of the time in Rumania. In his Cuvente den Batrdni (2 vols., 1878-1881) he was the first to contribute to the history of apocryphal literature in Rumania. His Historia critica a Romanilor (1875), though incomplete, marks the beginning of critical investigation into the history of Rumania. Hasdeu edited the ancient Psalter of Coresi of !S77 (Psaltirea lui Coresi, 1881). His Etymologicum magnum Romaniae (1886, &c.) is the beginning of an encyclopaedic dictionary of the Rumanian language, though never finished HASDRUBAL— HASLINGDEN beyond the letter B. In 1876 he was appointed director of the state archives in Bucharest and in 1878 professor of philology at the university of Bucharest. His works, which include one drama, Rasvan $i Vidra, bear the impress of great originality of thought, and the author is often carried away by his profound erudition and vast imagination. Hasdeu was a keen politician. After the death of his only child Julia in 1888 he became a mystic and a strong believer in spiritism. He died at Campina on the 7th of September 1907. (M. G.) HASDRUBAL, the name of several Carthaginian generals, among whom the following are the most important: — 1. The son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca ( yielding about £350 annually for the improvement of the town, and Tasker's charity school (1684), are very considerable. Haverfordwest owes its origin to the advent of the Flemings, who were permitted by Henry I. to settle in the hundred of Roose, or Rhos, in the years 1106-1108, in mi, and again in 1156. English is exclusively spoken in the town and district, and its inhabitants exhibit their foreign extraction by their language, customs and appearance. Haverfordwest is, in fact, the capital of that English-speaking portion of Pembrokeshire, which has been nicknamed " Little England beyond Wales." HAVERGAL— HAVERSACK 81 This new settlement of intruding foreigners had naturally to be protected against the infuriated natives, and the castle was accordingly built c. 1113 by Gilbert de Clare, first earl of Pem- broke, who subsequently conferred the seignory of Haverford on his castellan, Richard Fitz-Tancred. On the death of Robert de Hwlfordd, the benefactor and perhaps founder of the priory of St Mary and St Thomas, in 1213, the lordship of the castle reverted to the Crown, and was purchased for 1000 marks from King John by William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, who gave various privileges to the town. Of the numerous charters the earliest known (through an allusion found in a document of Bishop Houghton of St Davids, c. 1370) is one from Henry II., who therein confirms all former rights granted by his grand- father, Henry I. John in 1207 gave certain rights to the town concerning the Port of Milford, while William Marshal II., earl of Pembroke, presented it with three charters, the earliest of which is dated 1219. An important charter of Edward V., as prince of Wales and lord of Haverford, enacted that the town should be incorporated under a mayor, two sheriffs and two bailiffs, duly chosen by the burgesses. In 1536, under Henry VIII., Haverfordwest was declared a town and county of itself and was further empowered to send a representative burgess to parliament. The town long played a prominent part in South Welsh history. In 1220 Llewelyn ap lorwerth, prince of North Wales, during the absence of William Marshal II., earl of Pembroke, attacked and burnt the suburbs, but failed to reduce the castle by assault. Several of the Plantagenet kings visited the town, including Richard II., who stopped here some time on his return from Ireland in 1299, and is said to have performed here his last regal act — the confirmation of the grant of a burgage to the Friars Preachers. Oliver Cromwell spent some days here on his way to Ireland, and his original warrant to the mayor and council for the demolition of the castle is still preserved in the council chamber. The prosperity and local im- portance of Haverfordwest continued unimpaired throughout the i7th and iSth centuries, and Richard Fenton, the historian of Pembrokeshire, describes it in 1810, as " the largest town in the county, if not in all Wales." With the rise of Milford, however, the shipping trade greatly declined, and Haverfordwest has now the appearance of a quiet country town. HAVERGAL, FRANCES RIDLEY (1836-1879), English hymn- writer, daughter of the Rev. William Henry Havergal, was born at Astley, Worcestershire, on the i4th of December 1836. At the age of seven she began to write verse, most of it of a religious character. As a hymn-writer she was particularly successful, and the modern English Church collections include several of her compositions. Her collected Poetical Works were published in 1884. She died at Caswell Bay, Swansea, on the 3rd of June 1879. See Memorials of Frances Ridley Havergal (1880), by her sister. HAVERHILL, a market town of England, in the Sudbury parliamentary division of Suffolk, and the Saffron Walden division of Essex. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4862. It is 55 m. N.N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway, on the Long Melford-Cambridge branch, and is the terminus of the Colne Valley railway from Chappel in Essex. The church of St Mary is Perpendicular, but extensively restored. There . are large manufactures of cloth, silk, matting, bricks, and boots and shoes, and a considerable agricultural trade. HAVERHILL, a city of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on the Merrimac river, at the head of tide and navigation, and on the Boston & Maine railway, 33 m. N. of Boston. Pop. (1880) 18,472; (1890) 27,412; (1900) 37,175, of whom 8530 were foreign-born (including 2403 French Canadians, 1651 English Canadians and 2144 Irish), and 15,077 were of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-bom); (1910 census) 44,115. The city, 3 m. wide and 10 m. long, lies for its entire length along the Merrimac river, from which it rises picturesquely, its surface being undulating, with several detached round hills (maximum 339 ft.). Like all old New England cities, it is irregularly laid out. A number of lakes within its limits are the source of an abundant and excellent water supply. There are fifteen public parks, the largest of which, Winnikenni Park (214 acres), contiguous to Lake Kenoza, is of great natural beauty. The city has three well-equipped hospitals, the beautiful Pentucket club house, a children's home, an old ladies' home and numerous charitable organizations. The schools of the city, both public and private, are of high standing; they include Bradford Academy (1803) for girls and the St James School (Roman Catholic). The public library is generously endowed, and in 1908 had about 90,000 volumes. Almost from the beginning of its history Haverhill was active industrially. Thomas Dustin, the husband of Hannah Dustin, manufactured bricks, and this industry has been carried on in the same locality for more than two hundred years. The large Stevens woollen mills are the outgrowth of mills established in 1835. The manufacture of woollen hats, established in the middle of the i8th century, is one of the prominent industries. There are large morocco factories. By far the leading industry of the city is the manufacture of boots, shoes and slippers, chiefly of the finer kinds, of which it is one of the largest producers in the world. In 1905 Haverhill ranked fourth among the cities of the United States in the product value of this manufacture, which was 4-8% of the total value of boots and shoes made in the United States. This industry began about 1795. In 1905 Haverhill's manufacturing establishments produced goods valued at $24,446,594, 83-9% of this output being represented by boots and shoes or their accessories. One of the largest sole- leather manufactories in the world is here. Haverhill was settled in June 1640 by a small colony from Newbury and Ipswich, and its Indian name, Pentucket, was replaced by that of Haverhill in compliment to the first minister, Rev. John Ward, who was born at Haverhill, England. In its earlier years this frontier town suffered severely from the forays of the Indians, and in 1690 the abandonment of the settlement was contemplated. Two Indian attacks are particularly noteworthy — one in 1698, in which Hannah Dustin, her new- born babe, and her nurse were carried away to the vicinity of Penacook, now Concord, New Hampshire. Here in the night Mrs Dustin, assisted by her nurse and by a captive English boy, tomahawked and scalped ten Indians (two men, the others children and women) and escaped down the river to Haverhill; a monument to her stands in City Hall Park. In 1708 250 French and Indians attacked the village, killing 40 of its inhabitants. In 1873 a destructive fire caused the loss of 35 places of business, and on the i7th of February 1882 almost the entire shoe district (consisting of 10 acres) was burned, with a loss of more than $2,000,000; but a greater business district was built on the ruins of the old. Haverhill was the birthplace of Whittier, who lived here in 1807-1836, and who in his poem Haverhill, written for the 25oth anniversary of the town in 1890, and in many of his other poems, gave the poet's touch to the history, the legends and the scenery of his native city. His birthplace, the scene of Snow-Bound in the eastern part of the city, is owned by the Whittier Association and is open to visitors. A petition from Haverhill to the national House of Representatives in 1842, praying for a peaceable dissolution of the Union, raised about J. Q. Adams, its presenter, perhaps the most violent storm in the long course of his defence of the right of petition. Haverhill was incorporated as a town in 1645 and became a city in 1869. Bradford, a town (largely residential) lying on the opposite bank of the river, became a part of the city in 1897. In October 1908, by popular vote, the city adopted a new charter providing for government by commission. HAVERSACK, or HAVRESACK (through the French from Ger. Habersack, an oat-sack, a nose-bag, Hafer or Haver, oats), the bag in which horsemen carried the oats for their horses. In Scotland and the north of England haver, meaning oats, is still used, as haver-meal or haver-bread. Haversack is now used for the strong bag made of linen or canvas, in which soldiers, sportsmen or travellers, carry their personal belongings, or more usually the provisions for the day. HAVERSTRAW— HAVRE HAVERSTRAW, a village of Rockland county, New York, U.S.A., in a township of the same name, 32 m. N. of New York City, and finely situated on the W. shore of Haverstraw Bay, an enlargement of the Hudson river. Pop. of the village (1890), 5070; (1900) 5935, of whom 1231 were foreign-born and 568 were negroes; (1905, state census) 6182; (1910) 5669; of the town- ship (1910) 9335. Haverstraw is served by the West Shore, the New Jersey & New York (Erie), and the New York, Ontario & Western railways, and is connected by steamboat lines with Peekskill and Newburgh. The village lies at the N. base of High Tor (83 2 ft.). It has a public library, founded by the King's Daughters' Society in 1895 and housed in the Fowler library building. Excellent clay is found in the township, and Haver- straw is one of the largest brick manufacturing centres in the world; brick-machines also are manufactured here. The Minesceongo creek furnishes water power for silk mills, dye works and print works. Haverstraw was settled by the Dutch probably as early as 1648. Near the village of Haverstraw (in the township of Stony Point), in the Joshua Hett Smith House, or " Old Treason House," as it is generally called, Benedict Arnold and Major Andre met before daylight on the 22nd of September 1780 to arrange plans for the betrayal of West Point. In 1826 a short-lived Owenite Community (of about 80 members) was established near West Haverstraw and Garnerville (in the township of Haverstraw). The members of the community established a Church of Reason, in which lectures were delivered on ethics, philosophy and science. Dissensions soon arose in the community, the experiment was abandoned within five months, and most of the members joined in turn the Coxsackie Community, also in New York, and the Kendal Community, near Canton, Ohio, both of which were also short-lived. The village of Haverstraw was originally known as Warren and was incorporated under that name in 1854; in 1873 it became officially the village of Haverstraw — both names had previously been used locally. The village of West Haverstraw (pop. in 1890, 180; in 1900, 2079; and in 1910, 2369), also in Haverstraw township, was founded in 1830, was long known as Samsondale, and was incorporated under its present name in 1883. See F. B. Green, History of Rockland County (New York, 1886). HAVET, EUGENE AUGUSTE ERNEST (1813-1889), French scholar, was born in Paris on the nth of April 1813. Educated at the Lycee Saint-Louis and the Ecole Normale, he was for many years before his death on the 2ist of December 1889 professor of Latin eloquence at the College de France. His two capital works were a commentary on the works of Pascal, Pensees de Pascal publiees dans leur texte aulhenlique aiiec un commentaire suivi (1852; 2nd ed. 2 vols., 1881), and Le Christianisme et ses origines (4 vols., 1871-1884), the chief thesis of which was that Christianity owed more to Greek philosophy than to the writings of the Hebrew prophets. His elder son, Pierre Antoine Louis Ha vet (b. 1849), was professor of Latin philology at the College de France and a member of the Institute. The younger, Julien, is separately noticed. HAVET, JULIEN (PIERRE EUGENE) (1853-1893), French historian, was born at Vitry-sur-Seine on the 4th of April 1853, the second son of Ernest Havet. He early showed a remarkable aptitude for learning, but had a pronounced aversion for pure rhetoric. His studies at the Ecole des Charles (where he took first place both on entering and leaving) and at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes did much to develop his critical faculty, and the historical method taught and practised at these establishments brought home to him the dignity of history, which thenceforth became his ruling passion. His valedictory thesis at the Ecole des Chart es, Serie chronologique des gardiens et seigneurs des lies Normandes (1876), was a definitive work and but slightly affected by later research. In 1 878 he followed his thesis by a study called Les Cours royales dans les lies Normandes. Both these works were composed entirely from the original documents at the Public Record Office, London, and the archives of Jersey and Guernsey. On the history of Merovingian institutions, Havet's conclusions were widely accepted (see La Formule N. rex Francor., v. M., 1885). His first work in this province was Du sens du mot " romain " dans les loisfranques (1876), a critical study on a theory of Fustel de Coulanges. In this he showed that the status of the homo Romanus of the barbarian laws was inferior to that of the German freeman; that the Gallo-Romans had been subjected by the Germans to a state of servitude; and, consequently, that the Germans had conquered the Gallo-Romans. He aimed a further blow at Fustel's system by showing that the Prankish kings had never borne the Roman title of vir inluster, and that they could not therefore be considered as being in the first place Roman magistrates; and that in the royal diplomas the king issued his commands as rex Francorum and addressed his functionaries as viri inlwslres. His attention having been drawn to questions of authenticity by the forgeries of Vrain Lucas, he devoted himself to tracing the spurious documents that en- cumbered and perverted Merovingian and Carolingian history. In his A propos des decoutiertes de Jerome Vignier (1880), he exposed the forgeries committed in the i7th century by this priest. He then turned his attention to a group of documents relating to ecclesiastical history in the Carolingian period and bearing on the question of false decretals, and produced Les Charles de Si-Calais (1887) and Les Actes de Vbieche du Mans (1894). On the problems afforded by the chronology of Gerbert's (Pope Silvester II.) letters^and by the notes in cipher in the MS. of his letters, he wrote L'Ecriture secrete de Gcrbert (1877), which may be compared with his Notes tironiennes dans les dipldmes merovingiens (1885). In 1889 he brought out an edition of Gerbert's letters, which was a model of critical sagacity. Each new work increased his reputation, in Germany as well as France. At the Bibliotheque Nationale, where he obtained a post, he rendered great service by his wide knowledge of foreign languages, and read voraciously everything that related, however remotely, to his favourite studies. He was finally appointed assistant curator in the department of printed books. He died pre- maturely at St Cloud on the igth of August 1893. After his death his published and unpublished writings were collected and published (with the exception of Les Cours royales des lies Normandes and Lettres de Gerbert) in two volumes called Questions merovingiennes and Opuscules inedits (1896), containing, besides important papers on diplomatic and on Carolingian and Merovingian history', a large number of short monographs ranging over a great variety of subjects. A collection of his articles was published by his friends under the title of Melanges Havet (1895), pre- fixed by a bibliography of his works compiled by his friend Henri Omont. (C. B.*) HAVRE, LE, a seaport of north-western France, in the depart- ment of Seine-Inferieure, on the north bank of the estuary of the Seine, 143 m. W.N.W. of Paris and 55 m. W. of Rouen by the Western railway. Pop. (1906), 129,403. The greater part of the town stands on the level strip of ground bordering the esluary, but on the N. rises an eminence, la Cote, covered by the gardens and villas of the richer quarter. The central point of the town is the Place de 1'hotel de ville in which are the public gardens. It is crossed by the Boulevard de Strasbourg, running from the sea on the west to the railway station and the barracks on the east. The rue de Paris, the busiest street, starts at the Grand Quai, overlooking the outer harbour, and, intersecting the Place Gambetta, runs north and enters the Place de 1'hotel de ville on its southern side. The docks start immediately to the east of this street and extend over a large area to the south and south-east of the town. Apart from the church of Notre-Dame, dating from the i6th and i7th centuries, the chief buildings of Havre, including the h6tel de ville, the law courts, and the exchange, are of modern erection. The museum contains a collection of antiquities and paintings. Havre is the seat of a sub-prefect, and forms part of the maritime arrondissement of Cherbourg. Among the public institutions are a tribunal of first instance, a 1 ribunal of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a tribunal of maritime commerce, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. There are lycees for boys and girls, schools of commerce and other educational establishments. Havre, which is a fortified place of the second class, ranks second to Marseilles among French seaports. There are nine basins (the oldest of which HAWAII dates back to i66g) with an area of about 200 acres and more than 8 m. of quays. They extend to the east of the outer harbour which on the west opens into the new outer harbour, formed by two breakwaters converging from the land and leaving an entrance facing west. The chief docks (see DOCK for plan) are the Bassin Bellot and the Bassin de 1'Eure. In the latter the mail-steamers of the Compagnie Generale Transatlantique are berthed; and the Tancarville canal, by which river-boats unable to attempt the estuary of the Seine can make the port direct, enters the harbour by this basin. There are, besides, several repairing docks and a petroleum dock for the use of vessels carry- ing that dangerous commodity. The port, which is an important point of emigration, has regular steam-communication with New York (by the vessels of the Compagnie Generale Trans- atlantique) and with many of the other chief ports of Europe, North, South and Central America, the West Indies and Africa. Imports in 1907 reached a value of £57,686,000. The chief were cotton, for which Havre is the great French market, coffee, copper and other metals, cacao, cotton goods, rubber, skins and hides, silk goods, dye-woods, tobacco, oil-seeds, coal, cereals and wool. In the same year exports were valued at £47,130,000, the most important being cotton, silk and woollen goods, coffee, hides, leather, wine and spirits, rubber, tools and metal ware, earthen- ware and glass, clothes and millinery, cacao and fancy goods. In 1907 the total tonnage of shipping (with cargoes) reached its highest point, viz. 5,671,975 tons (4018 vessels) compared with 3,816,340 tons (3832 vessels) in 1898. Forty-two per cent of this shipping sailed under the British flag. France and Germany were Great Britain's most serious rivals. Havre possesses oil works, soap works, saw mills, flour mills, works for extracting dyes and tannin from dye-woods, an important tobacco manu- factory, chemical works and rope works. It also has metal- lurgical and engineering works which construct commercial and war-vessels of every kind as well as engines and machinery, cables, boilers, &c. Until 1516 Havre was only a fishing village possessing a chapel dedicated to Notre-Dame de Grace, to which it owes the name, Havre (harbour) de Grace, given to it by Francis I. when he began the construction of its harbour. The town in 1562 was delivered over to the keeping of Queen Elizabeth by Louis I., prince de Conde, leader of the Huguenots, and the command of it was entrusted to Ambrose Dudley, earl of Warwick ; but the English were expelled in 1563, after a most obstinate siege, which was pressed forward by Charles IX. and his mother, Catherine de' Medici, in person. The defences of the town and the harbour-works were continued by Richelieu and com- pleted by Vauban. In 1694 it was vainly besieged by the English, who also bombarded it in 1759, 1794 and 1795. It was a port of considerable importance as early as 1572, and despatched vessels to the whale and cod-fishing at Spitsbergen and Newfoundland. In 1672 it became the entrep6t of the French East India Company, and afterwards of the Senegal and Guinea companies. Napoleon I. raised it to a war harbour of the first rank, and under Napoleon III. works begun by Louis XVI. were completed. See A. E. Borely, Histoire de la mile du Havre (Le Havre, 1880- 1881). HAWAII (HAWAIIAN or SANDWICH ISLANDS), a Territory of the United States of America, consisting of a chain of islands in the North Pacific Ocean, eight inhabited and several unin- habited. The inhabited islands lie between latitudes 18° 54' and 22° 15' N., and between longitudes 154° 50' and 160° 30' W., and extend about 380 m. from E.S.E. to W.N.W.; the unin- habited ones, mere rocks and reefs, valuable only for their guano deposits and shark-fishing grounds, continue the chain several hundred miles farther W.N.W. From Honolulu, the capital, which is about 100 m. N.W. of the middle of the inhabited group, the distance to San Francisco is about 2100 m.; to Auckland, New Zealand, about 3810 m.; to Sydney, New South Wales, about 4410 m. ; to Yokohama, about 3400 m.; to Hong- Kong, about 4920 m.; to Manila, about 4890 m. The total area of the inhabited islands is 6651 sq. m., distributed as follows: Hawaii, 4210; Maui, 728; Oahu, about 600; Kauai, 547; Molokai, 261; Lanai, 139; Niihau, 97; Kahoolawe, 69. All the islands are of volcanic origin, and have been built up by the eruptive process from a base about 15,000 ft. below the sea to a maximum height (Mauna Kea) on the largest island (Hawaii) of 13,823 ft. above the sea; altogether there are forty volcanic peaks. Evidence of slight upheaval is occasionally afforded by an elevated coral-reef along the shore, and evidence of the subsidence of the S. portion of Oahu for several hundred feet has been discovered by artesian borings through coral-rock. In some instances, notably the high and nearly vertical wall along the N. shore of the E. half of Molokai, there is evidence of a fracture followed by the sub- mergence of a portion of a volcano. With the exception of the coral and a small amount of calcareous sandstone, the rocks are entirely volcanic and range from basalt to trachyte, but are mainly basalt. Cinder cones and tufa cones abound, but one of the most distinguish- ing features of the Hawaiian volcanoes is the great number of craters of the engulfment type, i.e. pit-craters which enlarge slowly by the breaking off and falling in of their walls, and discharge vast lava-flows with comparatively little violence. The age of the several inhabited islands, or at least the time since the last eruptions on them, decreases from W. to E., and on the most easterly (Hawaii) volcanic forces are still in operation. That those to the westward have long been inactive is shown by the destruction of craters by denudation, by deep ravines, valleys and tall cliffs eroded on the mountain sides, especially on the windward side, by the depth of soil formed from the disintegrated rocks, and by the amount as well as variety of vegetable life. Hawaii Island, from which the group and later the Territory was named, has the shape of a rude triangle with sides of 90 m., 75 m. and 65 m. Its coast, unlike that of the other islands of the archipelago, has few coral reefs. Its surface consists mainly of the gentle slopes of five volcanic mountains which have encroached much upon one another by their eruptions. Mauna Loa (" Great Mountain "), on the S., is by far the largest volcano in the world ; from a base measuring at sea-level about 75 m. from N. to S. and 50 m. from E. to W., it rises gradually to a height of 13,675 ft. On its E.S.E. side, at an elevation of 4000 ft. above the sea (300 ft. above the adjoining plain on the W.) is Kilauea, from whose lava-flows the island has been extended to form its S.E. angle. To the N.N.E. ot Mauna Loa, and blending with it in an intervening plateau, is Mauna Kea (" White Mountain," so named from the snow on its summit), with a much smaller base but with steeper slopes and a crowning cinder cone 13,823 ft. above the sea, the maximum height in the Pacific Ocean; blending with Mauna Loa on the N.N.W. is Mauna Hualalai, 8269 ft. in height; and rising abruptly from the extreme N.W. shore are the remains of the oldest mountains of the island, the Kohala, with a summit 5505 ft. in height. On the land side the Kohala Mountains have been covered with lava from Mauna Kea, and form the broad plains of Kohala, having a maximum elevation of about 3000 ft. ; on the ocean side, wherever this lava has not extended, erosion has gone on until bluffs 1000 ft. in height face the sea and the enormous gorges of Waipio and Waimanu, with nearly perpendicular walls as much as 3000 ft. high and extending inland 5-6 m., have been formed. Mauna Kea is not nearly so old as the Kohala Mountains, but there is no record of its eruption, nor have its lavas a modern aspect. The last eruption of Mauna Hualalai was in 1801. Mauna Loa and Kilauea are still active. Cinder cones are the predominant type of craters on both Mauna Kea and the Kohala Mountains, and they are also numerous on the upper slopes of Mauna Hualalai; but the more typically Hawaiian pit or engulfment craters also abound on Mauna Hualalai and Mokuaweoweo, crowning the summit of Mauna Loa, as well as Kilauea, to the S.E. of it, are prominent representatives of this type. Kilauea is the largest active crater in the world (8 m. in circum- ference) and is easily accessible. - Enclosed by a circular wall from 200 to 700 ft. in height is a black and slightly undulating plain having an area of 4-14 sq. m., and within this plain is a pit, Hale- maumau, of varying area (about 2000 ft. in diameter in 1905), now full of boiling lava, now empty to a depth of perhaps 1000 ft. When most active, Halemaumau affords a grand spectacle, especially at night : across the crust run glowing cracks, the crust is then broken into cakes, the cakes plunge beneath, lakes of liquid lava are forme'd, over whose surface play fire-fountains 10 to 50 ft. in height, the surface again solidifies and the process is repeated.1 According to an account of the natives, a violent eruption of Kilauea occurred in 1789, or about that time, and deposits of volcanic sand, large stones, sponge-like scoria (pumice) and ashes for miles around are evidence of such an eruption. Since the Rev. William Ellis and a party of American missionaries first made the volcano known to the civilized 1 Among the minor phenomena of Hawaiian volcanoes are the delicate glassy fibres called Pele's hair by the Hawaiians, which are spun by the wind from the rising and falling drops of liquid lava, and blown over the edge or into the crevices of the crater. Pele in idolatrous times was the dreaded goddess of Kilauea. 84 HAWAII D HAWAII Scale, 1:3,500,000 English Miles o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 County Seats © Railways, -^. Lave, flows _ 3SB &fg%s ^s~d$Sjg&Z' LanaiQ^ •malaDau Harb.) ^-*V> 70* West 165' Long. 160' 160' B Longitude West 158" of Greenwich Emtry Wjlktf 1C. world in 1823, the eruptions have consisted mainly in the quiet discharge of lava through a subterranean passage into the sea. In the eruptions of 1823, 1832, 1840 and 1868 the floor of the crater rose on the eve of an eruption and then sank, sometimes hundreds of feet, with the discharge of lava; but since 1868 (in 1879, 1886, 1891, 1894 and 1907; and once, before 1868, in 1855) this action has been confined to Halemaumau and such other pits as at the time existed. Mokuaweoweo, on the flat top of Mauna Loa, is a pit crater with a floor 3-7 sq. m. in area and sunk 500-600 ft. within walls that are almost vertical and that measure 9-47 m. in circumference. Formerly, on the eve of a great eruption of Mauna Loa, this crater often spouted forth great columns of flame and emitted clouds of vapour, but in modern times this action has usually been followed by a fracture of the mountain side from the summit down to a point 1000 ft. or more below where the lava was discharged in great streams, the action at the summit diminishing or wholly ceasing when this discharge began. The first recorded eruption of Mauna Loa was in 1832; since then there have been eruptions in 1851, 1852, 1855, 1859, 1868, 1880-1881, 1887, 1896, 1899 and 1907. The eruptions of 1868, 1887 and 1907 were attended by earthquakes; in 1868 huge sea waves, 40 ft. in height, were raised, and, as they broke on the S. shore, they destroyed the villages of Punaluu, Ninole, Kawaa and Honuapo. But the eruptions of Mauna Loa have consisted mainly in the quiet discharge of enormous flows of lava: in 1859 the lava-stream, which began to run on the 23rd of January, flowed N.W., reached the sea, 33 m. distant, eight days later, and continued to flow into it until the 25th of November; and the average length of the flows from seven other eruptions is nearly 14 m. The surface of the upper slopes of Mauna Loa is almost wholly of two widely different kinds of barren lava-flows, called by the Hawaiians the pahoehoe and the aa. The pahoehoe has a smooth but billowy or hummocky surface, and is marked by lines which show that it cooled as it flowed. The aa is lava broken into fragments having sharp and jagged edges. As the same stream sometimes changes abruptly from one kind to the other, the two kinds must be due to different conditions affecting the flow, and among the conditions which may cause a stream to break up into the aa have been mentioned the greater depth of the stream, a sluggish current, impediments in its course just as it is granulating, and, what is more probable, subterranean moisture which causes it to cool from below upward instead of from above downward as in the pahoehoe. The natives are in the habit of making holes in the aa, and planting in them banana shoots or sweet-potato cuttings, and though the holes are simply filled with stones or fern leaves, the plants grow and in due time are productive. Another curious feature of Mauna Loa, and to some extent of other Hawaiian volcanoes, is the great number of caves, some of them as much as 60 to 80 ft. in height and several miles in length ; they were produced by the escape of lava over which a crust had formed. In the midst of barren wastes to the S.E. and S.W. of Kilauea are small channels with steam cracks, along which appears the only vegetation of the region. Maui, lying 26 m. N.W. of Hawaii, is composed of two mountains connected by an isthmus, Wailuku, 7 or 8 m. long, about 6 m. across, and about 160 ft. above the sea in its highest part. Mauna Haleakala, on the E. peninsula, has a height of 10,032 ft., and forms a great dome-like mass, with a circumference at the base of 90 m. and regular slopes of only 8° or 9°. It has numerous cinder cones on its S.W. slope, is well wooded on the N. and E. slopes, and has on its summit an extinct pit-crater which is one of the largest in the world. This crater is 7-48 m. long, 2-37 m. wide, and covers 19 sq. m.; the circuit of its walls, which are composed of a hard grey clinkstone much fissured, is 20 m.; its greatest depth is 2720 ft. At opposite ends are breaks in the walls a mile or more in width — one about 1000 ft., the other at least 3000 ft. in depth — through which poured the lava of probably the last great eruption. From the floor of the crater rise sixteen well-preserved cinder-cones, which range from more than 400 ft. to 900 ft. in height. Along the N. base of the mountain are numerous ravines (several hundred feet deep), to the bottom of which small streams of water fall in long cascades, but elsewhere on the eastern mountain there is littleerosion or other mark of age. That the mountainous mass of western Maui is much older is shown by the destruction of its crater, by its sharp ridges and by deeply eroded gorges or valleys. Its highest peak, Puu Kukui, rises 5788 ft. above the sea, and directly under this is the head of lao Valley, 5 m. long and 2 m. wide, which has been cut in the mountain to a depth of 4000 ft. This and the smaller valleys are noted for the beauty of their tropical scenery. Kahoolawe is a small island 6 m. S.W. of Maui. It is 14 m. long by 6 m. wide. Its mountains, which rise to a height of 1472 ft., are rugged and nearly destitute of verdure, but the intervening valleys afford pasturage for sheep. Lanai is another small island, 7 m. W. of Maui, about 18 m. long and 12 m. wide. It has a mountain- range which rises to a HAWAII maximum height, S.E. of its centre, of about 3480 ft. The N.E. slope is cut by deep gorges, and at the bottom of one of these, which is 2000 ft. deep, is the only water-supply on the island. On the S. side is a rolling table-land affording considerable pasturage for sheep, but over the whole N.W. portion of the island the trade winds, driving through the channel between Maui and Molokai, sweep the rocks bare. Kahoolawe and Lanai are both privately owned. Molokai, 8 m. N.W. of Maui, extends 40 m. from E. to W. and has an average width of nearly 7 m. From the S.W. ex- tremity of the island rises the backbone of a ridge which extends E.N.E. about 10 m., where it culminates in the round-topped hill of Mauna Loa, 1382 ft. above the sea. Both the northern and southern slopes of this ridge are cut by ravines and gulches, and along the N. shore is a steep sea-cliff. At the E. extremity of the ridge there is a sudden drop to a low and gently rolling plain, but farther on the surface rises gradually towards a range of mountains which comprises more than one-half the island and attains a maximum height of 4958 ft. in the peak of Kama- kou. The S. slope of this range is gradual but is cut by many straight and narrow ravines, in some instances to a great depth. The N. slope is abrupt, with precipices from 1000 to 4000 ft. in height. Extending N. from the foot of the precipice, a little E. of the centre of the island, is a comparatively low peninsula (separated from the mainland by a rock wall 2000 ft. high), on which is a famous leper settlement. The peninsula forms a separate county, Kalawao. Oahu, 23 m. N.W. of Molokai, has an irregular quadrangular form. It is traversed from S.E. to N.W. by two roughly parallel ranges of hill separated by a plain that is 20 m. long and in some parts 9 to 10 m. wide. The highest point in the island is Mauna Kaala, 4030 ft., in the Waianae or W. range; but the Koolau or E. range is much longer than the other, and its ridge is very much broken; on the land side there are many ravines formed by lateral spurs, but to the sea for 30 m. it presents a nearly vertical wall without a break. The valleys are remarkable for beautiful scenery, — peaks, cliffs, lateral ravines, cascades and tropical vegetation. There are few craters on the loftier heights, but on the coasts there are several groups of small cones with craters, some of lava, others of tufa. The greater part of the coast is surrounded by a coral reef, often half a mile wide; in several localities an old reef upheaved, sometimes 100 ft. high, forms part of the land. Kauai, 63 m. W.N.W. of Oahu, has an irregularly circular form with a maximum diameter of about 25 m. On the N.W. is a precipice 2000 ft. or more in height and above this is a mountain plain, but elsewhere around the island is a shore plain, from which rises Mount Waialeale to a height of 5250 ft. The peaks of the mountain are irregular, abrupt and broken; its sides are deeply furrowed by gorges and ravines; the shore plain is broken by ridges and by broad and deep valleys; no other island of the group is so well watered on all sides by large mountain streams; and it is called " garden isle." Niihau, the most westerly of the inhabited islands, is 18 m. W. by S. of Kauai. It is 16 m. longand 6 m. wide. The western two-thirds consists of a low plain, composed of an uplifted coral reef and matter washed down from the mountains; but on the E. side the island rises precipitously from the sea and attains a maximum height of 1304 ft. at Paniau. There are large salt lagoons on the southern coast. Climate. — The climate is cooler than that of other regions in the same latitude, and is very healthy. The sky is usually cloudless or only partly cloudy. The N.E. trades blow with periodic varia- tions from March to December; and the leeward coast, being pro- tected by high mountains, is refreshed by regular land and sea breezes. During January, February and a part of March the wind blows strongly from the S. or S.W. ; and at this season an unpleasant hot, damp wind is sometimes felt. More rain falls from January to May than during the other months; very much more falls on the windward side of the principal islands than on the leeward ; and the amount increases with the elevation also up to about 4000 ft. The greatest recorded extremes of local rainfall for a year within the larger islands range from 12 to 300 in. For Honolulu the mean annual rainfall (1884-1899) was 28-18 in.; the maximum 49-82; and the minimum 13-46. At sea level the daily average temperature for July is 76-4° F., for December 70-7° F. ; the mean annual tempera- ture is about 73° F. — 68° during the night, 80° during the day — and for each 200 ft. of elevation the temperature falls about 1° F., and snow lies for most of the time on the highest mountains. Flora.— The Hawaiian Islands have a peculiar flora. As a result of their isolation, the proportion of endemic plants is greater here than in any other region, and the great elevation of the mountains, with the consequent variation in temperature, moisture and baro- metric pressure, has multiplied the number of species. Towards the close of the igth century William Hillebrand found 365 genera and 999 species, and of this number of species 653 were peculiar to this part of the Pacific. The number of species is greatest on the older islands, particularly Kauai and Oahu, and the total number for the group has been constantly increasing, some being introduced, others possibly being produced by the varying climatic conditions from those already existing. Among the peculiar dicotyledonous plants there is not a single annual, and by far the greater number ar* per- ennial and woody. Hawaiian forests are distinctly tropical, and are composed for the most part of trees below the medium height. They are most common between elevations of 2000 and 8000 ft. ; there are only a few species below 2000 ft., and above 8000 ft. the growth is stunted. The destruction of considerable portions of the forests by cattle, goats, insects, fire and cutting has been followed by re- foresting, the planting of hitherto barren tracts, the passage of severe forest fire laws, and the establishment of forest reserves, of which the area in 1909 was 545,746 acres, of which 357,180 were govern- ment land. In regions of heavy rainfall the ohia-lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), a tree growing from 30 to 100 ft. in height, is predomi- nant, and on account of the dense undergrowth chiefly of ferns and climbing vines, forms the most impenetrable of the forests; its hard wood is used chiefly for fuel. The koa (Acacia koa), from the wood of which the natives used to make the bodies of their canoes, and the only tree of the islands that furnishes much valuable lumber (a hard cabinet wood marketed as " Hawaiian mahogany "), forms extensive forests on Hawaii and Maui between elevations of 2000 and 4000 ft. The mamane (Sophora chrysophytta) , which furnishes the best posts, grows principally on the high slopes of Mauna Kea and Hualalai. Posts and railway ties are also made from ohia-ha (Eugenia sandwicensis). In many districts between elevations of 2000 and 6000 ft., where there is only a moderate amount of moisture, occur mixed forests of koa, koaia (Acacia koaia), kopiko (Straussia oncocarpa and 5. hawaiiensis) , kolea (Myrsine kauaiensis and M. lanaiensis), naio or bastard sandalwood (Myoporum sandwicense) and pua (Olea sandwicensis); of these the koaia furnishes a hard wood suitable for the manufacture of furniture, and out of it the natives formerly made spears and fancy paddles. The wood of the naio when dry has a fragrance resembling that of sandalwood, and is used for torches in fishing. The kukui (Aleurites triloba) and the algaroba (Prosopis juliflora) are the principal species of forest trees that occur below elevations of 2000 ft. The kukui grows along streams and gulches; from its nuts, which are very oily, the natives used to make candles, and it is still frequently called the candlenut tree. On the leeward side, from near the sea level to elevations of 1500 ft., and on ground that was formerly barren, the algaroba tree has formed dense forests since its introduction in 1837. Forests of iron-wood and blue gum have also been planted. Sandalwood (Sanlalum album or freycinetianum) was once abundant on rugged and rather inaccessible heights, but so great a demand arose for it in China,1 where it was used for incense and for the manufacture of fancy articles, that the supply was nearly exhausted between 1802 and 1836; since then some young trees have sprung up, but the number is relatively small. Other peculiar trees prized for their wood are: the kauila (Alphitonia ponderosa), used for making spears, mallets and other tools; the kela (Mezoneuron kauaiense), the hard wood of which resembles ebony; the halapepe (Dracaena OMreo), out of the soft wood of which the natives carved many of their idols; and the wiliwili (Erythrina monosperma), the wood of which is as light as cork and is used for outriggers. In 1909, on six large rubber plantations, mostly on the windward side of the island of Maui, there were planted 444,450 ceara trees, 66,700 hevea trees, and 600 castilloa trees. About the only indigenous fruit-bearing plants are the Chilean strawberry (Fragaria chilensis) and the ohelo berry (Vaccinium reticulatum) , both of which grow at high elevations on Hawaii and Maui. The ohelo berry is famous in song and story, and formerly served as a propitiatory offering to Pele. The number of fruit-bearing trees, shrubs and plants that have been introduced and are successfully cultivated or grow wild is much greater; among them are the mango, orange, banana, pineapple, coconut, palm, grape, fig, strawberry, litchi (Nephelium litchi) — the favourite fruit of the Chinese — avocado or alligator pear (Persea gratissima), Sapodilla pear (Achras sapota), loquat or mespilus plum (Eriobotrya japonica) , Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana), tamarind (Tamarindus indica), papaw (Carica papaya), resembling in appearance the cantaloupe, granadilla (Passiflora quadrangularis) and guava (Psidiumguajava). Most of the native grasses are too coarse for grazing, and some of 1 The Chinese name for the Hawaiian Islands means " Sandalwood Islands." 86 HAWAII them, particularly the hilo grass (Paspalum conjugatum) , which forms a dense mat over the ground, prevent the spread of forests. The pili grass (Heteropogon contortus) is also noxious, for its awns get badly entangled in the wool of sheep. The native manienie (Slenotaphrum americanum) and kukai (Panicum pruriens), however, are relished by stock and are found on all the inhabited islands; the Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), a June grass (Poa annua), and Guinea grass (Panicum iumentorum) have also been successfully introduced. The Paspalum orbiculare is the large swamp grass with which the natives covered their houses. On the island of Niihau is a fine grass (Cyperus laevigatus) , out of which the beautiful Niihau mats were formerly made; it is used in making Panama hats. Mats were also made of the leaves of the hala tree (Pandanus odoratissi- mus). The wauke plant (Broussonetia papyrifera), and to a less extent the mamake (Pipturus albidus) and Boehmeria stipularis, furnished the bark out of which the famous kapa cloth was made, while theolopa ( Cheirodendron gaudichaudi i) and the koolea (Myrsine lessertiana) furnished the dyes with which it was coloured. From several species of Cibotium is obtained a glossy yellowish wool, used for making pillows and mattresses. Ferns, of which there are about 130 species varying' from a few inches to 30 ft. in height, form a luxuriant undergrowth in the ohia-lehua and the koa forests, and the islands are noted for the profusion and beautiful colours of their flowering plants. Kalo (Colocasia antiquorum, var., escu- lenta), which furnishes the principal food of the natives, and sugar cane (Saccharum officinaruni), the cultivation of which has become the chief industry of the islands, were introduced before the discovery of the group by Captain Cook in 1778. Sisal hemp has been intro- duced, and there is a large plantation of it W. of Honolulu. Over seventy varieties of seaweeds, growing in the fresh-water pools and in the waters near the coast, are used by the natives as food. These limus, as they are called by the Kanakas, are washed, salted, broken and eaten as a relish or as a flavouring for fish or other meat. The culture of such algae may prove of eco- nomic importance; gelatine, glue and agar-agar would be valuable by-products. Fauna. — A day-flying bat, whales and dolphins are about the only indigenous mammals ; hogs, dogs and rats had been introduced before Cook's discovery. Fish in an interesting variety of colours and shapes abound in the sea and in artificial ponds along the coasts.1 There are some fine species of birds, and the native avifauna is so distinctive that Wallace argued from it that the Hawaiian Archi- pelago had long been separated from any other land. There were native names for 89 varieties. The most typical family is the Drepanidae, so named for the stout sickle-shaped beak with which the birds extract insects from heavy-barked trees; Gadow con- siders the family American in its origin, and thinks that the Moho,1 a family of honey-suckers, were later comers and from Australia. The mamo (Drepanis pacifica) has large golden feathers on its back ; it is now very rare, and is seldom found except on Mauna Loa, Hawaii, about 4000 ft. above the sea. The smaller yellow feathers, once used for the war cloaks of the native chiefs, were furnished by the oo (Moho_ nobilis) and the aa (Moho braccatus), now found only occasionally in the valleys of Kauai near Hanalei, on the N. side of the island ; scarlet feathers for similar mantles were taken from the iiwi (Vestiaria coccinea), a black-bodied, scarlet-winged song-bird, which feeds on nectar and on insects found in the bark of the koa and ohia trees, and from the Fringilla coccinea. In the old times birds were protected by the native belief that divine messages were conveyed by bird cries, and by royal edict forbidding the killing of species furnishing the material for feather cloaks, contributions towards which were long almost the. only taxes paid. Thus the downfall of the monarchy and of the ancient cults nave been nearly fatal to some of the more beautiful birds; feather ornaments, formerly worn only by nobles, came to be a common decoration; and many species (for example the Hawaiian gallinule, Gallinula sandwicensis, which, because of its crimson frontal plate and bill, was said by the natives to have played the part of Prometheus, burning its head with fire stolen from the gods and bestowed on mortals) have been nearly destroyed by the mongoose, or have been driven from their lowland homes to the mountains, such being the fate of the mamo, mentioned above, and of the Sandwich Island goose (Bernicla sandwicensis}, which is here a remarkable example of adaptation, as its present habitat is quite arid. This goose has been introduced successfully into Europe. A bird called moho, but actually of a different family, was the Pennula ecaudata or millsi, which had hardly any tail, and had wings so degenerate that it was commonly thought wingless. The turnstone (Strepsilas interpres) arrives in the islands in August after breeding in Alaska. There are no parrots. The only reptiles are three species of skinks and four of the gecko ; the islands are famed for their freedom from 1 Partly described by T. S. Streets, Contributions to the Natural History of the Hawaiian and Fanning Islands, Bulletin 7 of U.S. National Museum (Washington, 1877). Several new species are described in U.S. Bureau of Fisheries Document, No. 623 (Washing- ton, 1907). 2 So Lesson called the family from the native name in 1831; Cabanis (1847) suggested Acrulocercus. snakes. Land-snails, mostly A chatinellidae, are remarkably frequent and diverse; over 300 varieties exist. Insects are numerous, and of about 500 species of beetle some 80% are not known to exist elsewhere; cockroaches and green locusts are pests, as are, also, mosquitoes,3 wasps, scorpions, centipedes and white ants, which have all been introduced from elsewhere. Soil. — The soil of the Territory is almost wholly a decomposition of lava, and in general differs much from the soils of the United States, particularly in the large amount of nitrogen (often more than 1-25% in cane and coffee soil, and occasionally 2-2%) and iron, and in the high degree of acidity. High up on the windward side of a mountain it is thin, light red or yellow, and of inferior quality. Low down on the leeward side it is dark red and fertile, but still too pervious to retain moisture well. In the older valleys on the islands of Kauai, Oahu and Maui, as well as on the jowland plain of Molokai, the soil is deeper and usually, too, the moisture is retained by a heavy clay. In some places along the coast there is a narrow strip of decomposed coral limestone ; often, too, a coral reef has served to catch the sediment washed down the mountain side until a deep sedimentary soil has been deposited. On the still lower levels the soil is deepest and most productive. Agriculture. — The tenure by which lands were held before 1838 was strictly feudal, resembling that of Germany in the nth century, and lands were sometimes enfeoffed to the seventh degree. But in the " Great Division " which took place in 1848 and forms the foundation of present land titles, about 984,000 acres, nearly one- fourth of the inhabited area, were set apart for the crown, about 1,495,000 acres for the government, and about 1,619,000 acres for the several chiefs; and the common people received fee-simple titles 4 for their house lots and the pieces of land which they culti- vated for themselves, about 28,600 acres, almost entirely in isolated patches of irregular shape hemmed in by the holdings of the crown, the government or the great chiefs. Generally the chiefs ran into debt; many died without heirs; and their lands passed largejy into the hands of foreigners. At the abolition of the monarchy in 1893, the crown domains were declared to be public lands, and, with the other government lands, were by the terms of annexation turned over to the United States in 1898. They had been offered for sale or lease in accordance with land acts (of 1884 and 1895 — the latter corresponding generally to the land laws of New Zealand) designed to promote division into small farms and their immediate improvement. In 1909 the area of the public land was about 1,700,000 acres. In 1900 there were in the Territory 2273 farms, of which 1209 contained less than 10 acres, 785 contained between 10 and loo acres, and 116 contained 1000 acres or more. The natives seldom cultivate more than half an acre apiece, and the Portuguese settlers usually only 25 or 30 acres at most. Of the total area of the Territory only 86,854 acres, or 2-77%, were under cultivation in 1900, and of this 65,687 acres, or 75-6%, were divided into 170 farms and planted to sugar-cane. In 1909 it was estimated that 213,000 acres (about half of which was irrigated) were planted to sugar, one half being cropped each year. The average yield per acre of cane-sugar is the greatest in the world, 30 to 40 tons of cane being an average per acre, and as much as ioj tons of sugar having been produced from a single acre under irrigation. The cultivation of the cane was greatly encouraged by the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875, which established practically free trade between the islands and the United States, and since 1879 it has been widely extended by means of irrigation, the water being obtained both by pumping from numerous artesian wells and by conducting surface water through canals and ditches. The sugar farms are mostly on the islands of Hawaii, Oahu, Maui and Kauai, at the bases of mountains; those on the leeward side have the better soil, but require much more irrigating. The product increased from 26,072,429 Ib in 1876 to 259,789,462 ID in 1890, 542,098,500 ft in 1899 and about 1,060,000,000 Ib (valued at more than 840,000,000) in 1909. Nearly all of it is exported to the United States. Rice was the second product in importance until competition with Japan, Louisiana and Texas made the crop a poor investment; improved culture and machinery may restore rice culture to its former importance. It is grown almost wholly by Japanese and Chinese on small low farms along the coasts, mostly on the islands of Kauai and Oahu. In 1899 the product amounted to 33,442,400 ft; in 1907 about 12,000 acres were planted, and the crop was estimated to be worth 82,500,000. Coffee of good quality is grown at elevations ranging between 1000 to 3000 ft. above the sea; the Hawaiian product is called Kona coffee — from Kona, a district of the S. side of Hawaii island, where much of it is grown. In 1909 about 4500 acres were in coffee, the value of the crop was $350,000; and 1,763,119 ft of coffee, valued at $211,535, were exported from Hawaii to the mainland of the United States. A few bananas and (especially from Oahu) pineapples of fine quality are exported; since 1901 the canning of 3 The entomological department of the Hawaii Experiment Station undertakes " mosquito control," and in 1905-1906 imported top-minnows (Poeciliidae) to destroy mosquito larvae. 4 These and other title-holders received corresponding rights to the use of irrigation ditches, and to fish in certain sea areas adjacent to their holdings. HAWAII 87 pineapples has been successfully carried on, and in the year ending May 31, 1907, 186,700 cases were exported, being packed in nine canneries. Oranges, lemons, limes, figs, mangoes, grapes and peaches, besides a considerable variety of vegetables, are raised in small quantities for local consumption. In 1909 the exports of fruits and nuts to the continental United States were valued at $1,457,644. An excellent quality of sisal is grown. Rubber trees have been planted with some success, particularly on the eastern part of the island of Maui; they were not tapped for commercial use until 1909. In 1907 there were vanilla plantations in the islands of Oahu and Hawaii. Tobacco of a high grade, especially for wrappers, has been grown at the Agricultural Experiment Station's farm at Hamakua, on the island of Hawaii, where the tobacco is practically " shade grown " under the afternoon fogs from Mauna Kea. Cotton and silk culture have been experimented with on the islands; and the work of the Hawaiian Agricultural Experiment Station is of great value, in introducing new crops, in improving old, in studying soils and fertilizers and in entomological research. Honey is a crop of some importance; in 1908 the yield was about 950 tons of honey and 15 tons of wax. The small islands of Lanai, Niihau and Kahoolawe are devoted chiefly to the raising of sheep and cattle — Niihau is one large privately owned sheep-ranch. There are large cattle-ranches on the islands supplying nearly all the meat for domestic consumption, and cattle-raising is second in importance to the sugar industry. It -was estimated in 1908 that there were about 130,500 cattle and about 99,500 sheep on the islands. The " native " cattle, descended from those left on the islands by early navigators, are being improved by breeding with imported Hereford, Shorthorn, Angus and Holstein bulls, the Here- fords being the best for the purpose. In the fiscal year 1908, 359,413 ft of wool (valued at 858,133) and 928,599 ft of raw hides (valued at $87,599) were shipped from the Territory to the United States. Minerals. — The islands have large (unworked) supplies of pumice, sandstone, sulphur, gypsum, alum and mineral-paint ochres, and some salt, kaolin and sal-ammoniac, but otherwise they are without mineral wealth other than lava rocks for building purposes. Manufactures. — The manufactures are chiefly sugar, fertilizers, and such products of the foundry and machine shop as are required for the machinery of the sugar factories. Most of the manufacturing industries, indeed, are maintained for supplying the local market, there being only three important exceptions — the manufacture of sugar, the cleaning of coffee and the cleaning and polishing of rice. The manufacture of sugar, which began between 1830 and 1840, has long been much the most important of the manufacturing in- dustries: thus in 1900 the value of the sugar production was $19,254,773, and the total value of all manufactures, including custom work and repairing, was only $24,992,068. Next to sugar, fertilizers were the most important manufactured product, their value being $1,150,625; the products of the establishments for the polishing and cleaning of rice were valued at $664,300. Of the total product in 1900, only 18-5% (by value) is to be credited to the city of Honolulu. The growth of manufacturing is much hampered by the lack of labour. Excellent water power is utilized on the island of Kauai in an electric plant. Communications. — There are good wagon roads on the islands, some of them macadamized, built of the hard blue lava rock. Hawaii had in 1909 about 200 m. of railway, of which the principal line is that of the Oahu Railway & Land Company (about 89 m.), extending from Honolulu W. and N. along the coast to Kahuku about one-half the distance around Oahu; another line from Kahuku Mill, the most northerly point of the island, S.E. to Hono- lulu, was projected in 1905; on the island of Hawaii is the Hilo Railroad (about 46 m.), carrying sugar, pineapples, rubber and lumber; other railways are for the most part short lines on sugar estates and in coffee-producing sections of the islands of Hawaii and Maui. Each of the larger islands has one or more ports which a local steamboat serves regularly, and Honolulu has the regular service of seven trans-Pacific lines (the American-Hawaiian Steamship Co., the Canadian-Australian Steamship Co., the Matson Navigation Co., the Oceanic Steamship Co., the Pacific Mail Steamship Co., the Mexican Oriental and the Toyo Kisen Kaisha); it is a midway station for vessels between the United States (mainland) and Australia and Southern Asia. In 1908 five steamship companies were engaged in traffic between island ports and the mainland (including Mexico). Honolulu has cable connexion with San Francisco and the East, and the several islands of the group are served by wireless telegraph. Commerce. — The position of the archipelago, at the " cross-roads " of the North Pacific, has made it commercially important since the days of the whale fishery, and it has a practical monopoly of coaling, watering and victualling. Its main disadvantage is the lack of harbours — Honolulu and Pearl Harbor are the only ones in the archi- pelago; but under the River and Harbour Act of 1905 examinations and surveys were made to improve Hilo Bay on the island of Hawaii. Pearl Harbor is the U.S. naval station, and a great naval dock, nearly 1200 ft. long, was projected for the station in 1908. Within recent years commerce has grown greatly in volume; it has always been almost entirely with the United States. In 1880 the value of imports from the United States was $2,086,000, that of exports to the United States was $4,606,000; in 1907 the value of shipments of domestic merchandise from the United States to Hawaii was $I5.357t9°7> .and the value of shipments of domestic merchandise from Hawaii to the United States was $31,984,433, of which 1^0,111,524 was the value of brown sugar, $133,133 the value of rice, $601,748 the value of canned fruits, $124,146 the value of green, ripe or dried fruits, $117,403 the value of hides and skins, and $105,515 the value of green or raw coffee. The shipments of foreign merchandise each way are relatively insignificant. In the fiscal year 1908 the exports from Hawaii to foreign countries were valued at $597,640, ten times as much as in 1905 ($59,541); the imports into Hawaii from foreign countries were valued at $4,682,399 in the fiscal year 1908, as against $3,014,964 in 1905. Population. — The total population of the islands in 1890 was 89,990; in 1900 it was 154,001, an increase within the decade of 71-13%; in 1910 it was 191,909. In 1908 there were about 72,000 Japanese, 18,000 Chinese, 5000 Koreans, 23,000 Portu- guese, 2000 Spanish, 2000 Porto Ricans, 35,000 Hawaiians and part Hawaiians and 12,000 Teutons. Of the total for 1900 there were 61,111 Japanese, 25,767 Chinese and 233 negroes; of the same total there were 90,780 foreign-born, of whom 56,234 were natives of Japan, and 6512 were natives of Portugal. There were in all in 1900, 106,369 males (69-1%; a preponder- ance due to the large number of Mongolian labourers, whose wives are left in Asia) and only 47,632 females. About three- fifths of the Hawaiians and nearly all of American, British or North European descent are Protestants. Most of the Portuguese and about one-third of the native Hawaiians are Roman Catholics. The Mormons claim more than 4000 adherents, whose principal settlement is at Laie, on the north-east shore of Oahu; the first Mormon missionaries came to the islands in 1850. The popula- tion of 1910 was distributed among the several islands as follows: Oahu, 82,028; Hawaii, 55,382; Kauai and Niihau, 23,952; Kalawao, 785; and Maui, Lanai, Kahoolawe and Molokai, 29,762. The population of Honolulu district , the entire urban population of the Territory, was 22,907 in 1890, 39,306 in 1900, and 52,183 in 1910. The aboriginal Hawaiians (sometimes called Kanakas, from a Hawaiian word kanaka, meaning " man ") belong to the Malayo-Polynesian race; they probably settled in Hawaii in the loth century, having formerly lived in %*pula- Samoa, and possibly before that in Tahiti and the tion. Marquesas. Their reddish-brown skin has been com- pared in hue to tarnished copper. Their hair is dark brown or black, straight, wavy or curly; the beard is thin, the face broad, the profile not prominent, the eyes large and expressive, the nose somewhat flattened, the lips thick, the teeth excellent in shape and of a pearly whiteness. The skull is sub-brachycephalic in type, with an index of 82-6 from living " specimens " and 79 from a large collection of skulls; it is never prognathous. Most of the people are of moderate stature, but the chiefs and the women of their families have been remarkable for their height, and 400 pounds was formerly not an unusual weight for one of this class. This corpulence was due not alone to over-feeding but to an almost purely vegetable diet; stoutness was a part of the ideal of feminine beauty. The superiority in physique of the nobles to the common people may have been due in part to a system of massage, the lomi-lomi; it is certainly contrary to the belief in the bad effects of inbreeding — among the upper classes marriage was almost entirely between near relatives. The Rev. William Ellis, an early English missionary, described the natives as follows: " The inhabitants of these islands are, considered physically, amongst the finest races in the Pacific, bearing the strongest resemblance to the New Zealanders in stature, and in their well-developed muscular limbs. The tattoo- ing of their bodies is less artistic than that of the New Zealanders, and much more limited than among some of the other islanders. They are also more hardy and industrious than those living nearer the equator. This in all probability arises from their salubrious climate, and the comparative sterility of their soil rendering them dependent upon the cultivation of the ground for the yam, the arum, and the sweet potato, their chief articles of food. Though, like all undisciplined races, the Sandwich Islanders [Hawaiians] have proved deficient in firm and steady perseverance, they manifest considerable intellectual capability. Their moral character, when first visited by Europeans, was not 88 HAWAII superior to that of other islanders; and excepting when improved and preserved by the influence of Christianity, it has suffered much from the vices of intemperance and licentiousness introduced by foreigners. Polygamy prevailed among the chiefs and rulers, and women were subject to all the humiliations of the tabu system, which subjected them to many privations, and kept them socially in a condition of inferiority to the other sex. Infanticide was practised to some extent, the children destroyed being chiefly females. Though less superstitious than the Tahitians, the idolatry of the Sandwich Islanders was equally barbarous and sanguinary, as, in addition to the chief objects of worship included in the mythology of the other islands, the supernatural beings supposed to reside in the volcanoes and direct the action of subterranean fires rendered the gods objects of peculiar terror. Human sacrifices were slain on several occasions, and vast offerings presented to the spirits supposed to preside over the volcanoes, especially during the periods of actual eruptions. The requisitions of their idolatry were severe and its rites cruel and bloody. Grotesque and repulsive wooden figures, animals and the bones of chiefs were the objects of worship. Human sacrifices were offered whenever a temple was to be dedicated, or a chief was sick, or a war was to be under- taken; and these occasions were frequent. The apprehensions of the people with regard to a future state were undefined, but fearful. The lower orders expected to be slowly devoured by evil spirits, or to dwell with the gods in burning mountains. The several trades, such as that of fisherman, the tiller of the ground, and the builder of canoes and houses, had each their pre- siding deities. Household gods were also kept, which the natives worshipped in their habitations. One merciful provision, however, had existed from time immemorial, and that was [the puuhonuas] sacred inclosures, places of refuge, into which those who fled in time of war, or from any violent pursuer, might enter and be safe. To violate their sanctity was one of the greatest crimes of which a man could be guilty." The native religion was an admixture of idolatry and hero-worship, of some ethical hut little moral force. The king was war chief, priest and god in 'one, and the shocking licence at the death of a king was probably due to the feeling that all law or restraint was annulled by the death of the king — incarnate law. The mythic and religious legends of the people were preserved in chants, handed down from generati9n to generation; and in like poetic form was kept the knowledge of the people of botany, medicine and other sciences. Name-songs, written at the birth of a chief, gave his genealogy and the deeds of his ancestors; dirges and love-songs were common. These were without rhyme or rhythm, but had alliteration and a parallelism resembling Hebrew poetry. Drums, gourd and bamboo flutes,and a kind of guitar, were known before Cook's day. When the islands first became known to Europeans, the Hawaiian family was in a stage including both polyandry and polygyny, and, according to Morgan, older than either: two or more brothers, with their wives, or two or more sisters with their husbands, cohabited with seeming promiscuity. This system called punalua (a word which in the modern verna- cular means merely " dear friend ") was first brought to the attention of ethnologists in 1871 by Lewis H. Morgan (who was incorrect in many of his premises) and was made the basis of his second stage, the punaluan, in the evolution of the family. These conditions did not last long after the coming of the mission- aries. Descent was more commonly traced through the female line. As regard cannibalism, it appears that the heart and liver of the human victims offered in the temples were eaten as a religious rite, and that the same parts of any prominent warrior slain in battle were devoured by the victor chiefs, who believed that they would thereby inherit the valour of the dead man. Under taboo as late as 1819 women were to be put to death if they ate bananas, cocoa-nuts, pork, turtles or certain fish. In the days of idolatry the only dress worn by the men was a narrow strip of cloth wound around the loins and passed between the legs. Women wore a short petticoat made of kapa cloth (already referred to), which reached from the waist to the knee. But now the common class of men wear a shirt and trousers; the better class are attired in the European fashion. The women are clad in the holoka, a loose white or coloured garment .with sleeves, reaching from the neck to the feet. A coloured handkerchief is twisted around the head or a straw hat is worn. Both sexes delight in adorning themselves with garlands (Ids) of flowers and necklaces of coloured seeds. The Hawaiians are a good-tempered, light-hearted and pleasure-loving race. They have many games and sports, including boxing, wrestling (both in and out of water), hill-sliding, spear-throwing, and a game of bowls played with stone discs. Both sexes are passionately fond of riding. They delight to be in the water and swim with remarkable skill and ease. In the exciting sport of surf-riding, which always astonishes strangers, they balance themselves lying, kneeling or standing on a small board which is carried landwards on the curling crest of a great roller. All games were accompanied by gambling. Dances, especially the indecent hula, " danse du ventre," were favourite entertainments. Even at the time when they were first known to Europeans, they had stone and lava hatchets, shark's-tooth knives, hard- wood spades, kapa cloth or paper, mats, fans, fish-hooks and nets, woven baskets, &c., and they had introduced a rough sort ol irrigation of the inland country with long canals from highlands to plains. They derived their sustenance chiefly from pork and fish (both fresh and dried), from seaweed (limu), and from the kalo (Colocasia antiquorum, var. esculenta), the banana, sweet potato, yam, bread-fruit and cocoa-nut. From the root of the kalo is made the national dish called poi; after having been baked and well beaten on a board with a stone pestle it is made into a paste with water and then allowed to ferment for a few days, when it is ready to be eaten. One of the table delicacies of former days was a particular breed of dog which was fed exclusively on poi before it was killed, cooked and served. Like other South Sea Islanders they made an intoxicating drink, awa or kava, from the roots of the Macropiper latifolium or Piper methyslicum; in early times this could be drunk only by nobles and priests. The native dwellings are constructed of wood, or occasionally are huts thatched with grass at the sides and top. What little cooking is undertaken among the poorer natives is usually done outside. The oven consists of a hole in the ground in which a fire is lighted and stones made hot; and the fire having been removed, the food is wrapped up in leaves and placed in the hole beside the hot stones and covered up until ready; or else, as is now more common, the cooking is done in an old kerosene-oil can over a fire. The Hawaiian language is a member of the widely-diffused Malayo-Polynesian group and closely resembles the dialect of the Marquesas; Hawaiians and New Zealanders, although occupying the most remote regions north and south at which the race has been found, can understand each other without much difficulty. Various unsuccessful attempts have been made to prove the language Aryan in its origin. It is soft and har- monious, being highly vocalic in structure. Every syllable is open, ending in a vowel sound, and short sentences may be constructed wholly of vocalic sounds. The only consonants are k, I, m, n and p, which with the gently aspirated h, the five vowels, and the vocalic w, make up all the letters in use. The letters r and / have been discarded in favour of I and k, as expressing more accurately the native pronunciation, so' that, for example, taro, the former name of the Colocasia plant, is now kalo. The language was not reduced to a written form until after the arrival of the missionaries. A Hawaiian spelling book was printed in 1822; in 1834 two newspapers were founded; and in 1839 the first translation of the Bible was published. In spite of moral and material progress — indeed largely because of changes in their food, clothing, dwellings and of other " advan- tages " of civilization — the race is probably dying out. Captain Cook estimated the number of natives at 400,000, probably an over-estimate; in 1823 the American missionaries estimated their number at 142,000; the census of 1832 showed the popula- tion to be 130,313; the census of 1878 proved that the number of natives was no more than 44,088. In 1890 they numbered HAWAII 89 34,436; in 1900, 29,834, a decrease of 4602 or 13-3% within the decade. To account for this it is said that the blood of the race has become poisoned by the introduction of foreign dis- eases. The women are much less numerous than the men; and the married ones have few children at the most; two out of three have none. Moreover, the mothers appear to have little maternal instinct and neglect their offspring. It is, however, thought by some that these causes are now diminishing in force, and that the " fittest " of the race may survive. The part- Hawaiians, the offspring of intermarriage between Hawaiian women and men of other races, increased from 3420 in 1878 to 6186 in 1890 and 7835 in 1900. The pressing demand for labour created by the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 with the United States led to great changes in the population of the Hawaiian Islands. It became the policy of the Immlgra- government to assist immigrants from different countries. Uoa- In 1877 arrangements were made for the importation of Portuguese families from the Azores and Madeira, and during the next ten years about 7000 of these people were brought to the islands; in 1906-1907 there was a second immigration from the Azores and Madeira of 1325 people. In 1900 the total number of Portuguese in the islands, including those born there, was not far from 1 6,000, about 2400 of whom were employed in sugar plantations. They have shown themselves to be industrious, thrifty and law- abiding. In 1907 2201 Spanish immigrants from the sugar district about Malaga arrived in Hawaii, and about the same number of Portuguese immigrated in the same year. The Board of Immigration, using funds contributed by planters, was very active in its efforts to encourage the immigration of suitable labourers, but the general im- migration law of 1907 prohibited the securing of such immigration through contributions from corporations. Persistent efforts have also been made to introduce Polynesian islanders, as being of a cognate race with the Hawaiians, but the results have been wholly unsatisfactory. About 2000, mainly from the Gilbert Islands, were brought in at the expense of the government between 1878 and 1884; but they did not give satisfaction either as labourers or as citizens, and most of them have been returned to their homes. There never existed any treaty or labour convention between Hawaii and China. In early days a limited number of Chinese settled in the islands, intermarried with the natives and by their industry and economy generally prospered. About 750 of them were natural- ized under the monarchy. The first importation of Chinese labourers was in 1852. In 1878 the number of Chinese had risen to 5916. During the next few years there was such a steady influx of Chinese free immigrants that in the spring of 1881 the Hawaiian government sent a despatch to the governor of Hong Kong to stop this invasion. Again, in April 1883, it was suddenly renewed, and within twenty days five steamers arrived from Hong Kong bringing 2253 Chinese passengers, followed the next month by noo more, with the news that several thousand more were ready to embark. Accordingly, the Hawaiian government sent another despatch to the governor of Hong Kong, refusing to permit any further immigration of male Chinese from that port. Various regulations restricting Chinese immigration were enacted from time to time, until in 1886 the landing of any Chinese passenger without a passport was prohibited. The number of Chinese in the islands had then risen to 21,000. The consent of the Japanese government to the immigration of its subjects to Hawaii was obtained with difficulty in 1884, and in 1886 a labour convention was ratified. Subsequently the increase of the Japanese element in the population was rapid. It rose from 1 16 in 1884 to 12,360 in 1890 and 24,400 in 1896. Most of these were recruited from the lowest classes in Japan. Unlike the Chinese, they show no inclination to intermarry with the Hawaiians. The effect of making Hawaii a Territory of the United States was to put an end to all assisted immigration, of whatever race, and to exclude all Chinese labourers. No Chinese labourer is allowed to enter any other Territory of the Union from Hawaii; and the act of Congress of the 26th of February 1885, " to prohibit the importation and migration of foreigners and aliens under contract or agreement to perform labour in the United States, its Territories and the District of Columbia," and the amending and supplementary acts, are extended to it. But in the treaty of 1894 between the United States and Japan there is nothing to limit the free immigration of Japanese ; and several companies have been formed to promote it. The system of contract labour, which was abolished by the act of Congress in 1900, and under which labourers had been restrained from leaving their work before the end of the contract term, concerned few labourers except the Japanese. Various methods of co-operation or profit-sharing are in successful operation on some plantations. An interesting sociological problem is raised by the presence of the large Asiatic element in the population. The Japanese and Koreans, and in less measure the Chinese, act as domestic servants, work under white contractors on irrigating ditches and reservoirs, do most of the plantation labour and compete successfully with whites and native islanders in all save skilled urban occupations, such as printing and the manufacture of machinery. The ' Yellow Peril " is considered less dangerous in Hawaii than formerly, although it was used as a political cry in the campaign for American annexa- tion. No success met the apparently well-meaning efforts of the Central Japanese League which was organized in November and December 1903 to promote the observance of law and order by the Japanese in the islands, who assumed a too independent attitude and felt themselves free from governmental control whether Japanese or American; indeed, after the League had been in operation for a year or more, it almost seemed that it contributed to industrial disorders among the Japanese. At about the same time Japanese immigration to Hawaii fell off upon the opening of now fields for colonization by the Russo-Japanese War, and Korean immigration was promoted by employers on the islands. From the first of January 1903 to the 3Oth of June 1905 Japanese immigrants num- bered 18,027; Koreans 7388 (four Koreans to every ten Japanese); but in the last twelve months of this same period there were 4733 Koreans to 5941 Japanese (eight Koreans to every ten Japanese). Another fact which is possibly contributing to the solution of the problem is that the Japanese are leaving the islands in large numbers as compared with the Koreans. The Japanese leaving Hawaii between the I4th of June 1900 and the jist of December 1905 numbered 42,313, o: 4284 more than the number of Japanese immigrants arriving during the same period. The corresponding figures for Koreans during the same period are as follows: number leaving between the I4th of June 1900 and the 3lst of December 1905, 721, or 6673 less than the Korean immigrants for the same period. The acceleration of the departure of the Japanese is shown by the fact that in the eighteen months (July 1904 to January 1906) occurred 19,114 of the 42,313 departures in the sixty-six months from July 1900 to January 1906.' After 1906, owing to restrictions by the Japanese government, immigration to Hawaii greatly de- creased. At the same time the number of departures was decreasing rapidly. The change in the character of the immigration of Japanese is shown by the fact that in the fiscal year 1906-1907 the ratio of female immigrants to males was as I to 8, in the fiscal year 1907- 1908 it was as I to 2, and in the latter year, of 4593 births in the Territory, 2445 were Japanese. Administration. — The Hawaiian Islands are governed under an Act of Congress, signed by the president on the 30th of April 1900, which first organized them as a Territory of the United States. The legislature, which meets biennially at Honolulu, consists of a Senate of 1 5 members holding office for four years, and a House of Representatives of 30 members holding office for two years. In order to vote for Representatives or Senators, the elector must be a male citizen of the United States who has attained the age of twenty-one years, has lived in the Territory not less than one year preceding, and is able to speak, read and write the English or Hawaiian language. No person is allowed to vote by reason of being in or attached to the army or navy. The executive power is vested in a governor, appointed by the president and holding office for four years. He must not be less than thirty-five years of age and must be a citizen of the Territory. The secretary of the Territory is appointed in like manner for a term of the same length. The governor appoints, by and with the consent of the Senate of the Territory, an attorney-general, treasurer, commissioner of public lands, commissioner of agriculture and forestry, superintendent of public works, superintendent of public instruction, commissioners of public instruction, auditor and deputy-auditor, surveyor, high sheriff, members of the board of health, board of prison inspectors, board of registration, inspectors of election, &c. All such officers are appointed for four years except the com- missioners of public instruction and the members of the said 1 Large numbers of Japanese immigrants have used the Hawaiian Islands merely as a means of gaining admission at the mainland ports of the United States. For, as the Japanese government would issue only a limited number of passports to the mainland but would quite readily grant passports to Honolulu, the latter were accepted, and after a short stay on some one of the islands the im- migrants would depart on a " coastwise " voyage to some mainland port. The increasing numbers arriving by this means, however, provoked serious hostility in the Pacific coast states, especially in San Francisco, and to remedy the difficulty Congress inserted a clause in the general immigration act of the 2Oth of February 1907 which provides that whenever the president is satisfied that passports issued by any foreign government to any other country than the United States, or to any of its insular possessions, or to the Canal Zone, " are being used for the purpose of enabling the holders to come to the continental territory of the United States to the detri- ment of labour conditions therein," he may refuse to admit them. This provision has been successful in reducing the number of Japanese coming to the mainland from Hawaii. 9° HAWAII boards, whose terms are as provided by the laws of the Territory ; all must be citizens of the Territory. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, 5 circuit courts, and 29 district courts, each having a jurisdiction corresponding to similar courts in each state in the Union; and, entirely distinct from these territorial courts, Hawaii has a United States district court. A Supplementary Act of the 3rd of March 1905 provides that writs of error and appeals may be taken from the Supreme Court of Hawaii to the Supreme Court of the United States " in all cases where the amount involved exclusive of costs or value exceeds the sum of five thousand dollars." The Territory was without the forms of local government common to the United States until 1905, when the Territorial legislature divided it into five counties1 without, however, giving to them the usual powers of taxation. Each county has the following officers: a board of supervisors, a clerk, a treasurer, an auditor, an assessor and tax-collector, a sheriff and coroner, and an attorney. The members (from five to nine) of the board of supervisors are elected by districts into which the county is divided, usually only one from each. All county officers are elected for a term of two years. The act of 1900 provides for the election of a delegate to Congress, and prescribes that the delegate shall have the qualifications necessary for membership in the Hawaiian Senate, and shall be elected by voters qualified to vote for members of the House of Representatives of Hawaii. As usual, the delegate has a right to take part in the debates in the national House of Representatives, but may not vote. Charities. — The principal public charity of the Territory is the leper asylum on a peninsula almost 10 sq. ra. in area on the N. side of the island of Molokai. A steep precipice forms a natural wall between it and the rest of the island. The place became an asylum for lepers and the caring for them began to be a charity under government charge in 1866; but conditions here were at first unspeakably unhygienic, their improvement being largely due to Father Damien, who devoted himself to this work in 1873. The patients are almost exclusively native Hawaiians, and their number is slowly but steadily decreasing; in 1908 they numbered 791, and there were at Molokai 46 non-leprous helpers and 27 officers and assistants, including the Roman Catholic brothers and sisters in charge of the homes. In 1905 the United States government appropriated $100,000 for a hospital station and laboratory " for the study of the methods of transmission, cause and treatment of leprosy," and $50,000 a year for their maintenance; the station and laboratory to be established when the territorial government should have ceded to the United States a tract of I sq. m. on the leper reservation. The cession was made soon afterward by the territorial government. In 1907-1908 a home for non-leprous boys of leprous parents was established at Honolulu. Another public charity of Hawaii is the general free dispensary maintained by the territorial government at Honolulu. Education. — Education is universal, compulsory and free. Every child between the ages of six and fifteen must attend either a public school or a duly authorized private school. Consequently the per- centage of illiteracy is extremely low. The school system is essenti- ally American in its text -books and in its methods, thanks to the foundations laid by American missionaries. Between 1820 and 1824 the missionaries taught about 2000 natives to read. Several im- portant schools were founded before 1840, when the first written laws were published. Among these was a law providing for com- pulsory education, and decreeing that no illiterate born after the beginning of Liholiho's reign should hold office, and that no illiterate man or woman, born after the same date, could marry. The first Hawaiian minister of public instruction was the Rev. William Richards (1792-1847), who held office from 1843 to 1847, and was followed by Richard Armstrong (1805-1860), an American Presby- terian missionary, the father of General S. C. Armstrong. He laid stress on the importance of manual and industrial training during his term of office (1847-1855), and was succeeded by a board of education (1855-1865), of which he was first president; then an inspector-general of schools was appointed, Judge Abraham For- nander being the first inspector; in 1896 an executive department was created under a minister of public instruction and six com- 1 These are: the county of Hawaii, consisting of the island of the same name; the county of Maui, including the islands of Maui, Lanai and Kahoolawe, and the greater part of Molokai; the county of Kalawao, being the leper settlement on Molokai; the city and county of Honolulu (created from the former county of Oahu by an act of 1907, which came into effect in 1909), consisting of the island of Oahu and various small islands, of which the only ones of any importance are the Midway Islands, 1232 m. from Honolulu, a Pacific cable relay station and a post of the U.S. navy marines; and the county of Kauai, including Kauai and Niihau islands. missioners; in 1900 a superintendent of public instruction was first appointed. English is by law the medium of instruction in all schools, both public and private, although other languages may be taught in addition. Formal instruction in Hawaiian ceased in 1898. The schools are in session forty weeks during the year. In 1908 there were 154 public schools with 18,564 pupils (27-06% of whom were Japanese, 20-89% Hawaiian, I3'54% part Hawaiian, 18-72% Portuguese and 10-63% Chinese) and 51 private schools with 4881 pupils. A normal school has been established at Honolulu, with a practice school attached to it. The territorial legislature of 1907 established the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts of the Territory of Hawaii, and also founded a public library. The Hono- lulu high school does excellent work and has beautiful buildings and grounds. The Lahainaluna Seminary on west Maui, founded in 1831 as a training school for teachers, furnishes instruction to Hawaiian boys in agriculture, carpentry, printing and mechanical drawing. The boys in the industrial school (1902) at Waialee, on the island of Oahu, are taught useful trades. The teaching of sewing in the public schools has met with great success, and a simple form of the Swedish sloid was introduced into many of the schools in 1894. Lace work was introduced into the public schools in 1903. But the best industrial instruction is furnished by the independent schools, among which the Kamehameha schools take the first place. They were founded by Mrs Bernice Pauahi Bishop (1831-1884), the last lineal descendant of Kamehameha I., who left her* extensive landed estates in the hands of trustees for their support. They furnish a good manual and technical training to Hawaiian boys and girls, in addition to a primary and grammar school course of study, and exert a strong religious influence. There are six boarding schools for Hawaiian girls, supported by private resources. The most advanced courses of study are offered by Oahu College, which occupies a beautiful site near the beach just E. of Honolulu; it was founded in 1841 as the Punahou School for missionaries' children, and was chartered as Oahu College in 1852. It is well equipped with build- ings and apparatus, and has an endowment of about 8300,000. Finance. — The revenue of the Territory for the fiscal year ending the 3Oth of June 1908 amounted to $2,669,748-32, of which $640,051-42 was the proceeds of the tax on real estate, $635,265-81 was the proceeds of the tax on personal property ; and among the larger of the remaining items were the income tax ($266,241-74), waterworks ($141,898-04), public lands (sales, $37,585-75; revenue, $122,541-71) and licences ($206,374-28). On the 3Oth of June 1908 the bonded debt of the Territory was $3,979,000; there was on hand net cash, without floating debt, $677,648-48. History. — The history of the islands before their discovery by Captain James Cook, in 1778, is obscure.2 This famous navigator, who named the islands in honour of the earl of Sand- wich, was received by the natives with many demonstrations of astonishment and delight; and offerings and prayers were presented to him by their priest in one of the temples; and though in the following year he was killed by a native when he landed in Kealakekua Bay in Hawaii, his bones were preserved by the priests and continued to receive offerings and homage from the people until the abolition of idolatry. At the time of Cook's visit the archipelago seems to have been divided into three distinct kingdoms: Hawaii; Oahu and Maui; and Lanai and Molokai. On the death of the chief who ruled Hawaii at that time there succeeded one named Kamehameha (1736-1819), who appears to have been a man of quick perception and great force of character. When Vancouver visited the islands in 1792, he left sheep and neat cattle,3 protected by a ten years' taboo, and laid down the keel of a European ship for Kamehameha. Ten or twelve years later Kamehameha had 20 vessels (of 25 to 50 tons), which traded among the islands. He afterwards purchased others from foreigners. Having encouraged a warlike spirit in his people and having introduced firearms, Kamehameha attacked and overcame the chiefs of the other kingdoms one after another, until (in 1795) he became undisputed master of the whole group. He made John Young (c. 1775-1835) and Isaac Davis, Americans from one of the ships of Captain Metcalf which visited the island in 1789, his advisers, encouraged trade with foreigners, 2 Their discovery in the i6th century (in 1542 or 1555 by Juan Gaetan, or in 1528 when two of the vessels of Alvaro de Saavedra were shipwrecked here and the captain of one, with his sister, sur- vived and intermarried with the natives) seems probable, because there are traces of Spanish customs in the islands; and they are marked in their correct latitude on an English chart of 1687, which is apparently based on Spanish maps; a later Spanish chart (1743) gives a group of islands 10° E. of the true position of the Hawaiian Islands. • The first horses were left by Captain R. J. Cleveland in 1803. HAWAII and derived from its profits a large increase of revenue as well as the means of consolidating his power. He died in 1819, and was succeeded by his son, Lilohilo, or Kamehameha II., a mild and well-disposed prince, but destitute of his father's energy. One of the first acts of Kamehameha II. was, for vicious and selfish reasons, to abolish taboo and idolatry throughout the islands. Some disturbances were caused thereby, but the insurgents were defeated. On the 3ist of March 1820 missionaries of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions — two clergymen, two teachers, a physician, a farmer, and a printer, each with his wife — and three Hawaiians educated in the Cornwall (Con- necticut) Foreign Missionary School, arrived from America and began their labours at Honolulu. A short time afterwards the British government presented a small schooner to the king, and this afforded an opportunity for the Rev. William Ellis, the well-known missionary, to visit Honolulu with a number of Christian natives from the Society Islands. Finding the language of the two groups nearly the same, Mr Ellis, who had spent several years in the southern islands, was able to assist the American missionaries in reducing the Hawaiian language to a written form. In 1825 the ten commandments were recog- nized by the king as the basis of a code of laws. In the years 1830-1845 the educational work of the American missionaries was so successful that hardly a native was unable to read and write. A law prohibiting drunkenness (1835) was followed in 1838 by a licence law and in 1839 by a law prohibiting the importation of spirits and taxing wines fifty cents a gallon; in 1840 another prohibitory law was enacted; but licence laws soon made the sale of liquor common. Missionary effort was particularly fruitful in Hilo, where Titus Coan (1801-1882), sent out in 1835 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, worked in repeated revivals, induced most of his church members to give up tobacco even, and received prior to 1880 more than 12,000 members into a church which became self-supporting and sent missions to the Gilbert Islands and the Marquesas. In 1823 Keopuolani, the king's mother, was baptized; and on a single Sunday in 1838 Coan baptized 1705 converts at Hilo. In 1864 the American Board withdrew its control of evangelical work. In 1824 the king and queen of the Hawaiian Islands paid a visit to England, and both died there of measles. His successor, Kamehameha III. ruled from 1825 to 1854. In 1839 Kame- hameha III. signed a Bill of Rights and in 1840 he promulgated the first constitution of the realm; in 1842 a code of laws was proclaimed; by 1848 the feudal system of land tenure was completely abolished; the first legislature met in 1845 and full suffrage was granted in 1852, but in 1864 suffrage was restricted. Progress was at times interrupted by the conduct of the officers of foreign powers. On one occasion (July 1839) French officers abrogated the laws (particularly against the importation of liquor), dictated treaties, extorted $20,000 and by force of arms procured privileges for Roman Catholic 1 priests in the country; and at another time (February 1843) a British officer, Captain Paulet of the " Carysfort," went so far as to take possession of Oahu and establish a commission for its government. The act of the British officer was disavowed by his superiors as soon as known. These incidents led to a representation on the part of the native sovereign to the governments of Great Britain, France and the United States, and the independence of the islands (recognized by the United States in 1842) was recognized in 1844 by France and Great Britain. In 1844 John Ricord, an American lawyer, became the first minister of foreign affairs. A new constitution came into effect in 1852. It was the aim of Kamehameha III. and his advisers to combine the native and the foreign elements under one government; to make the king the sovereign not of one race or class, but of all; and to extend equal and impartial laws over all inhabitants of the 1 The first Roman Cathojic priests came in 1827 and were banished in 1831, but returned in 1837. An edict of toleration in 1839 shortly preceded the visit of the " Artemise." country. Kamehameha IV. and his queen, Emma, ruled from 1855 to 1863 and were succeeded by his brother, Kamehameha V., who died in 1872, and in whose reign a third (and a re- actionary) constitution went into effect in 1864, by mere royal proclamation. Lunalilor a grandson of Kamehameha I., was king for two years, and in 1874, backed by American influence, Kalakaua was elected his successor, in preference to Queen Emma, a member of the Anglican Church and the candidate of the pro-British party. Kalakaua considered residents of European or American descent as alien invaders, and he aimed to restore largely the ancient system of personal government, under which he should have control of the public treasury. On the 2nd of July 1878, and again on the I4th of August 1880, he dismissed a ministry without assigning any reason, after it had been triumphantly sustained by a test vote of the legis- lature. On the latter occasion he appointed C. C. Moreno, who had come to Honolulu in the interest of a Chinese steam- ship company, as Premier and minister of foreign affairs. This called forth the protest of the representatives of Great Britain, France and the United States, and aroused such opposition on the part of both the foreigners and the better class of natives that the king was obliged, after four days of popular excitement, to remove the obnoxious minister. During the king's absence on a tour round the world in 1881, his sister, Mrs Lydia Dominis (b. 1838), also styled Liliuokalani, acted as regent. After his return the contest was renewed between the so-called National party, which favoured absolution, and the Reform party, which sought to establish parliamentary gcjvernment. The king took an active part in the elections, and used his patronage to the utmost to influence legislation. For three successive sessions a majority of the legislature was composed of office-holders, dependent on the favour of the executive. Among the measures urged by the king and opposed by the Reform party were the project of a ten-million dollar loan, chiefly for military purposes; the removal of the prohibition of the sale of alcoholic liquor to Hawaiians, which was carried in 1882; the licensing of the sale of opium; the chartering of a lottery company; the licensing of kahunas, or medicine men, &c. Systematic efforts were made to turn the constitutional question into a race issue, and the party cry was raised of " Hawaii for Hawaiians." Adroit politicians flattered the king's vanity, defended his follies and taught him how to violate the spirit of the constitution while keeping the letter of the law. From 1882 till 1887 his prime minister was Walter Murray Gibson (1823-1888), a singular and romantic genius, a visionary adventurer and a shrewd politician, who had been imprisoned by the Dutch government in Batavia in 1852 on a charge of inciting insurrection in Sumatra, and had arrived at Honolulu in 1861 with the intention of leading a Mormon colony to the East Indies. To exalt his royal dignity, which was lowered, he thought, by his being only an elected king, Kalakaua caused himself to be crowned with imposing ceremonies on the ninth anniversary of his election (Feb. 12, 1883). Kalakaua was now no longer satisfied with being merely king of Hawaii, but aspired to what was termed the " Primacy of the Pacific." Accordingly Mr Gibson addressed a protest to the great powers, deprecating any further annexation of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, and claiming for Hawaii the ex- clusive right " to assist them in improving their political and social condition." In pursuance of this policy, two commissioners were sent to the Gilbert Islands in 1883 to prepare the way for a Hawaiian protectorate. On the 23rd of December 1886 Mr J. E. Bush was commissioned as minister plenipotentiary to the king of Samoa, the king of Tonga and the other independent chiefs of Polynesia. He arrived in Samoa on the 3rd of January 1887, and remained there six months, during which time he concluded a treaty of alliance with Malietoa, which was ratified by his government. The " Explorer," a steamer of 170 tons, which had been employed in the copra trade, was purchased for $20,000, and refitted as a man-of-war, to form the " nest-egg " of the future Hawaiian navy. She was renamed the " Kaim- iloa," and was despatched to Samoa on the i7th of May 1887 HAWAII to strengthen the hands of the embassy. As R. L. Stevenson wrote: " The history of the ' Kaimiloa ' is a story of debauchery, mutiny and waste of government property." At length the intrigues of the Hawaiian embassy gave umbrage to the German government, and it was deemed prudent to recall it to Honolulu in July 1887. Meanwhile a reform league had been formed to stop the prevailing misrule and extravagance; it was supported by a volunteer military force, the " Honolulu Rifles." The king carried through the legislature of 1886 a bill for an opium licence, as well as a Loan Act, under which a million dollars were borrowed in London. Under his influence the Hale Naua Society was organized in 1886 for the spread of idolatry and king-worship; and in the same year a "Board of Health" was formed which revived the vicious practices of the kahunas or medicine-men. The king's acceptance of two bribes — one of $75,000 and another of $80,000 for the assignment of an opium licence — precipitated the revolution of 1887. An immense mass meeting was held on the 30th of June, which sent a committee to the king with specific demands for radical reforms. Finding himself without support, he yielded without a struggle, dismissed his ministry and signed a constitution on the 7th of July 1887, revising that of 1864, and intended to put an end to personal government and to make the cabinet responsible only to the legislature; this was called the " bayonet constitution," because it was so largely the result of the show of force made by the Honolulu Rifles. By its terms office-holders were made ineligible for seats in the legislature, and no member of the legislature could be appointed to any civil office under the government during the term for which he had been elected. The members of the Upper House, instead of being appointed by the king tor life, were henceforth to be elected for terms of six years by electors possessing a moderate property qualification. The remainder of Kalakaua's reign teemed with intrigues and conspiracies to restore autocratic rule. One of these came to a head on the 3oth of July 1889, but this " Wilcox rebellion," led by R. W. Wilcox, a half-breed, educated in Italy, and a friend of the king and of his sister, was promptly suppressed. Seven of the insurgents were killed and a large number wounded. For his health the king visited California in the United States cruiser " Charleston " in November 1890, and died on the 2Oth of January 1891 in San Francisco. On the zgth of January at noon his sister, the regent, took the oath to maintain the constitution of 1887, and was proclaimed queen, under the title of Liliuokalani. The history of her reign shows that it was her constant purpose to restore autocratic government. The legislative session of 1892, during which four changes of ministry took place, was protracted to eight months chiefly by her determination to carry through the opium and lottery bills and to have a pliable cabinet. She had a new constitution drawn up, practically providing for an absolute monarchy, and disfranchising a large class of citizens who had voted since 1887; this constitution (drawn up, so the royal party declared, in reply to a petition signed by thousands of natives) she undertook to force on the country after proroguing the legislature on the i4th of January 1893, but her ministers shrank from the responsibility of so revolutionary an act, and with difficulty prevailed upon her to postpone the execution of her design. An uprising similar to that of 1887 declared the monarchy forfeited by its own act. A third party proposed a regency during the minority of the heir-apparent, Princess Kaiulani, but in her absence this scheme found few supporters. A Committee of Safety was appointed at a public meeting, which formed a provisional government and reorganized the volunteer military companies, which had been disbanded in 1890. Its leading spirits were the " Sons of Missionaries " (as E. L. Godkin styled them), who were accused of using their knowledge of local affairs and their inherited prestige among the natives for private ends — of founding a " Gospel Republic " which was actually a business enterprise. The provisional government called a mass meeting of citizens, which met on the afternoon of the 6th and ratified its action. The United States steamer " Boston," which had unexpectedly arrived from Hilo on the I4th, landed a small force on the evening of the i6th, at the request of the United States minister, Mr J. L. Stevens, and a committee of residents, to protect the lives and property of American citizens in case of riot or in- cendiarism. On the 1 7th the Committee of Safety took possession of the government building, and issued a proclamation declaring a monarchy to be abrogated, and establishing a provisional government, to exist " until terms of union with the United States of America shall have been negotiated and agreed upon." Meanwhile two companies of volunteer troops arrived and occupied the grounds. By the advice of her ministers, and to avoid bloodshed, the queen surrendered under protest, in view of the landing of United States troops, appealing to the govern- ment of the United States to reinstate her in authority. A treaty of annexation was negotiated with the United States during the next month, just before the close of President Benjamin Harrison's administration, but it was withdrawn on the gth of March 1893 by President Harrison's successor, President Cleveland, who then despatched James H. Blount 1837-1903) of Macon, Georgia, as commissioner paramount, to investigate the situation in the Hawaiian Islands. On receiving Blount's report to the effect that the revolution had been accomplished by the aid of the United States minister and by the landing of troops from the " Boston," President Cleveland sent Albert Sydney Willis (1843-1897) of Kentucky to Honolulu with secret instructions as United States minister. Willis with much difficulty and delay obtained the queen's promise to grant an amnesty, and made a formal demand on the provisional government for her reinstatement on the igth of December 1893. On the 23rd President Sanford B. Dole sent a reply to Wiliis, declining to surrender the authority of the provisional government to the deposed queen. The United States Congress declared against any further intervention by adopting on the 3 ist of May 1894 the Turpie Resolution. On the 3oth of May 1894 a convention was held to frame a constitution for the republic of Hawaii, which was proclaimed on the ath of July following, with S. B. Dole as its first president. Toward the end of the same year a plot was formed to overthrow the republic and to restore the monarchy. A cargo of arms and ammunition from San Francisco was secretly landed at a point near Honolulu, where a company of native royalists were collected on the 6th of January 1895, intending to capture the government buildings by surprise that night, with the aid of their allies in the city. A premature encounter with a squad of police alarmed the town and broke up their plans. There were several other skirmishes during the following week, resulting in the capture of the leading conspirators, with most of their followers. The ex-queen, on whose premises arms and am- munition and a number of incriminating documents were found, was arrested and was imprisoned for nine months in the former palace. On the 24th of January 1895 she formally renounced all claim to the throne and took the oath of allegiance to the republic. The ex-queen and forty-eight others were granted conditional pardon on the 7th of September, and on the following New Year's Day the remaining prisoners were set at liberty. On the inauguration of President McKinley, in March 1897, negotiations with the United States were resumed, and on the 1 6th of June a new treaty of annexation was signed at Washington. As its ratification by the Senate had appeared to be uncertain, extreme measures were taken: the Newlands joint resolution, by which the cession was "accepted, ratified and confirmed," was passed by the Senate by a vote of 42 to 21 and by the House of Representatives by a vote of 209 to 91, and was signed by the president on the 7th of July 1898. The formal transfer of sovereignty took place on the i2th of August 1898, when the flag of the United States (the same flag hauled down by order of Commissioner Blount) was raised over the Executive Building with impressive ceremonies. The sovereigns of the monarchy, the president of the republic and the governors of the Territory up to 1910 were as follows: HAWARDEN— HAWES, STEPHEN 93 Sovereigns: Kamehameha I., 1795-1819; Kamehameha II., 1819-1824; Kaahumanu (regent), 1824-1832; Kamehameha III., 1832-1854; Kamehameha IV., 1855-1863; Kamehameha V., 1863-1872; Lunalilo, 1873-1874; Kalakaua, 1874-1891; Liliuokalani, 1891-1893. President: Sanford B. Dole, 1893- 1898. Governors: S. B. Dole, 1898-1904; George R. Carter, 1904-1907; W. F. Frear, 1907. AUTHORITIES. — Consult the bibliography in Adolf Marcuse, Die hawaiischen Inseln (Berlin, 1894); A. P. C. Griffen, List of Books relating to Hawaii (Washington, 1898); C. E. Dutton, Hawaiian Volcanoes, in the fourth annual report of the United States Geological Survey (Washington, 1884); J. D. Dana, Characteristics of Volcanoes with Contribution of Facts and Principles from the Hawaiian Islands (New York, 1890); W. H. Pickering, Lunar and Hawaiian Physical Features compared (1906) ; C. H. Hitchcock, Hawaii and its Volcanoes (Honolulu, 1909); Augustin Kramer, Hawaii, Ostmikronesien und Samoa (Stuttgart, 1906); Sharp, Fauna (London, 1899); Walter Maxwell, Lavas and Soils of the Hawaiian Islands (Honolulu, 1898); W. Hillebrand, Flora of the Hawaiian Islands (London, 1888); G. P. Wilder, Fruits of the Hawaiian Islands (3 vols., Honolulu, 1907); H. W. Henshaw, Birds of the Hawaiian Islands (Washington, 1902); A. Fornander, Account of the Poly- nesian Race and the Ancient History of the Hawaiian People to the Times of Kamehameha I. (3 vols., London, 1878-1885); W. D. Alexander, A Brief History of the Hawaiian People (New York, 1899) ; C. H.Forbes-Lindsay, American Insular Possessions (Phila- delphia, 1906) ; Jos6 de Olivares, Our Islands and their People (New York, 1899); J. A. Owen, Story of Hawaii (London, 1898); E. J. Carpenter, America in Hawaii (Boston, 1899); W. F. Blackman, The Making of Hawaii, a Study in Social Evolution (New York, 1899), with bibliography; T. G. Thrum, Hawaiian Almanac and Annual (Honolulu); Lucien Young, The Real Hawaii (New York, 1899), written by a lieutenant of the " Boston," an ardent defender of Stevens; Liliuokalani, Hawaii's Story (Boston, 1898); C. T. Rodgers, Education in the Hawaiian Islands (Honolulu, 1897); Henry E. Chambers, Constitutional History of Hawaii (Baltimore, 1896), in Johns Hopkins University Studies; W. Ellis, Tour Around Hawaii (London, 1829); J. J. Jarves, History of the Sandwich Islands (Honolulu, 1847); H. Bingham, A Residence of Twenty-one Years in the Sandwich Islands (Hartford, 1848); Isabella Bird, Six Months in the Sandwich Islands (New York, 1881); Adolf Bastian, Zur Kenntnis Hawaiis (Berlin, 1883) ; the annual Reports of the governor of Hawaii, of the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Experiment Station, of the Board of Commissioners on Agriculture and Forestry, and of the Hawaii Promotion Committee; and the Papers of the Hawaiian Historical Society. HAWARDEN (pronounced Harden, Welsh Penarldg), a market-town of Flintshire, North Wales, 6 m. W. of Chester, on a height commanding an extensive prospect; connected by a branch with the London & North- Western railway. Pop. (1901), 5372. It lies in a coal district, with clay beds near. Coarse earthenware, draining tiles and fire-clay bricks are the chief manufactures. The Maudes take the title of viscount from the town. Hawarden castle— built in 1752, added to and altered in the Gothic style in 1814 — stands in a fine wooded park near the old castle of the same name, which William the Conqueror gave to his nephew, Hugh Lupus. It was taken in 1282 by Dafydd, brother of Llewelyn, prince of Wales, destroyed by the Parliamentarians in the Civil War, and came into the possession of Sergeant Glynne, lord chief justice of England under Cromwell. The last baronet, Sir Stephen R. Glynne, dying in 1874, Castell Penarlag passed to his brother-in-law, William Ewart Gladstone. St Deiniol church, early English, was restored in 1857 and 1878. There are also a grammar school (1606), a Gladstone golden-wedding fountain (1889), and St Deiniol's Hostel (with accommodation for students and an Anglican clerical warden); west of the church, on Truman's hill, is an old British camp. HAWAWIR (HAUHAUIN), an African tribe of Semitic origin, dwelling in the Bayuda desert, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. They are found along the road from Debba to Khartum as far as Bir Gamr, and from Ambigol to Wadi Bishara. They have adopted none of the negro customs, such as gashing the cheeks or elaborate hairdressing. They own large herds of oxen, sheep and camels. HAWEIS, HUGH REGINALD (1838-1901), English preacher and writer, was born at Egham, Surrey, on the 3rd of April 1838. On leaving Trinity College, Cambridge, he travelled in Italy and served under Garibaldi in 1860. On his return to- England he was ordained and held various curacies in London, becoming in 1866 incumbent of St James's, Marylebone. His unconventional methods of conducting the service, combined with his dwarfish figure and lively manner, soon attracted crowded congregations. He married Miss M. E. Joy in 1866, and both he and Mrs Haweis (d. 1898) contributed largely to periodical literature and travelled a good deal abroad. Haweis was Lowell lecturer at Boston, U.S.A., in 1885, and represented the Anglican Church at the Chicago Parliament of Religions in 1893. He was much interested in music, and wrote books on violins and church bells, besides contributing an article to the gth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica on bell-ringing. His best-known book was Music and Morals (3rd ed., 1873); and for a time he was editor of Cassell's Magazine. He also wrote five volumes on Christ and Christianity (a popular church history, 1886-1887). Other writings include Trawl and Talk (1896), and similar chatty and entertaining books. He died on the 29th of January 1901. HAWES, STEPHEN (fl. 1502-1521), English poet, was probably a native of Suffolk, and, if his own statement of his age may be trusted, was born about 1474. He was educated at Oxford, and travelled in England, Scotland and France. On his return his various accomplishments, especially his " most excellent vein " in poetry, procured him a place at court, He was groom of the chamber to Henry VII. as early as 1502. He could repeat by heart the works of most of the English poets, especially the poems of John Lydgate, whom he called his master. He was still living in 1521, when it is stated in Henry VIII. 's household accounts that £6, 135. 4d. was paid " to Mr Hawes for his play," and he died before 1530, when Thomas Field, in his " Conversation between a Lover and a Jay," wrote " Yong Steven Hawse, whose soule God pardon, Treated of love so clerkly and well." His capital work is The Passetyme of Pleasure, or the History of Graunde Amour and la Bel Pucel, conteining the knowledge of the Seven Sciences and the Course of Man's Life in this Worlde, printed by Wynkyn de Worde, 1509, but finished three years earlier. It was also printed with slightly varying titles by the same printer in 1517, by J. Wayland in 1554, by Richard Tottel and by John Waley in 1555. Tottel's edition was edited by T. Wright and reprinted by the Percy Society in 1845. The poem is a long allegory in seven-lined stanzas of man's life in this world. It is divided into sections after the manner of the Morte Arthur and borrows the machinery of romance. Its main motive is the education of the knight, Graunde Amour, based, according to Mr W. J. Courthope {Hist, of Eng. Poetry, vol. i. 382), on the Marriage of Mercury and Philology, by Martianus Capella, and the details of the description prove Hawes to have been well acquainted with medieval systems of philosophy. At the suggestion of Fame, and accompanied by her two greyhounds, Grace and Governance, Graunde Amour starts out in quest of La Bel Pucel. He first visits the Tower of • Doctrine or Science where he acquaints himself with the arts of grammar, logic, rhetoric and arithmetic. After a long dis- putation with the lady in the Tower of Music he returns to his studies, and after sojourns at the Tower of Geometry, the Tower of Doctrine, the Castle of Chivalry, &c., he arrives at the Castle of La Bel Pucel, where he is met by Peace, Mercy, Justice, Reason and Memory. His happy marriage does not end the story, which goes on to tell of the oncoming of Age, with the concomitant evils of Avarice and Cunning. The admonition of Death brings Contrition and Conscience, and it is only when Remembraunce has delivered an epitaph chiefly dealing with the Seven Deadly Sins, and Fame has enrolled Graunde Amour's name with the knights of antiquity, that we are allowed to part with the hero. This long imaginative poem was widely read and esteemed, and certainly exercised an influence on the genius of Spenser. The remaining works of Hawes are all of them bibliographical rarities. The Conversyon of Swerers (1509) and A Joyfull Medy- tacyon to all Englonde, a coronation poem (1509), was edited by David Laing for the Abbotsford Club (Edinburgh, 1865). A 94 HA WES, WILLIAM— HAWK Compendyous Story . . . called the Example of Vertu (pr. 1512) and the Comfort of Lovers (not dated) complete the list of his extant work. See also G. Saintsbury, The Flourishing of Romance and the Rise of Allegory (Edin. and Lond., 1897) ; the same writer's Hist, of English Prosody (vol. i. 1906); and an article by W. Murison in the Cam- bridge History of English Literature (vol. ii. 1908). HAWES, WILLIAM (1785-1846), English musician, was born in London in 1785, and was for eight years (1793-1801) a chorister of the Chapel Royal, where he. studied music chiefly under Dr Ayrton. He subsequently held various musical posts, being in 1817 appointed master of the children of the Chapel Royal. He also carried on the business of a music publisher, and was for many years musical director of the Lyceum theatre, then devoted to English opera. In the last-named capacity (July 23rd, 1824), he introduced Weber's Der Freischiitz for the first time in England, at first slightly curtailed, but soon afterwards in its entirety. Winter's Interrupted Sacrifice, Mozart's Cosi fan tulle, Marschner's Vampyre and other important works were also brought out under his auspices. Hawes also wrote or compiled the music for numerous pieces. Better were his glees and madrigals, of which he published several collections. He also superintended a new edition of the celebrated Triumph of Oriana. He died on the i8th of February 1846. HAWFINCH, a bird so called from the belief that the fruit of the hawthorn (Crataegus Oxyacantha) forms its chief food, the Loxia coccolhraustes of Linnaeus, and the Coccothraustes vulgaris of modern ornithologists, one of the largest of the finch family (Fringillidae), and found over nearly the whole of Europe, in Africa north of the Atlas and in Asia from Palestine to Japan. It was formerly thought to be only an autumnal or winter- visitor to Britain, but later experience has proved that, though there may very likely be an immigration in the fall of the year, it breeds in nearly all the English counties to Yorkshire, and abundantly in those nearest to London. In coloration it bears some resemblance to a chaffinch, but its much larger size and enormous beak make it easily recognizable, while on closer inspection the singular bull-hook form of some of its wing-feathers will be found to be very remarkable. Though not uncommonly frequenting gardens and orchards, in which as well as in woods it builds its nest, it is exceedingly shy in its habits, so as seldom to afford opportunities for observation. (A. N.) HAWICK, a municipal and police burgh of Roxburghshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891), 19,204; (1901), 17,303. It is situated at the confluence of the Slitrig (which flows through the town) with the Teviot, 10 m. S.W. of Jedburgh by road and 52! m. S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. The name has been derived from the O. Eng. heaih-wic, " the village on the flat meadow," or haga-wic, " the fenced-in dwelling," the Gadeni being supposed to have had a settlement at this spot. Hawick is a substantial and flourishing town, the prosperity of which dates from the beginning of the igth century, its enterprise having won for it the designation of " The Glasgow of the Borders." The municipal buildings, which contain the free library and reading-room, stand on the site of the old town hall. The Buccleuch memorial hall, commemorating the 5th duke of Buccleuch, contains the Science and Art Institute and a museum rich in exhibits illustrating Border history. The Academy furnishes both secondary and technical education. The only church of historical interest is that of St Mary's, the third of the name, built in 1763. The first church, believed to have been founded by St Cuthbert (d. 687), was succeeded by one dedicated in 1214, which was the scene of the seizure of Sir Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie in 1342 by Sir William Douglas. The modern Episcopal church of St Cuthbert was designed by Sir Gilbert Scott. The Moat or Moot hill at the south end of the town — an earthen mound 30 ft. high and 300 ft. in circumference — is conjectured to have been the place where formerly the court of the manor met; though some authorities think it was a primitive form of fortification. The Baron's Tower, founded in 11 55 by the Lovels, lords of Branxholm and Hawick, and after- wards the residence of the Douglases of Drumlanrig, is said to have been the only building that was not burned down during the raid of Thomas Radcliffe, 3rd earl of Sussex, in April 1570. At a later date it was the abode of Anne, duchess of Buccleuch and Monmouth, after the execution of her husband, James, duke of Monmouth in 1585, and finally became the Tower Hotel. Bridges across the Teviot connect Hawick with the suburb of Wilton, in which a public park has been laid out, and St Leonard's Park and race-course are situated on the Common, 2 m. S.W. The town is governed by a provost, bailies and council, and unites with Selkirk and Galashiels (together known as the Border burghs) to send a member to parliament. The leading industries are the manufacture of hosiery, established in 1771, and woollens, dating from 1830, including blankets, shepherd's plaiding and tweeds. There are, besides, tanneries, dye works, oil-works, saw-mills, iron-founding and engineering works, quarries and nursery gardens. The markets for live stock and grain are also important. In 1537 Hawick received from Sir James Douglas of Drum- lanrig a charter which was confirmed by the infant Queen Mary in 1545, and remained in force until 1861, when the corporation was reconstituted by act of parliament. Owing to its situation Hawick was often imperilled by Border warfare and maraud- ing freebooters. Sir Robert Umfraville (d. 1436), governor of Berwick, burned it about 1417, and in 1562 the regent Moray had to suppress the lawless with a strong hand. Neither of the Jacobite risings aroused enthusiasm. In 1715 the dis- contented Highlanders mutinied on the Common, 500 of them abandoning their cause, and in 1745 Prince Charles Edward's cavalry passed southward through the town. In 1514, the year after the battle of Flodden, in which the burghers had suffered severely, a number of young men surprised an English force at Hornshole, a spot on the Teviot 2 m. below the town, routed them and bore away their flag. This event is celebrated every June in the ceremony of " Riding the Common " — in which a facsimile of the captured pennon is carried in procession to the accompaniment of a chorus " Teribus, ye Teri Odin," supposed to be an invocation to Thor and Odin — a survival of Northum- brian paganism. Two of the most eminent' natives of the burgh were Dr Thomas Somerville (1741-1830), the historian, and James Wilson (1805-1860), founder of the Economist newspaper and the first financial member of the council for India. Minto House, 5 m. N.E., is the seat of the earl of Minto. Denholm, about midway between Hawick and Jedburgh, was the birthplace of John Leyden the poet. The cottage in which Leyden was born is now the property of the Edinburgh Border Counties Association, and a monument to his memory has been erected in the centre of Denholm green. Cavers, nearer Hawick, was once the home of a branch of the Douglases, and it is said that in Cavers House are still preserved the pennon that was borne before the Douglas at the battle of Otterburn (Chevy Chase), and the gauntlets that were then taken from the Percy (1388). Two m. S.W. of Hawick is the massive peel of Goldielands — the " watch-tower of Branxholm," a well-preserved typical Border stronghold. One mile beyond it, occupying a commanding site on the left bank of the Teviot, stand? Branxholm Castle, the Branksome Hall of The Lay of the Last Minstrel, once owned by the Lovels, but since the middle of the I5th century the property of the Scotts of Buccleuch, and up to 1756 the chief seat of the duke. It suffered repeatedly in English in- vasions and was destroyed in 1570. It was rebuilt next year, the peel, finished five years later, forming part of the modern mansion. About 3 m. W. of Hawick, finely situated on high ground above Harden Burn, a left-hand affluent of Borthwick Water, is Harden, the home of Walter Scott (1550-1629), an ancestor of the novelist. HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, fiaf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from caper e), a word of somewhat indefinite meaning, being often used to signify all diurnal birds-of-prey which are neither vultures nor eagles, and again more exclusively for those of the remainder which are not buzzards, falcons, harriers or kites. Even with this restriction it is comprehensive enough, and will include more than a hundred species, which have been arrayed in genera varying in number from a dozen to above a score, according to the fancy of the systematizer. Speaking generally, hawks may be characterized by possessing compara- tively short wings and long legs, a bill which begins to decurve directly from the cere (or soft bare skin that covers its base), and has the cutting edges of its maxilla (or upper mandible) HAWKE, BARON 95 sinuated1 but never notched. To these may be added as characters, structurally perhaps of less value, but in other respects quite as important, that the sexes differ very greatly in size, that in most species the irides are yellow, deepening with age into orange or even red, and that the immature plumage is almost invariably more or less striped or mottled with heart- shaped spots beneath, while that of the adults is generally much barred, though the old males have in many instances the breast and belly quite free from markings. Nearly all are of small or moderate size — the largest among them being the gos-hawk (q.v.) and its immediate allies, and the male of the smallest, Accipiter tinus, is not bigger than a song-thrush. They are all birds of great boldness in attacking a quarry, but if foiled in the first attempts they are apt to leave the pursuit. Thoroughly arboreal in their habits, they seek their prey, chiefly consisting of birds (though reptiles and small mammals are also taken), among trees or bushes, patiently waiting for a victim to shew European Sparrow-Hawk (Male and Female). itself, and gliding upon it when it appears to be unwary with a rapid swoop, clutching it in their talons, and bearing it away to eat it in some convenient spot. Systematic ornithologists differ as to the groups into which the numerous forms known as hawks should be divided. There is at the outset a difference of opinion as to the scientific name which the largest and best known of these groups should bear— some authors terming it Nisus, and others, who seem to have the most justice on their side, Accipiter. In Europe there are two species — first, A. nisus, the common sparrow-hawk, which has a wide distribution from Ireland to Japan, extending also to northern India, Egypt and Algeria, and secondly, A. brevipcs (by some placed in the group Micronisus and by others called an Astur), which only appears in the south-east and the adjoining parts of Asia Minor and Persia. In North America the place of the former is taken by two very distinct species, a small one, A.fuscus, usually known in Canada and the United States as the sharp-shinned hawk, and Stanley's or Cooper's hawk, A. cooperi (by some placed in another genus, Cooperastur) , which is larger and has not so northerly a range. In South America there are four or five more, including A. tinus, before mentioned as the smallest of all, while a species not much larger, A. minullus, together with several others of greater size, inhabits South Africa. Madagascar and its neighbouring islands have three or four species sufficiently distinct, and India has A. badlus. A good many more forms are found in south-eastern Asia, in the Indo-Malay Archipelago, and in Australia three or four species, of which A. cirrhocephalus most nearly represents the sparrow-hawk of Europe and northern Asia, while A. radiatus and A. approximans show some affinity to the gos-hawks (Astur) 1 In one form, Nisoides, which on that account has been generically separated, they are said to be perfectly straight. with which they are often classed. The differences between all the forms above named and the much larger number here unnamed are such as can be only appreciated by the specialist. The so-called " sparrow-hawk " of New Zealand (Hieracidea) does not belong to this group of birds at all, and by many authors has been deemed akin to the falcons. For hawking see FALCONRY. (A. N.) HAWKE, EDWARD HAWKE, BARON (1705-1781), British admiral, was the only son of Edward Hawke, a barrister. On his mother's side he was the nephew of Colonel Martin Bladen (1680-1746), a politician of some note, and was connected with the family of Fairfax. Edward Hawke entered the navy on the 2oth of February 1720 and served the time required to qualify him to hold a lieutenant's commission on the North American and West Indian stations. Though he passed his examination on the 2nd of June 1725, he was not appointed to a ship to act in that rank till 1729, when he was named third lieutenant of the " Portland " in the Channel. The continuance of peace allowed him no opportunities of distinction, but he was fortunate in obtaining promotion as commander of the " Wolf " sloop in 1733, and as post captain of the " Flamborough " (20) in 1734. When war began with Spain in 1739, he served as captain of the " Portland " (50) in the West Indies. His ship was old and rotten. She nearly drowned her captain and crew, and was broken up after she was paid off in 1742. In the following year Hawke was appointed to the " Berwick " (70), a fine new vessel, and was attached to the Mediterranean fleet then under the command of Thomas Mathews. The " Berwick " was manned badly, and suffered severely from sickness, but in the ill-managed battle of Toulon on the nth of January 1744 Hawke gained great dis- tinction by the spirit with which he fought his ship. The only prize taken by the British fleet, the Spanish " Poder " (74), surrendered to him, and though she was not kept by the admiral, Hawke was not in any degree to blame for the loss of the only trophy of the fight. His gallantry attracted the attention of the king. There is a story that he was dismissed the service for having left the line to engage the " Poder," and was restored by the king's order. The legend grew not unnaturally out of the confusing series of courts martial which arose out of the battle, but it has no foundation. There is better reason to believe that when at a later period the Admiralty intended to pass over Hawke's name in a promotion of admirals, the king, George II., did insist that he should not be put on the retired list. He had no further chance of making his energy and ability known out of the ranks of his own profession, where they were fully realized, till 1747. In July of that year he attained flag rank, and was named second in command of the Channel fleet. Owing to the ill health of his superior he was sent in command of the fourteen ships detached to intercept a French convoy on its way to the West Indies. On the i4th of October 1747 he fell in with it in the Bay of Biscay. The French force, under M. Desher- biers de 1'Etenduere, consisted of nine ships, which were, how- ever, on the average larger than Hawke's. He attacked at once. The French admiral sent one of his liners to escort the merchant ships on their way to the West Indies, and with the other eight fought a very gallant action with the British squadron. Six of the eight French ships were taken. The French admiral did for a time succeed in saving the trading vessels under his charge, but most of them fell into the hands of the British cruisers in the West Indies. Hawke was made a knight of the Bath for this timely piece of service, a reward which cannot be said to have been lavish. In 1747 Hawke had been elected M.P. for Portsmouth, which he continued to represent for thirty years, though he can seldom have been in his place, and it does not appear that he often spoke. A seat in parliament was always valuable to a naval officer at that time, since it enabled him to be useful to ministers, and increased his chances of obtaining employment. Hawke had married a lady of fortune in Yorkshire, Catherine Brook, in 1737, and was able to meet the expenses entailed by a seat in parlia- ment, which were considerable at a time when votes were openly «paid for by money down. In the interval between the war of 96 HAWKE, BARON the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War, Hawke was almost always on active service. From 1748 till 1752 he was in command at home, and he rehoisted his flag in 1755 as admiral in command of the Western Squadron. Although war was not declared for some time, England and France were on very hostile terms, and conflicts between the officers of the two powers in America had already taken place. Neither government was scrupulous in abstaining from the use of force while peace was still nominally unbroken. Hawke was sent to sea to intercept a French squadron which had been cruising near Gibraltar, but a restriction was put on the limits within which he might cruise, and he failed to meet the French. The fleet was much weakened by ill-health. In June 1756 the news of John Byng's retreat from Minorca reached England and aroused the utmost indigna- tion. Hawke was at once sent out to relieve him in the Mediter- ranean command, and to send him home for trial. He sailed in the "Antelope," carrying, as the wits of the day put it, "a cargo of courage " to supply deficiencies in that respect among the officers then in the Mediterranean. Minorca had fallen, from want of resources rather than the attacks of the French, before he could do anything for the assistance of the garrison of Fort St Philip. In winter he was recalled to England, and he reached home on the I4th of January 1757. On the 24th of February following he was promoted full admiral. It is said, but on no very good authority, that he was not on good terms with Pitt (afterwards earl of Chatham) , and it is certain that when Pitt's great ministry was formed in June 1757, he was not included in the Board of Admiralty. Yet as he was continued in command of important forces in the Channel, it is obvious that his great capacity was fully recognized. In the late summer of 1757 he was entrusted with the naval side of an expedition to the coast of France. These operations, which were scoffingly described at the time as breaking windows with guineas, were a favourite device of Pitt's for weakening the French and raising the confidence of the country. The expedition of 1757 was directed against Rochefort, and it effected nothing. Hawke, who probably expected very little good from it, did his own work as admiral punctually, but he cannot be said to have shown zeal, or any wish to inspirit the military officers into making greater efforts than they were disposed naturally to make. The expedition returned to Spit- head by the 6th of October. No part of the disappointment of the public, which was acute, was visited on Hawke. During the end of 1757 and the beginning of 1758 he continued cruising in the Channel in search of the French naval forces, without any striking success. In May of that year he was ordered to detach a squadron under the command of Howe to carry out further combined operations. Hawke considered himself as treated with a want of due respect, and was at the time in bad humour with the Admiralty. He somewhat pettishly threw up his command, but was induced to resume it by the board, which knew his value, and was not wanting in flattery. He re- tired in June for a time on the ground of health, but happily for his own glory and the service of the country he was able to hoist his flag in May 1759, the " wonderful year " of Garrick's song. France was then elaborating a scheme of invasion which bears much resemblance to the plan afterwards formed by Napoleon. An army of invasion was collected at the Morbihan in Brittany, and the intention was to transport it under the protection of a powerful fleet which was to be made up by uniting the squadron at Brest with the ships at Toulon. The plan, like Napoleon's, had slight chance of success, since the naval part of the invading force must necessarily be brought together from distant points at the risk of interruption by the British squadrons. The naval forces of England were amply sufficient to provide what- ever was needed to upset the plans of the French government. But the country was not so confident in the capacity of the navy to serve as a defence as it was taught to be in later genera- tions. It had been seized by a most shameful panic at the beginning of the war in face of a mere threat of invasion. There- fore the anxiety of Pitt to baffle the schemes of the French decisively was great, and the country looked on at the develop- ment of the naval campaign with nervous attention. The proposed combination of the French fleet was defeated by the annihilation of the Toulon squadron on the coast of Portugal by Boscawen in May, but the Brest fleet was still untouched and the troops were still at Morbihan. It was the duty of Hawke to prevent attack from this quarter. The manner in which he discharged his task marks an epoch in the history of the navy. Until his time, or very nearly so, it was still believed that there was rashness in keeping the great ships out after September. Hawke maintained his blockade of Brest till far into November. Long cruises had always entailed much bad health on the crews, but by the care he took to obtain fresh food, and the energy he showed in pressing the Admiralty for stores, he was able to keep his men healthy. Early in November a series of severe gales forced him off the French coast, and he was compelled to anchor in Torbay. His absence was brief, but it allowed the French admiral, M. de Conflans (i69o?-i777), time to put to sea, and to steer for the Morbihan. Hawke, who had left Torbay on the ijth of November, learnt of the departure of the French at sea on the i7th from a look-out ship, and as the French admiral could have done nothing but steer for the Morbihan, he followed him thither. The news that M. de Conflans had got to sea spread a panic through the country, and for some days Hawke was the object of abuse of the most irrational kind. There was in fact no danger, for behind Hawke's fleet there were ample reserves in the straits of Dover, and in the North Sea. Following his enemy as fast as the bad weather, a mixture of calms and head winds would allow, the admiral sighted the French about 40 m. to the west of Belleisle on the morning of the 2oth of November. The British fleet was of twenty-one sail, the French of twenty. There was also a small squadron of British ships engaged in watching the Morbihan as an inshore squadron, which was in danger of being cut off. M. de Conflans had a sufficient force to fight in the open sea without rashness, but after making a motion to give battle, he changed his mind and gave the signal to his fleet to steer for the anchorage at Quiberon. He did not believe that the British admiral would dare to follow him, for the coast is one of the most dangerous in the world, and the wind was blowing hard from the west and rising to a storm. Hawke, however, pursued without hesitation, though it was well on in the afternoon before he caught up the rear of the French fleet, and dark by the time the two fleets were in the bay. The action, which was more a test of seamanship than of gunnery, or capacity to manoeuvre in order, ended in the destruc- tion of the French. Five ships only were taken or destroyed, but others ran ashore, and the French navy as a whole lost all confidence. Two British vessels were lost, but the price was little to pay for such a victory. No more fighting remained to be done. The fleet in Quiberon Bay suffered from want of food, and its distress is recorded in the lines: — " Ere Hawke did bang Mounseer Conflang You sent us beef and beer; Now Mounseer's beat We've nought to eat, Since you have nought to fear." Hawke returned to England in January 1760 and had no further service at sea. He was not made a peer till the 2oth of May 1776, and then only as Baron Hawke of Towton. From 1776 to 1771 he was first lord of the Admiralty. His administra- tion was much criticized, perhaps more from party spirit than because of its real defects. Whatever his relations with Lord Chatham may have been he was no favourite with Chatham's partizans. It is very credible that, having spent all his life at sea, his faculty did not show in the uncongenial life of the shore. As an admiral at sea and on his own element Hawke has had no superior. It is true that he was not put to the test of having to meet opponents of equal strength and efficiency, but then neither has any other British admiral since the Dutch wars of the 1 7th century. On his death on the I7th of October 1781 his title passed to his son, Martin Bladen (1744-1805), and it is HAWKER— HAWKESWORTH 97 still held by his descendants, the 7th Baron (b. 1860) being best known as a great Yorkshire cricketer. There is a portrait of Hawke in the Painted Hall at Greenwich. His Life by Montagu Burrows (1883) has superseded all other authorities; it is supplemented in a few early particulars by Sir J. K. Laughton's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. (1891). HAWKER, ROBERT STEPHEN (1803-1874), English anti- quary and poet, was born at Stoke Damerel, Devonshire, on the 3rd of December 1803. His father, Jacob Stephen Hawker, was at that time a doctor, but afterwards curate and vicar of Stratton, Cornwall. Robert was sent to Liskeard grammar school, and when he was about sixteen was apprenticed to a solicitor. He was soon removed to Cheltenham grammar school, and in April 1823 matriculated at Pembroke College, Oxford. In the same year he married Charlotte I'Ans, a lady much older than himself. On returning to Oxford he migrated to Magdalen Hall, where he graduated in 1828, having already won the Newdigate prize for poetry in 1827. He became vicar of Morwenstow, a village on the north Cornish coast, in 1834. Hawker described the bulk of his parishioners as a " mixed multitude of smugglers, wreckers and dissenters of various hues." He was himself a high churchman, and carried things with a high hand in his parish, but was much beloved by his people. He was a man of great originality, and numerous stories were told of his striking sayings and eccentric conduct. He was the original of Mortimer Collins's Canon Tremaine in Sweet and Twenty. His first wife died in 1863, and in 1864 he married Pauline Kuczynski, daughter of a Polish exile. He died in Plymouth on the ijth of August 1875. Before his death he was formally received into the Roman Catholic Church, a proceeding which aroused a bitter newspaper controversy. The best of his poems is The Quest of the Sangraal: Chant the First (Exeter, 1864). Among his Cornish Ballads (1869) the most famous is on " Trelawny," the refrain of which, " And shall Trelawny die," &c., he declared to be an old Cornish saying. See The Vicar of Morwenstow (1875; later and corrected editions, 1876 and 1886), by the Rev. S. Baring-Gould, which was severely criticized by Hawker's friend, W. Maskell, in the Athenaeum (March 26, 1876); Memorials of the late Robert Stephen Hawker (1876), by the late Dr F. G. Lee. These were superseded in 1905 by The Life and Letters of R. S. Hawker, by his son-in-law, C. E. Byles, which contains a bibliography of his works, now very valuable to collectors. See also Boase and Courtney, Bibliotheca Cornubiensis. His Poetical Works (1879) and his Prose Works (1893) were edited by J. G. Godwin. Another edition of his Poetical Works (1899) has a preface and bibliography by Alfred Wallis, and a complete edition of his poems by C. E. Byles, with the title Cornish Ballads and other Poems, appeared in 1904. HAWKERS and PEDLARS, the designation of itinerant dealers who convey their goods from place to place to sell. The word " hawker " seems to have come into English from the Ger. Hoker or Dutch heukcr in the early i6th century. In an act of 1533 (25 Henry VIII. c. 9, § 6) ve find " Sundry evill disposed persons which commonly beene called haukers . . . buying and selling of Brasse and Pewter." The earlier word for :uch an itinerant dealer is " huckster," which is found in 1200, " For that they have turned God's house intill hucksteress bothe " (Ormulum, 15,817). The base of the two words is the same, and is probably to be referred to German hocken, to squat, crouch; cf. " hucklebone," the hip-bone; and the hawkers or hucksters were so called either because they stooped under their packs, or squatted at booths in markets, &c. Another derivation finds the origin in the Dutch hock, a hole, corner. It may be noticed that the termination of " huckster " is feminine; though there are examples of its application to women it was always applied indiscriminately to either sex. " Pedlar " occurs much earlier than the verbal form " to peddle," which is therefore a derivative from the substantive. The origin is to be found in the still older word "pedder," one who carries about goods for sale in a " ped," a basket or hamper. This is now only used dialectically and in Scotland. In the Ancren Riwle (c. 1225), peoddare is found with the meaning of " pedlar," though the Promptorium parvulorum (c. 1440) defines it as calathasius, i.e. a maker of panniers or baskets, xin. 4 The French term for a hawker or pedlar of books, colporteur (col, neck, porter, to carry), has been adopted by the Bible Society and other English religious bodies as a name for itinerant vendors and distributors of Bibles and other religious literature. The occupation of hawkers and pedlars has been regulated in the United Kingdom, and the two classes have also been technically distinguished. The Pedlars Act 1871 defines a pedlar as " any hawker, pedlar, petty chapman, tinker, caster of metals, mender of chairs, or other person who, without any horse or other beast bearing or drawing burden, travels and trades on foot and goes from town to town or to other men's houses, carrying to sell or exposing for sale any goods, wares or merchandise ... or selling or offering for sale his skill in handicraft." Any person who acts as a pedlar must have a certificate, which is to be obtained from the chief officer of police of the police district in which the person applying for the certificate has resided during one month previous to his application. Hs must satisfy the officer that he is above seventeen years of age, is of good character, and in good faith intends to carry on the trade of a pedlar. The fee for a pedlar's certificate is five shillings, and the certificate remains in force for a year from the date of issue. The act requires a register of certificates to be kept in each district, and imposes a penalty for the assigning, borrowing or forging of any certificate. It does not exempt any one from vagrant law, and requires the pedlar to show his certificate on demand to certain persons. It empowers the police to inspect a pedlar's pack, and provides for the arrest of an uncertificated pedlar or one refusing to show his certificate. A pedlar's certificate is not required by commercial travellers, sellers of vegetables, fish, fruit or victuals, or sellers in fairs. The Hawkers Act 1888 defines a hawker as " any one who travels with a horse or other beast of burden, selling goods," &c. An excise licence (expiring on the 3ist of March in each year) must be taken out by every hawker in the United Kingdom. The duty imposed upon such licence is £2. A hawker's licence is not granted, otherwise than by way of licence, except on production of a certificate signed by a clergyman and two householders of the parish or place wherein the applicant resides, or by a justice of the county or place, or a superintendent or inspector of police for the district, attesting that the person is of good character and a proper person to be licenced as a hawker. There are certain exemptions from taking out a licence — commercial travellers, sellers of fish, coal, &c., sellers in fairs, and the real worker or maker of any goods. The act also lays down certain provisions to be observed by hawkers and others, and imposes penalties for infringe- ments. In the United States hawkers and pedlars must take out licences under State laws and Federal laws. HAWKESWORTH, JOHN (c. 1715-1773), English miscellaneous writer, was born in London about 1715. He is said to have been clerk to an attorney, and was certainly self-educated. In 1744 he succeeded Samuel Johnson as compiler of the parliamentary debates for the Gentleman's Magazine, and from 1746 to 1749 he contributed poems signed Greville, or H. Greville, to that journal. In company with Johnson and others he started a periodical called The Adventurer, which ran to 140 numbers, of which 70 were from the pen of Hawkesworth himself. On account of what was regarded as its powerful defence of morality and religion, Hawkesworth was rewarded by the archbishop of Canterbury with the degree of LL.D. In 1754-1755 he pub- lished an edition (12 vols.) of Swift's works, with a life prefixed which Johnson praised in his Lives of the Poets. A larger edition (27 vols.) appeared in 1766-1779. He adapted Dryden's Amphitryon for the Drury Lane stage in 1756, and Southerne's Oronooko in 1759. He wrote the "libretto of an oratorio Zimri in 1760, and the next year Edgar and Emmeline: a Fairy Tale, was produced at Drury Lane. His Almoran and Hamet (2 vols., 1761) was first of all drafted as a play, and a tragedy founded on it by S. J. Pratt, The Fair Circassian (1781), met with some success. He was commissioned by the admiralty to edit Captain Cook's papers relative to his first voyage. For this work, An Account of the Voyages undertaken . . . for making discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere and performed by Commodore Byrone, Captain Wallis, Captain Carlerel and Captain Cook (from 1764 to 1771) drawn up from the Journals ... (3 vols., 1773), Hawkesworth is said to have received from the pubb'shers the sum of £6000. His descriptions of the manners and customs of the South Seas were, however, regarded by many critics as inexact and hurtful to the interests of morality, and the severity of their strictures is said to have hastened his death, which took place on the i6th of November 1773. He was buried 98 HAWKHURST— HAWKINS, SIR J. at Bromley, Kent, where he and his wife had kept a school. Hawkesworth was a close imitator of Johnson both in style and thought, and was at one time on very friendly terms with him. It is said that he presumed on his success, and lost Johnson's friendship as early as 1756. HAWKHURST, a town in the southern parliamentary divi- sion of Kent, England, 47 m. S.E. of London, on a branch of the South -Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901), 3136. It lies mainly on a ridge above the valley of the Kent Ditch, a tributary of the Rother. The neighbouring country is hilly, rich and well wooded, and the pleasant and healthy situation has led to the considerable extension of the old village as a residential locality. The Kent Sanatorium and one of the Barnardo homes are established here. The church of St Lawrence, founded from Battle Abbey in Sussex, is Decorated and Per- pendicular and its east window, of the earlier period, is specially beautiful. HAWKINS, CAESAR HENRY (1798-1884), British surgeon, son of the Rev. E. Hawkins and grandson of the Sir Caesar Hawkins (1711-1786), who was Serjeant-surgeon to Kings George II. and George III., was born at Bisley, Gloucestershire, on the igthof September 1798, was educated at Christ's Hospital, and entered St George's Hospital, London, in 1818. He was surgeon to the hospital from 1829 to 1861, and in 1862 was made Serjeant-surgeon to Queen Victoria. He was president of the College of Surgeons in 1852, and again in 1861; and he delivered the Hunterian oration in 1849. His success in complex surgical cases gave him a great reputation. For long he was noted as the only surgeon who had succeeded in the operation of ovariotomy in a London hospital. This occurred in 1846, when anaesthetics were unknown. He did much to popularize colotomy. A successful operator, he nevertheless was attached to conservative surgery, and was always more anxious to teach his pupils how to save a limb than how to remove it. He re- printed his contributions to the medical journals in two volumes, 1874, the more valuable papers being on Tumours, Excision of the Ovarium, Hydrophobia and Snake-bites, Stricture of the Colon, and The Relative Claims of Sir Charles Bell and Magendie to the Discovery of the Functions of the Spinal Nerves. He died on the 20th of July 1884. His brother, Edward Hawkins (1789-1882), was the well-known provost of Oriel, Oxford, who played so great a part in the Tractarian movement. HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR JOHN (1532-1595), British admiral, was born at Plymouth in 1532, and belonged to a family of Devonshire shipowners and skippers — occupations then more closely connected than is now usual. His father, William Hawkins (d. 1553), was a prosperous freeman of Ply- mouth, who thrice represented that town in parliament, and is described by Hakluyt as one of the principal sea-captains in the west parts of England; his elder brother, also called William (d. 1589), was closely associated with him in his Spanish expedi- tions, and took an active part in fitting out ships to meet the Armada; and his nephew, the eldest son of the last named and of the same name, sailed with Sir Francis Drake to the South Sea in 1577, and served as lieutenant under Edward Fenton (17.?.) in the expedition which started for the East Indies and China in 1582. His son, Sir Richard Hawkins, is separately noticed. Sir John Hawkins was bred to the sea in the ships of his family. When the great epoch of Elizabethan maritime adventure began, he took an active part by sailing to the Guinea coast, where he robbed the Portuguese slavers, and then smuggled the negroes he had captured into the Spanish possessions in the New World. After a first successful voyage in 1562-1563, two vessels which he had rashly sent to Seville were confiscated by the Spanish government. With the help of friends, and the open approval of the queen, who hired one of her vessels to him, he sailed again in 1564, and repeated his voyage with success, trading with the Creoles by force when the officials of the king endeavoured to prevent him. These two voyages brought him reputation, and he was granted a coat of arms with a demi-Moor, or negro, chained, as his crest. The rivalry with Spain was now becoming very acute, and when Hawkins sailed for the third time in 1567, he went in fact, though not technically, on a national venture. Again he kidnapped negroes, and forced his goods on the Spanish colonies. Encouraged by his discovery that these settlements were small and unfortified, he on this occasion ventured to enter Vera Cruz, the port of Mexico, after capturing some Spaniards at sea to be held as hostages. He alleged that he had been driven in by bad weather. The falsity of the story was glaring, but the Spanish officers on the spot were too weak to offer resistance. Hawkins was allowed to enter the harbour, and to refit at the small rocky island of San Juan de Ulloa by which it is formed. Unfortunately for him, and for a French corsair whom he had in his company, a strong Spanish force arrived, bringing the new viceroy. The Spaniards, who were no more scrupulous of the truth than himself, pretended to accept the arrangement made before their arrival, and then when they thought he was off his guard attacked him on the 24th of September. Only two vessels escaped, his own, the " Minion," and the " Judith," a small vessel belonging to his cousin Francis Drake. The voyage home was miserable, and the sufferings of all were great. For some years Hawkins did not return to the sea, though he continued to be interested in privateering voyages as a capitalist. In the course of 1572 he recovered part of his loss by pretending to betray the queen for a bribe to Spain. He acted with the knowledge of Lord Burleigh. In 1573 he became treasurer of the navy in succession to his father-in-law Benjamin Gonson. The office of comptroller was conferred on him soon after, and for the rest of his life he remained the principal administrative officer of the navy. Burleigh noted that he was suspected of fraud in his office, but the queen's ships were kept by him in good condition. In 1588 he served as rear-admiral against the Spanish Armada and was knighted. In 1590 he was sent to the coast of Portugal to intercept the Spanish treasure fleet, but did not meet it. In giving an account of his failure to the queen he quoted the text " Paul doth plant, Apollo doth water, but God giveth the increase," which exhibition of piety is said to have provoked the queen into exclaiming, " God's death ! This fool went out a soldier, and has come home a divine." In 1595 he accompanied Drake on another treasure-hunting voyage to the West Indies, which was even less successful, and he died at sea off Porto Rico on the I2th of November 1595. Hawkins was twice married, first to Katharine Gonson and then to Margaret Vaughan. He was counted a puritan when puritanism meant little beyond hatred of Spain and popery, and when these principles were an ever-ready excuse for voyages in search of slaves and plunder. In the course of one of his voyages, when he was becalmed and his negroes were dying, he consoled himself by the reflection that God would not suffer His elect to perish. Contemporary evidence can be produced to show that he was greedy, unscrupulous and rude. But if he had been a more delicate man he would not have risked the gallows by making piratical attacks on the Portuguese and by appearing in the West Indies as an armed smuggler; and in that case he would not have played an important part in history by setting the example of breaking down the pretension of the Spaniards to exclude all comers from the New World. His morality was that of the average stirring man of his time, whether in England or elsewhere. See R. A. J. Walling, A Sea-dog of Devon (1907) ; and Southey in his British Admirals, vol. iii. The original accounts of. his voyages compiled by Hakluyt have been reprinted by the Hakluyt Society, with a preface by Sir C. R. Markham. HAWKINS, SIR JOHN (1719-1789), English writer on music, was born on the 3oth of March 1719, in London, the son of an architect who destined him for his own profession. Ultimately, however, Hawkins took to the law, devoting his leisure hours to his favourite study of music. A wealthy marriage in 1753 enabled him to indulge his passion for acquiring rare works of music, and he bought, for example, the collection formed by Dr Pepusch, and subsequently presented by Hawkins to the British Museum. It was on such materials that Hawkins HAWKINS, SIR R.— HAWKSHAW 99 founded his celebrated work on the General History of the Science and Practice of Music, in 5 vols. (republished in 2 vols., 1876). It was brought out in 1776, the same year which witnessed the appearance of the first volume of Burney's work on the same subject. The relative merits of the two works were eagerly discussed by contemporary critics. Burney no doubt is in- finitely superior as a literary man, and his work accordingly comes much nearer the idea of a systematic treatise on the subject than Hawkins's, which is essentially a collection of rare and valuable pieces of music with a more or less continuous commentary. But by rescuing these from oblivion Hawkins has given a permanent value to his work. Of Hawkins's literary efforts apart from music it will be sufficient to mention his occasional contributions to the Gentleman's Magazine, his edition (1760) of the Complete Angler (1787) and his biography of Dr Johnson, with whom he was intimately acquainted. He was one of the original members of the Ivy Lane Club, and ultimately became one of Dr Johnson's executors. If there were any doubt as to his intimacy with Johnson, it would be settled by the slighting way in which Boswell refers to him. Speaking of the Ivy Lane Club, he mentions amongst the members " Mr John Hawkins, an attorney," and adds the following footnote, which at the same time may serve as a summary of the remaining facts of Hawkins's life: " He was for several years chairman of the Middlesex justices, and upon presenting an address to the king accepted the usual offer of knighthood (1772). He is the author of a History of Music in five volumes in quarto. By assiduous attendance upon Johnson in his last illness he obtained the office of one of his executors — in consequence of which the booksellers of London employed him to publish an edition of Dr Johnson's works and to write his life." Sir John Hawkins died on the 2ist of May 1789, and was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR RICHARD (c. 1562-1622), British seaman, was the only son of Admiral Sir John Hawkins (q.v.) by his first marriage. He was from his earliest days familiar with ships and the sea, and in 1582 he accompanied his uncle, William Hawkins, to the West Indies. In 1585 he was captain of a galliot in Drake's expedition to the Spanish main, in 1588 he commanded a queen's ship against the Armada, and in 1590 served with his father's expedition to the coast of Portugal. In 1593 he purchased the " Dainty," a ship originally built for his father and used by him in his expeditions, and sailed for the West Indies, the Spanish main and the South Seas. It seems clear that his project was to prey on the oversea possessions of the king of Spain. Hawkins, however, in an account of the voyage written thirty years afterwards, maintained, and by that time perhaps had really persuaded himself, that his expedition was undertaken purely for the purpose of geographical discovery. After visiting the coast of Brazil, the " Dainty " passed through the Straits of Magellan, and in due course reached Valparaiso. Having plundered the town, Hawkins pushed north, and in June 1594, a year after leaving Plymouth, arrived in the bay of San Mateo. Here the " Dainty " was attacked by two Spanish ships. Hawkins was hopelessly outmatched, but defended himself with great courage. At last, when he himself had been severely wounded, many of his men killed, and the " Dainty " was nearly sinking, he surrendered on the promise of a safe-conduct out of the country for himself and his crew. Through no fault of the Spanish commander this promise was not kept. In 1597 Hawkins was sent to Spain, and imprisoned first at Seville and subse- quently at Madrid. He was released in 1602, and, returning to England, was knighted in 1603. In 1604 he became member of parliament for Plymouth and vice-admiral of Devon, a post which, as the coast was swarming with pirates, was no sinecure. In 1620-1621 he was vice-admiral, under Sir Robert Mansell, of the fleet sent into the Mediterranean to reduce the Algerian corsairs. He died in London on the I7th of April 1622. See his Observations in his Voiage into the South Sea (1622), re- published by the Hakluyt Society. HAWKS, FRANCIS LISTER (1798-1866), American clergyman, was born at Newbern, North Carolina, on the loth of June 1798, and graduated at the university of his native state in 1815. After practising law with some distinction he entered the Episcopalian ministry in 1827 and proved a brilliant and im- pressive preacher, holding livings in New Haven, Philadelphia, New York and New Orleans, and declining several bishoprics. On his appointment as historiographer of his church in 1835, he went to England, and collected the abundant materials afterwards utilized in his Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of U.S.A. (New York, 1836-1839). These two volumes dealt with Maryland and Virginia, while two later ones (1863- 1864) were devoted to Connecticut. He was the first president of the university of Louisiana (now merged in Tulane). He died in New York on the 26th of September 1866. HAWKSHAW, SIR JOHN (1811-1891), English engineer, was born in Yorkshire in 1811, and was educated at Leeds grammar school. Before he was twenty-one he had been engaged for six or seven years in railway engineering and the construction of roads in his native county, and in the year of his majority he obtained an appointment as engineer to the Bolivar Mining Association in Venezuela. But the climate there was more than his health could stand, and in 1834 he was obliged to return to England. He soon obtained employment under Jesse Hartley at the Liverpool docks, and subsequently was made engineer in charge of the railway and navigation works of the Manchester, Bury and Bolton Canal Company. In 1845 he became chief engineer to the Manchester & Leeds railway, and in 1847 to its successor, the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway, for which he constructed a large number of branch lines. In 1850 he removed to London and began to practise as a consulting engineer, at first alone, but subsequently in partnership with Harrison Hayter. 'In that capacity his work was of an extremely varied nature, embracing almost every branch of engineering. He retained his connexion with the Lancashire & Yorkshire Company until his retirement from professional work in 1888, and was consulted on all the important engineering points that affected it in that long period. In London he was responsible for the Charing Cross and Cannon Street railways, together with the two bridges which carried them over the Thames; he was engineer of the East London railway, which passes under the Thames through Sir M. I. Brunei's well-known tunnel; and jointly with Sir J. Wolfe Barry he constructed the section of the Underground railway which completed the " inner circle " between the Aldgate and Mansion House stations. In addition, many railway works claimed his attention in all parts of the world — Germany, Russia, India, Mauritius, &c. One noteworthy point in his railway practice was his advocacy, in opposition to Robert Stephenson, of steeper gradients than had previously been thought desirable or possible, and so far back as 1838 he expressed decided disapproval of the maintenance of the broad gauge on the Great Western, because of the troubles he foresaw it would lead to in connexion with future railway extension, and because he objected in general to breaks of gauge in the lines of a country. The construction of canals was another branch of engineering in which he was actively engaged. In 1862 he became engineer of the Amsterdam ship-canal, and in the succeeding year he may fairly be said to have been the saviour of the Suez Canal. About that time the scheme was in very bad odour, and the khedive determined to get the opinion of an English engineer as to its practicability, having made up his mind to stop the works if that opinion was unfavourable. Hawkshaw was chosen to make the inquiry, and it was because his report was entirely favourable that M. de Lesseps was able to say at the opening ceremony that to him he owed the canal. As a member of the International Congress which considered the construction of an interoceanic canal across central America, he thought best of the Nicaraguan route, and privately he regarded the Panama scheme as im- practicable at a reasonable cost, although publicly he expressed no opinion on the matter and left the Congress without voting. Sir John Hawkshaw also had a wide experience in constructing harbours (e.g. Holyhead) and docks (e.g. Penarth, the Albert Dock at Hull, and the south dock of the East and West India Docks in London), in river-engineering, in drainage and sewerage, IOO HAWKSLEY— HAWLEY, H. in water-supply, &c. He was engineer, with Sir James Brunlees, of the original Channel Tunnel Company from 1872, but many years previously he had investigated for himsself the question of a tunnel under the Strait of Dover from an engineering point of view, and had come to a belief in its feasibility, so far as that could be determined from borings and surveys. Subsequently, however, he became convinced that the tunnel would not be to the advantage of Great Britain, and thereafter would have nothing to do with the project. He was also engineer of the Severn Tunnel, which, from its magnitude and the difficulties encountered in its construction, must rank as one of the most notable engineering undertakings of the igth century. He died in Londojt on the 2nd of June 1891. HAWKSLEY, THOMAS (1807-1893), English engineer, was born on the i2th of July 1807, at Arnold, near Nottingham. He was at Nottingham grammar school till the age of fifteen, but was indebted to his private studies for his knowledge of mathe- matics, chemistry and geology. In 1822 he was articled to an architect in Nottingham, subsequently becoming a partner in the firm, which also undertook engineering work; and in 1852 he removed to London, where he continued in active practice till he was well past eighty. His work was chiefly concerned with water and gas supply and with main-drainage. Of water- works he used to say that he had constructed 150, and a long list might be drawn up of important towns that owe their water to his skill, including Liverpool, Sheffield, Leicester, Leeds, Derby, Darlington, Oxford, Cambridge and Northampton in England, and Stockholm, Altona and Bridgetown (Barbados) in other countries. To his native town of Nottingham he was water engineer for fifty years, and the system he designed for it was noteworthy from the fact that the principle of constant supply was adopted for the first time. The gas-works at Notting- ham, and at many other towns for which he provided water supplies were also constructed by him. He designed main- drainage systems for Birmingham, Worcester and Windsor among other places, and in 1857 he was called in, together with G. P. Bidder and Sir J. Bazalgette, to report on the best solution of the vexed question of a main-drainage scheme for London. In 1872 he was president of the Institution of Civil Engineers — an office in which his son Charles followed him in 1901. He died in London on the 2$rd of September 1893. HAWKSMOOR, NICHOLAS (1661-1736), English architect, of Nottinghamshire birth, became a pupil of Sir Christopher Wren at the age of eighteen, and his name is intimately associated with those of Wren and Sir J. Vanbrugh in the English archi- tecture of his time. Through Wren's influence he obtained various official posts, as deputy-surveyor at Chelsea hospital, clerk of the works and deputy-surveyor at Greenwich hospital, clerk of the works at Whitehall, St James's and Westminster, and he succeeded Wren as surveyor-general of Westminster Abbey. He took part in much of the work done by Wren and Vanbrugh, and it is difficult often to assign among them the credit for the designs of various features. Hawksmoor appears, however, to have been responsible for the early Gothic designs of the two towers of All Souls' (Oxford) north quadrangle, and the library and other features at Queen's College (Oxford). At the close of Queen Anne's reign he had a principal part in the scheme for building fifty new churches in London, and himself designed five or six of them, including St Mary Woolnoth (1716-1719) and St George's, Bloomsbury (1720-1730). A number of his drawings have been preserved. He died in London on the 2 5th of March 1736. HAWKWOOD, SIR JOHN (d. 1394), an English adventurer who attained great wealth and renown as a condottiere in the Italian wars of the I4th century. His name is variously spelt as Haccoude, Aucud, Aguto, &c., by contemporaries. It is said that he was the son of a tanner of Hedingham Sibil in Essex, and was apprenticed in London, whence he went, in the English army, to France under Edward III. and the Black Prince. It is said also that he obtained the favour of the Black Prince, and received knighthood from King Edward III., but though it is certain that he was of knightly rank, there is no evidence as to the time or place at which he won it. On the peace of Bretigny in 1360, he collected a band of men-at-arms, and moved south- ward to Italy, where we find the White Company, as his men were called, assisting the marquis of Monferrato against Milan in 1362-63, and the Pisans against Florence in 1364. After several campaigns in various parts of central Italy, Hawkwood in 1368 entered the service of Bernabo Visconti. In 1369 he fought for Perugia against the pope, and in 1370 for the Visconti against Pisa, Florence and other enemies. In 1372 he defeated the marquis of Monferrato, but soon afterwards, resenting the interference of a council of war with his plans, Hawkwood resigned his command, and the White Company passed into the papal service, in which he fought against the Visconti in 1373- 1375. In 1375 the Florentines entered into an agreement with him, by which they were to pay him and his companion 130,000 gold florins in three months on condition that he undertook no engagement against them; and in the same year the priors of the arts and the gonfalonier decided to give him a pension of 1200 florins per annum for as long as he should remain in Italy. In 1377, under the orders of the cardinal Robert of Geneva, legate of Bologna, he massacred the inhabitants of Cesena, but in May of the same year, disliking the executioner's work put upon him by the legate, he joined the anti-papal league, and married, at Milan, Donnina, an illegitimate daughter of Bernabo Visconti. In 1378 and 1379 Hawkwood was constantly in the field; he quarrelled with Bernabo in 1378, and entered the service of Florence, receiving, as in 1375, 130,000 gold florins. He rendered good service to the republic up to 1382, when for a time he was one of the English ambassadors at the papal court. He engaged in a brief campaign in Naples in 1383, fought for the marquis of Padua against Verona in 1386, and in 1388 made an unsuccessful effort against Gian Galeazzo Visconti, who had murdered Bernabo. In 1390 the Florentines took up the war against Gian Galeazzo in earnest, and appointed Hawkwood commander-in-chief. His campaign against the Milanese army in the Veronese and the Bergamask was reckoned a triumph of generalship, and in 1392 Florence exacted a satisfactory peace from Gian Galeazzo. His latter years were spent in a villa in the neighbourhood of Florence. On his death in 1394 the republic gave him a public funeral of great magnificence, and decreed the erection of a marble monument in the cathedral. This, however, was never executed; but Paolo Uccelli painted his portrait in terre-verte on the inner facade of the building, where it still remains, though damaged by removal from the plaster to canvas. Richard II. of England, probably at the instigation of Hawkwood's sons, who returned to their native country, requested the Florentines to let him remove the good knight's bones, and the Florentine government signified its consent. Of his children by Donnina Visconti, who appears to have been his second wife, the eldest daughter married Count Brezaglia of Porciglia, podesta of Ferrara, who succeeded him as Florentine commander-in-chief, and another a German condottiere named Conrad Prospergh. His son, John, returned to England and settled at Hedingham Sibil, where, it is supposed, Sir John Hawkwood was buried. The children of the first marriage were two sons and three daughters, and of the latter the youngest married John Shelley, an ancestor of the poet. AUTHORITIES. — Muratori,RerumItalicarumscriptores,a.nd 3rd ser. iii. 18, 39. For derivations of the word see Latham's Johnson's Dictionary. flower-pots. Their different forms include the Cosford, which are thin-shelled and oblong; the Downton, or large square nut, having a lancinatcd husk; the white or Wrotham Park filbert; and the red hazel or filbert, the kernel of which has a red pellicle. The last two, on account of their elongated husk, have been distinguished as a species, under the name Corylus tubulosa. Like these, appar- ently, were the nuts of Abella, or Avella, in the Campania (cf. Fr. aveline, filbert), said by Pliny to have been originally designated " Pontic," from their introduction into Asia and Greece from Pontus (see Nat Hist. xv. 2$, xxiii. 78). Hazel-nuts, under the name of Barcelona or Spanish nuts, are largely exported from France and Portugal, and especially Tarragona and other places in Spain. They afford 60% of a colourless or pale-yellow, sweet- tasting, non-drying oil, which has a specific gravity of 0-92 nearly, becomes solid at —19° C. (Cloez), and consists approximately of carbon 77, and hydrogen and oxygen each 11-5%. Hazel nuts formed part of the food of the ancient lake-dwellers of Switzerland and other countries of Europe (see Keller, Lake Dwellings, trans. Lee, 2nd ed., 1878). By the Romans they were sometimes eaten roasted. Kaltenbach (Pflanzenfeinde, pp. 633-638, 1874) enumerates ninety-eight insects which attack the hazel. Among these the beetle Balaninus nucum, the nut-weevil, seen on hazel and oak stems from the end of May till July, is highly destructive to the nuts. The female lays an egg in the unripe nut, on the kernel of which the larva subsists till September, when it bores its way through the shell, and enters the earth, to undergo transformation into a chrysalis in the ensuing spring. The leaves of the hazel are frequently found mined on the upper and under side respectively by the larvae of the moths Lithocolletis coryli and L. Nicelii. Squirrels and dormice are very destructive to the nut crop, as they not only take for present consumption but for a store for future supply. Parasitic on the roots of the hazel is found the curious leafless Lathraea Squamaria or toothwort. The Hebrew word luz, translated " hazel " in the authorized version of the English Bible (Gen. xxx. 37), is believed to signify " almond " (see Kitto, Cycl. of Bill. Lit. ii. 869, and iii. 811, 1864). A belief in the efficacy of divining-rods of hazel for the discovery of concealed objects is probably of remote origin (cf. Hosea iv. 12). G. Agricola, in his treatise Vom Bergwerck (pp. xxix.-xxxi., Basel, '557)> gives an account, accompanied by a woodcut, of their em- ployment in searching for mineral veins. By certain persons, who for different metals used rods of various materials, rods of hazel, he says, were held serviceable simply for silver lodes, and by the skilled miner, who trusted to natural signs of mineral veins, they were regarded as of no avail at all. The virtue of the hazel wand was supposed to be dependent on its having two forks; these were to be grasped in the fists, with the fingers uppermost, but with moderate firmness only, lest the free motion of the opposite end downwards towards the looked-for object should be interfered with. According to Cornish tradition, the divining or dowsing rod is guided to lodes by the pixies, the guardians of the treasures of the earth. By Vallemont, who wrote towards the end of the 1 7th century, the divining-rod of hazel, or " baguette divinatoire," is described as instrumental in the pursuit of criminals. The Jesuit Vaniere, who flourished in the early part of the i8th century, in the Praedium rusticum (pp. 12, 13, new ed., Toulouse, 1742) amus- ingly relates the manner in which he exposed the chicanery of one who pretended by the aid of a hazel divining-rod to point out hidden water-courses and gold. The burning of hazel nuts for the magical investigation of the future is alluded to by John Gay in Thursday, or the Spell, and by Burns in Halloween. The hazel is very frequently mentioned by the old French romance writers. Corylus rostrata and C. americana of North America have edible fruits like those of C. Avellana. The witch hazel is quite a distinct plant, Hamamelis virginica, of the natural order Hamamalideae, the astringent bark of which is used in medicine. It is a hardy deciduous shrub, native of North America, which bears a profusion of rich yellow flowers in autumn and winter when the plant is feafless. HAZLETON, a city of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 25 m. S. of Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1890) 11,872; (1900) 14,230, of whom 2732 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 25,452. It is served by the Lehigh Valley, the Pennsylvania (for freight), and the Wilkes-Barre & Hazleton (electric) railways. The city is built on a broad tableland on Nescopeck or Buck Mountain, a spur of the Blue Mountains, about 1620 ft. above sea-level. It has a park and a number of handsome residences; and its agreeable climate and picturesque situation make it attractive as a summer resort. The city has a public library. Hazleton is near the centre of one of the richest coal regions (the Lehigh or " Eastern Middle Coal Field ") of the state, and its principal industry is the mining and shipping of anthracite coal. It has silk mills, knitting mills, shirt factories, breweries, maca- roni factories, lumber and planing mills, important iron works, a casket factory and a large electric power plant. The value of HAZLITT, WILLIAM 119 the city's factory products increased from $998,823 in 1900 to $2, 185,876 in 1905, or 118-8%, only three other cities in the state having a population of 8000 or more in 1900 showing a greater rate of increase. There is a state hospital here for the treatment of persons injured in mines. Hazleton was settled in 1820, was laid out in 1836, was incorporated as a borough in 1856 and received a city charter in 1891. The local coal industry dates from 1837. HAZLITT, WILLIAM (1778-1830), British literary critic and essayist, was born on the loth of April 1778 at Maidstone, where his father, William Hazlitt, was minister of a Unitarian con- gregation. The father took the side of the Americans in their struggle with the mother-country, and during a residence at Bandon, Co. Cork, interested himself in the welfare of some American prisoners at Kinsale. In 1783 he migrated with his family to America, but in the winter of 1786-1787 returned to England, and settled at Wem in Shropshire, where he ministered to a small congregation. There his son William went to school, till in 1793 he was sent to the Hackney theological college in the hope that he would become a dissenting minister. For this career, however, he had no inclination, and returned, probably in 1794, to Wem, where he led a desultory life until 1802, and then decided to become a portrait painter. His elder brother John was already established as a miniature painter in London. The monotony of life at Wem was broken in January 1798 by the visit of Samuel Taylor Coleridge to Shrewsbury, where young Hazlitt went to hear him preach. Coleridge encouraged William Hazlitt's interest in metaphysics, and in the spring of the next year Hazlitt visited Coleridge at Nether Stowey and made the acquaintance of William Wordsworth. The circumstances of this early intercourse with Coleridge are related with in- imitable skill in a paper in Hazlitt's Literary Remains (1839). On visits to his brother in London he made many acquaint- ances, the most important being a friendship with Charles Lamb, said to have been founded on a remark of Lamb's interpolated in a discussion between Coleridge, Godwin and Holcroft, " Give me man as he is not to be." He also formed an acquaintance with John Stoddart, whose sister Sarah he married in 1808. In October 1802 he went to Paris to copy portraits in the Louvre, and spent four happy months in Paris. When he returned to London he undertook commissions for portraits, but soon found he was not likely to excel in his art; his last portrait, one of Charles Lamb as a Venetian senator '(now in the National Portrait Gallery), was executed in 1805. In that year he published his first book, An Essay on the Principles of Human Action: being an argument in favour of the Natural Disinterestedness of the Human Mind, which had occupied him at intervals for six or seven years. It attracted little attention, but remained a favourite with its author. Other works belonging to this period are: Free Thoughts on Public Affairs (1806); An Abridgment of the Light of Nature Revealed, by Abraham Tucker. . . (1807); The Eloquence of the British Senate ... (2 vols., 1807); A Reply to Malthus, on his Essay on Population (1807); A New and Improved Grammar of the English Tongue . . . (1810). Hazlitt married in 1808. His domestic life was unhappy. His wife was an unromantic, business-like woman, while he him- self was fitful and moody, and impatient of restraint. The dissolution of the ill-assorted union was nevertheless deferred for fourteen years, during which much of Hazlitt's best literary work had been produced. Mrs Hazlitt had inherited a small estate at Winterslow near Salisbury, and here the Hazlitts lived until 1812, when they removed to 19 York Street, Westminster, a house that was once Milton's. Hazlitt delivered in 1812 a course of lectures at the Russell Institution on the Rise and Progress of Modern Philosophy. He soon abandoned philosophy, however, to give his whole attention to journalism. He was parliamentary reporter and subsequently dramatic critic for the Morning Chronicle; he also contributed to the Champion and The Times; but his closest connexion was with the Examiner, owned by John and Leigh Hunt. In conjunction with Leigh Hunt he undertook the series of articles called The Round Table, a collection of essays on literature, men and manners which were originally contributed to the Examiner, To this time belong his View of the English Stage (1818), and Lectures on the English Poets (1818), on the English Comic Writers (1819), and on the Dramatic Literature of the Age of Elizabeth (1821). By these works, together with his Characters of Shakespeare's Plays ( 1 8 1 7) , and his Ta ble Talk; or Original Essays on Men and Man ners (1821-1822), his reputation as a critic and essayist was established. Next to Coleridge, Hazlitt was perhaps the most powerful ex- ponent of the dawning perception that Shakespeare's art was no less marvellous than his genius; and Hazlitt's criticism did not, like Coleridge's, remain in the condition of a series of brilliant but fitful glimpses of insight, but was elaborated with steady care. His lectures on the Elizabethan dramatists performed a similar service for the earlier, sweeter and simpler among them, such as Dekker, till then unduly eclipsed by later writers like Massinger, better playwrights but worse poets. Treating of the contemporary drama, he successfully vindicated for Edmund Kean, whose genius he recognized from the first, the high place which he has retained as an actor, and his enthusiasm for Mrs Siddons knew no bounds. His criticisms on the English comic writers and men of letters in general are masterpieces of inge- nious and felicitous exposition, though rarely, like Coleridge's, penetrating to the inmost core of the subject. Moreover, at the time when the lectures were written, Hazlitt's views, orthodox as they may seem now, were novel enough. As an essayist Hazlitt is even more effective than as a critic. Being enabled to select his own subjects, he escapes dependence upon others either for his matter or his illustrations, and presents himself by turns as a metaphysician, a moralist, a humorist, a painter of manners and characteristics, but always, whatever his ostensible theme, deriving the essence of his commentary from himself. This combination of intense subjectivity with strict adherence to his subject is one of Hazlitt's most distinctive and creditable traits. Intellectual truthfulness is a passion with him. He steeps his topic in the hues of his own individuality, but never uses it as a means of self-display. The first reception of his admirable essays was by no means in accordance with their deserts. Hazlitt's political sympathies and antipathies were vehement, and he had taken the unfashionable side. The Quarterly Review attacked him with deliberate malignity, stopped the sale of his writings for a time and blighted his credit with publishers. Hazlitt retaliated by his Letter to William Gijford (1819), accusing the editor of deliberate misrepresentation. In downright abuse and hard-hitting, Hazlitt proved himself more than a match even for Gifford. By the writers in Black- wood's Magazine Hazlitt was also scurrilously treated.1 He had become estranged from his early friends, the Lake poets, by what he uncharitably but not unnaturally regarded as their political apostasy; and he had no scruples about recording his often very unfavourable opinions of his contemporaries. He displayed, moreover, an exasperating facility in grounding his criticisms on facts that his victims were unabls to deny. His inequalities of temper separated him for a time even from Leigh Hunt and Charles Lamb, and on the whole the period of his most brilliant literary success was that when he was most soured and broken. Domestic troubles supervened; he had gone to live in South- ampton Buildings in September 1819, and his marriage, long little more than nominal, was dissolved in consequence of the infatuated passion he had conceived for his landlord's daughter, Sarah Walker, a most ordinary person in the eyes of every one else. It is impossible to regard Hazlitt as a responsible agent while he continued subject to this influence. His own record of the transaction, published by himself under the title of Liber Amoris, or the New Pygmalion (1823), is an unpleasant but remarkable psychological document. It consists of conversations between Hazlitt and Sarah Walker, drawn up in the spring of 1822, of a correspondence between Hazlitt and his friend P. G. Patmore between March and July, and an account of the rupture of his relations with Sarah. The business-like dissolution of his marriage under the law of Scotland is related with amazing 1 For some quotations see Alexander Ireland's bibliography. 120 HEAD, SIR E. W. nalvet6 by the family biographer. Rid of his wife and cured of his mistress, he shortly afterwards astonished his friends by marrying a widow. " All I know," says his grandson, " is that Mrs Bridgewater became Mrs Hazlitt." They travelled on the continent for a year and then parted finally. Hazlitt's study of the Italian masters during this tour, described in a series of letters contributed to the Morning Chronicle, had a deep effect upon him, and perhaps conduced to that intimacy with the cynical old painter Northcote which, shortly after his return, engendered a curious but eminently readable volume of The Conversations of James Northcote, R.A. (1830). The respective shares of author and artist are not always easy to determine. During the recent agitations of his life he had been writing essays, collected in 1826 under the title of The Plain Speaker: opinions on Books, Men and Things (1826). The Spirit of the Age; or Contemporary Portraits (1825), a series of criticisms on the leading intellectual characters of the day, is in point of style perhaps the most splendid and copious of his compositions. It is eager and ani- mated to impetuosity, though without any trace of careless- ness or disorder. He now undertook a work which was to have crowned his literary reputation, but which can hardly be said to have even enhanced it — The Life of Napoleon Buonaparte (4 vols., 1828-1830). The undertaking was at best premature, and was inevitably disfigured by partiality to Napoleon as the representative of the popular cause, excusable in a Liberal politician writing in the days of the Holy Alliance. Owing to the failure of his publishers Hazlitt received no recompense for this laborious work. Pecuniary anxieties and disappointments may have contributed to hasten his death, which took place on the i8th of September 1830. Charles Lamb was with him to the last. Hazlitt had many serious defects of temper. His consistency was gained at the expense of refusing to revise his early impres- sions and prejudices. His estimate of a man's work was too apt to be decided by sympathy or the reverse with his politics. For Scott, however, he had a great admiration, although they were far enough apart in politics. He was a compound of in- tellect and passion, and the refinement of his critical analysis is associated with vehement eloquence and glowing imagery. He was essentially a critic, a dissector and, as Bulwer justly remarks, a much better judge of men of thought than of men of action. The paradoxes with which his works abound never spring from affectation; they are in general the sallies of a mind so agile and ardent as to overrun its own goal. His style is perfectly natural, and yet admirably calculated for effect. His diction, always rich and masculine, seems to kindle as he pro- ceeds; and when thoroughly animated by his subject, he advances with a succession of energetic, hard-hitting sentences, each carrying his argument a step further, like a champion dealing out blows as he presses upon the enemy. Although, however, his grasp upon his subject is strenuous, his insight into it is rarely profound. He can amply satisfy men of taste and culture ; he cannot, like Coleridge or Burke, dissatisfy them with them- selves by showing them how much they would have missed without him. He is a critic who exhibits, rather than reveals, the beauties of an author. But all shortcomings are forgotten in the genuineness and fervour of the writer's self-portraiture. The intensity of his personal convictions causes all he wrote to appear in a manner autobiographic. Other men have been said to speak like books, Hazlitt's books speak like men. To read his works in connexion with Leigh Hunt's and Charles Lamb's is to be introduced into one of the most attractive of English literary circles, and this alone will long preserve them from oblivion. His son, WILLIAM HAZLITT (1811-1893), was born on the 26th of September 1811. The separation between his parents did not prevent him from being on affectionate terms with both of them. He early began to write for the Morning Chronicle, and in 1833 married Caroline Reynell. He was the author of many translations, chiefly from the French, and of some works on the law of bankruptcy. He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1844, and became registrar in the court of bankruptcy. He held this position for more than thirty years, retiring two years before his death, which took place at Addle- stone, Surrey, on the 23rd of February 1893. Hazlitt's grandson, WILLIAM CARF.W HAZLITT, the biblio- grapher, was born on the 2 2nd of August 1 834. He was educated at the Merchant Taylors' school and was called to the bar of the Inner Temple in 1861. Among his many publications may be noted his invaluable Handbook to the Popular, Poetical and Dramatic Literature of Great Britain, from the Invention of Printing to the Restoration (1867), supplemented in 1876, 1882', 1887 and 1880, a General Index by J. G. Gray appearing in 1893. He published further contributions to the subject in Biblio- graphical Collections and Notes on Early English Literature made during the years 1893-1(103 (1903), and a Manual for the Collector and Amateur of Old English Plays . . . (1892). He was the chief editor of the useful 1871 edition of Warton's History of English Poetry, and compiled the Catalogue of the Huth Library (1880). The list of the first William Hazlitt's works also includes: Political Essays, -with Sketches of Public Characters (1819); Sketches of the Principal Picture Galleries in England . . . (1824); Characteristics; in the Manner of Rochefoucauld's Maxims (1823); Select Poets of Great Britain: to -which are prefixed Critical Notices of each Author (1825); Notes of a Journey through France and Italy . . . (1826); The Life of Titian; with Anecdotes of the Distinguished Persons of his Time (1830), nominally by James Northcote; an article on the Fine Arts " contributed to the seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; and posthumous collections made by his son. A comprehensive edition of The Collected Works of William Hazlitt (12 vols., 1902-1904) does not include the life of Napoleon. It contains an introduction by W. E. Henley, and was issued under the superintendence of A. R. Waller and Arnold Glover, and there are many modern reprints of isolated works. The most copious source of information respecting Hazlitt is the Memoirs of William Hazlitt, with Portions of his Correspondence (2 vols., 1867), by his grandson, W. C. Hazlitt, a medley rather than a memoir, yet full of interest. A slight but appropriate sketch had previously been prefixed by his son to his Literary Remains ... (2 vols., 1836), accompanied by estimates of his intellectual character by Bulwer and by Talfourd, who had been his fast friend. There is an excellent monograph on William Hazlitt (1902) by Mr Augustine Birrell, in the '•' English Men of Letters " series, and one in French by J. Donady (Paris, 1907), who also published a bibliography of his works. Valuable bio- graphical particulars have been preserved in. Barry Cornwall's memoirs of Lamb; in the My Friends and Acquaintances (1854) of Mr P. G. Patmore, Hazlitt's most intimate associate in his later years; in Crabb Robinson's Diary; and in Lamb's correspondence. A full bibliographical list of his writings, with a collection of the most remarkable critical judgments upon them from all quarters, was prepared by Alexander Ireland (1868). Further information on the Hazlitt family is to be found in Mr W. C. Hazlitt's Four Generations of a Literary Family (2 vols., 1897). The chief interest of this desultory book is the considerable extracts from the diary of Margaret [Peggy] Hazlitt, which describes the Hazlitt experiences in America. See also " William Hazlitt " in Sir L. Stephen's Hours in a Library (ed. 1892, vol. ii.), and Lamb and Hazlitt, further Letters and Records hitherto unpublished (1900), by W. C. Hazlitt. HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART. (1805-1868), English colonial governor and writer on art, was the son of the Rev. Sir John Head, Bart., rector of Rayleigh, Essex. He was educated at Winchester school and Orial College, Oxford, and taking his degree with first-class honours in classics, he became fellow of Merton College. On his father's death in 1838, he succeeded to the baronetcy as 8th baronet. His services as poor-law commissioner, to which post he was appointed in 1841 after five years as assistant-commissioner, procured for him in 1847 the office of lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, whence he passed in 1854 to the governor-generalship of Canada, which he retained till 1861. The following year, having returned to England, Head was nominated a civil service commissioner. In 1857 he was sworn of the Privy Council, and in 1860 was decorated as K.C.B., while in the course of his career he received the degrees of D.C.L. at Oxford and LL.D. at Cambridge. He died in London on the 28th of January 1868, the baronetcy becoming extinct, as his only son had died in 1859. Sir Edmund Head wrote the article " Painting " in the Penny Cyclopaedia; A Handbook of the Spanish and French Schools of Painting (1845) ; Shall and Will, or two Chapters on Future Auxiliary Verbs (1856); and Ballads and other Poems, Original and Translated (1868). He also edited F. T. Kugler's Handbook of Painting of the HEAD, SIR F. B.— HEALTH 121 German Flemish, Dutch, Spanish, and French Schools (1854) and the Essavs on the Administrations of Great Britain (1864), written by his lifelong friend, Sir George Cornewall Lewis. His translation from the Icelandic of Viga Glum's Saga appeared in 1866. HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART. (1793-1875), English soldier, traveller and author, son of James Roper Head of the Hermitage, Higham, Kent, was born there on the ist of January 1793. He was educated at Rochester grammar school and the Royal Military Academy, whence in 1811 he was commissioned to the Royal Engineers. He was for some years stationed in the Mediterranean, and he served in the campaign of 1815, being present at the battle of Waterloo. He went on half-pay in 1825, when he accepted the charge of an association formed to work the gold and silver mines of Rio de La Plata. In connexion with this enterprise he made several rapid journeys across the Pampas and among the Andes, his Rough Notes of which, published in 1826, and written in a clear and spirited style, obtained for him the name of " Galloping Head." On his return in 1827, he became involved in a controversy with the directors of his company, and in defence of his conduct he published Reports of the La Plata Mining Association (London, 1827). He was soon afterwards restored to the active list of the army as a major unattached, mainly owing to his efforts to introduce the South American lasso into the British service for auxiliary draught. In 1830 he published a life of Bruce, the African traveller, and in 1834 Bubbles from the Brunnens of Nassau, by an Old Man. In 1835 he was knighted, and in the following year created a baronet. In 1835 he was appointed lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, and in this capacity he had to deal with a political situation of great difficulty, being called upon in 1837 to suppress a serious insurrection. Shortly afterwards, in consequence of a dispute with the home govern- ment, he resigned his post and returned to England, via New York (see Quarterly Review, vols. 63-64). Thereafter he devoted himself to writing, chiefly for the Quarterly Review, and to hunting. He rode to hounds until he was seventy-five. In 1869 Sir Francis Head was made a privy councillor. He died on the 2oth of July 1875, at Duppas Hall, Croydon. Head was the author of a considerable number of works, chiefly of travel, written in a clever, amusing and graphic fashion, and displaying both acute observation and genial humour. His principal works beside those mentioned above, and a narrative of his Canadian administration (1839), were The Emigrant (. 1 846) ; Highways and Dryways, the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges (1849) ; Stokers and Pokers, a sketch of the working of a railway line (1849); 1 he Defenceless Stale of Great Britain (1850); A Faggot of French Sticks (1852); A Fortnight in Ireland (1852); Descriptive Essays (1856).! comments on Kinglake's Crimean War (1853); The Horse and his Rider (1860); The Royal Engineer (1870); and a sketch ot the lite of Sir John Burgoyne (1872). His brother, SIR GEORGE HEAD (1782-1855), was educated at the Charterhouse. In 1808 he received an appointment in the commissariat of the British army in the Peninsula, where he was a witness of many exciting scenes and important battles, of which he gave an interesting account in " Memoirs of an Assistant Commissary-General " attached to the second volume of his Home Tour, published in 1837. In 1814 he was sent to America to take charge of the commissariat in a naval establish- ment on the Canadian lakes, and he subsequently held appoint- ments at Halifax and Nova Scotia. Some of his Canadian experiences were narrated by him in Forest Scenery and Incidents in the Wilds of North America (1829). In 1831 he was knighted. He published in 1835 A Home Tour through the Manufacturing Districts of England, and in 1837 a sequel to it, entitled A Home 1 our through various parts of the United Kingdom. Both works are amusing and instructive, but his Rome, a Tour of many Days, pub- lished in 1849, is somewhat dull and tedious. He also translated Historical Memoirs of Cardinal Pacca (1850), and the Metamorphoses of Apuleius (1851). HEAD (in O. Eng. hlafod; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. Ke<£aXi7), the upper portion of the body in man, consisting of the skull with its integuments and contents, &c., connected with the trunk by the neck (see ANATOMY, SKULL and BRAIN); also the anterior or fore part of other animals. The word is used in a large number of transferred and figurative senses, generally with reference to the position of the head as the uppermost part, hence the leading, chief portion of anything. HEAD-HUNTING, or HEAD-SNAPPING, as the Dutch call it, a custom once prevalent among all Malay races and surviving even to-day among the Dyaks (q.v.) of Borneo and elsewhere. Martin de Rada, provincial of the Augustinians, reported its existence in Luzon (Philippine Islands) as early as 1577. The practice is believed to have had its origin in religious motives, the worship of skulls being universal among the Malays. Severe repressive measures have Jed to its decrease. Among the Igorrotes all that remains is the dance, accompanied by singing, around the bare pole on which the head was formerly fixed. With the Ilongotes a bridegroom must bring his bride a number of heads, those of Christians being preferred. The chief examples of head-hunters are the Was, a hill-tribe on the north-eastern frontier of India, and the Nagas and Kukis of Assam. See Bock, Headhunters of Borneo (1881); W. H. Furness, Home Life of Borneo Head-hunters (Philadelphia, 1902); T. C. Hodson, " Head-hunting in Assam," in Folk-Lore, xx, 2. 132. HEALTH, a condition of physical soundness or well-being, in which an organism discharges its functions efficiently; also in a transferred sense a state of moral or intellectual well-being (see HYGIENE, THERAPEUTICS and PUBLIC HEALTH) . " Health " represents the O. Eng. ha&lh, the condition or state of being hal, safe or sound. This word took in northern dialects the form " hale," in southern or midland English hole, hence " whole," with the addition of an initial w, as in " whoop," and in the pronunciation of " one." " Hail," properly an exclamation of greeting, good health to you, hence, to greet, to call out to, is directly Scandinavian in origin, from Old Norwegian heill, cognate with the O. Eng. hdl, used also in this sense. " To heal " (O. Eng. halari), to make in sound health, to cure, is also cognate. Drinking of Healths. — The custom of drinking " health " to the living is most probably derived from the ancient religious rite of drinking to the gods and the dead. The Greeks and Romans at meals poured out libations to their gods, and at ceremonial banquets drank to them and to the dead. The Norsemen drank the " minni " of Thor, Odin and Freya, and of their kings at their funeral feasts. With the advent of Christianity the pagan custom survived among the Scandinavian and Teutonic peoples. Such festal formulae as " God's minne!" "A bowl to God in Heaven!" occur, and Christ, the Virgin and the Saints were invoked, instead of heathen gods and heroes. The Norse " minne " was at once love, memory and thought of the absent one, and it survived in medieval and later England in the " minnying " or " mynde " days, on which the memory of the dead was celebrated by services and feasting. Intimately associated with these quasi-sacrificial drinking customs must have ever been the drinking to the health of living men. The Greeks drank to one another and the Romans adopted the custom. The Goths pledged each other with the cry " Hails ! " a greeting which had its counterpart in the Anglo-Saxon " waes hael " (see WASSAIL). Most modern drinking-usages have had their equivalents in classic times. Thus the Greek practice of drinking to the Nine Muses as three times three survives to-day in England and elsewhere. The Roman gallants drank as many glasses to their mistresses as there were letters in each one's name. Thus Martial: " Six cups to Naevia's health go quickly round,^ And be with seven the fair Justina's crown'd. The English drinking phrase— a "toast," to "toast" anyone- net older than the iyth century, had reference at first to this custom of drinking to the ladies. A toast was at first invariably a woman, and the origin of the phrase is curious. In Stuart days there appears to have been a time-honoured custom of putting a piece of toast in the wine-cup before drinking, from a fanciful notion that it gave the liquor a better flavour. In the Taller No. 24 the connexion between this sippet of toast and the fair one pledged is explained as follows: " It happened that on a publick day " (speaking of Bath m Charles II. 's reign) 122 HEALY— HEARING " a celebrated beauty of those times was in the cross bath, and one of the crowd of her admirers took a glass of the water in which the fair one stood, and drank her health to the company. There was in the place a gay fellow, half fuddled, who offered to jump in, and swore, though he liked not the liquor, he would have the toast. He was opposed in his resolution; yet this whim gave foundation to the present honour which is done to the lady we mention in our liquor, who has ever since been called a toast." Skeat adds (Etym. Diet., 1908), "whether the story be true or not, it may be seen that a ' toast,' i.e. a health, easily took its name from being the usual accompaniment to liquor, especially in loving cups," &c. Health drinking had by the beginning of the iyth century become a very ceremonious business in England. At Christmas 1623 the members of the Middle Temple, according to one of the Harleian MSS. quoted in The Life of Sir Simonds D'Ewes, drank to the health of the princess Elizabeth, who, with her husband the king of Bohemia, was then suffering great misfortunes, and stood up, one after the other, cup in one hand, sword in the other, and pledged her, swearing to die in her service. Toasts were often drunk solemnly on bended knees; according to one authority, Samuel Ward of Ipswich, in his Woe to Drunkards (1622), on bare knees. In 1668 at Sir George Carteret's at Cranbourne the health of the duke of York was drunk by all in turn, each on his knees, the king, who was a guest, doing the like. A Scotch custom, still surviving, was to drink a toast with one foot on the table and one on the chair. Healths, too, were drunk in a definite order. Braithwaite says: " These cups proceed either in order or out of order. In order when no person trans- gresseth or drinkes out of course, but the cup goes round according to their manner of sitting: and this we call a health-cup, because incur wishing or confirming of any one's health, bare headed and standing, it is performed by all the company " (Laws of Drinking, 1617). Francis Douce's MSS. notes say: " It was the custom in Beaumont and Fletcher's time for the young gallants to stab themselves in the arms or elsewhere, in order to drink the health of their mistresses." Pepys, in his Diary for the igth of June 1663, writes: " To the Rhenish wine house, where Mr Moore showed us the French manner when a health is drunk, to bow to him that drunk to you, and then apply yourself to him, whose lady's health is drunk, and then to the person that you drink to, which I never knew before; but it seems it is now the fashion." A Frenchman visiting England in Charles II. 's time speaks of the custom of drinking but half your cup, which is then filled up again and presented to him or her to whose health you drank. England's divided loyalty in the i8th century bequeathed to modern times a custom which possibly yet survives. At dinners to royalties, until the accession of Edward VII., finger-glasses were not placed on the table, because in early Georgian days those who were secretly Jacobites passed their wine-glasses over the finger-bowls before drinking the loyal toasts, in allusion to the royal exiles " over the water," thus salving their consciences. Lord Cockburn (1779-1854), in his Memorials of his Time (1856), states that in his day the drinking of toasts had become a perfect social tyranny; "every glass during dinner had to be dedicated to some one. It was thought sottish and rude to take wine without this, as if forsooth there was nobody present worth drinking with. I was present about 1803 when the late duke of Buccleuch took a glass of sherry by himself at the table of Charles Hope, then lord advocate, and this was noticed afterwards as a piece of direct contempt." In Germany to-day it is an insult to refuse to drink with any one; and at one time in the west of America a man took his life in his hands by declining to pledge another. All this is a survival of that very early and universal belief that drinking to one another was a proof of fair play, whether it be in a simple bargain or in matters of life and death. The ceremony surrounding the Loving Cup to-day is reminiscent of the perils of those times when every man's hand was raised against his fellow. This cup, known at the universities as the Grace Cup, was originated, says Miss Strickland in her Lives of the Queens of Scotland, by Margaret Atheling, wife of Malcolm Canmore, who, in order to induce the Scots to remain at table for grace had a cup of the choicest wine handed round immediately after it had been said. The modern "loving cup" sometimes has a cover, and in this case each guest rises and bows to his immediate neighbour on the right, who, also rising, removes and holds the cover with his right hand while the other drinks; the little comedy is a survival of the days when he who drank was glad to have the assurance that the right or dagger hand of his neighbour was occupied in holding the lid of the chalice. When there is no cover it is a common custom for both the left- and the right-hand neighbour to rise while the loving cup is drunk, with the similar object of protecting the drinker from attack. The Stirrup Cup is probably the Roman poculum boni genii, the last glass drunk at the banquet to a general " good night." See Chambers, Book of Days; Valpy, History of Toasting (1881) ; F. W. Hackwood, Inns, Ales, and Drinking Customs (London, 1909). HEALY, GEORGE PETER ALEXANDER (1808-1894), American painter, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the iSth of July 1808. Going to Europe in 1835 Healy studied under Baron Gros in Paris and in Rome. He received a third- class medal in Paris in 1840, and one of the second class in 1855, when he exhibited his " Franklin urging the claims of the American Colonies before Louis XVI." Among his portraits of eminent men are those of Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Guyot, Seward, Louis Philippe, and the presidents of the United States from John Quincy Adams to Grant — this series being painted for the Corcoran Gallery, Washington. His large group, " Webster replying to Hayne," containing 150 portraits, is in Faneuil Hall, Boston, Mass. He was one of the most prolific and popular painters of his day. He died in Chicago, Illinois, on the 24th of June 1894. HEANOR, an urban district in the Ilkeston parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 10 m. N.W. of Nottingham, on the Great Northern and Midland railways. Pop. (1901) 16,249. Large hosiery works employ many of the inhabitants, and collieries are worked in the parish. The urban district includes Codnor-cum-Loscoe. Shipley Hall, to the south of Heanor, is a mansion built on a hill, amidst fine gardens. The ruin of the ancient moated castle of Codnor stands, overlooking the vale of the Erewash, on land which was once Codnor Park, and is now the site of large ironworks. HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heran, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. hb'ren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Teut. form is seen in Goth, hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. a.Kov€u> very doubtful), in physiology, the function of the ear (q.v.), and the general term for the sense or special sensation, the cause of which is an excitation of the auditory nerves by the vibrations of sonorous bodies. The anatomy of the ear is described in the separate article on that organ. A description of sonorous vibrations is given in the article SOUND; here we shall consider the transmission of such vibrations from the external ear to the auditory nerve, and the physiological characters of auditory sensation. i. Transmission in External Ear. — The external ear consists of the pinna, or auricle, and the external auditory mealus, or canal, at the bottom of which we find the membrana tym- pani, or drum head. In many animals the auricle is trumpet- shaped, and, being freely movable by muscles, serves to collect sonorous waves coming from various directions. The auricle of the human ear presents many irregularities of surface. If these irregularities are abolished by filling them up with a soft material such as wax or oil, leaving the entrance to the canal free, experiment shows that the intensity of sounds is weakened, and that there is more difficulty in judging of their direction. When waves of sound strike the auricle, they are partly reflected outwards, while the remainder, impinging at various angles, undergo a number of reflections so as to be directed into the auditory canal. Vibrations are transmitted along the auditory canal, partly by the air it contains and partly by its walls, to the membrana tympani. The absence of the auricle, as the result of accident or injury, does not cause diminution of hearing. HEARING 123 In the auditory canal waves of sound are reflected from side to side until they reach the membrana tympani. P'rom the obliquity in position and peculiar curvature of this membrane, most of the waves strike it nearly perpendicularly, and in the most advantageous direction. 2. Transmission in Middle Ear. — The middle ear is a small cavity, the walls of which are rigid with the exception of the portions consisting of the membrana tympani, and the membrane of the round window and of the apparatus filline; the oval window. This cavity communicates with the pharynx by the Eustachian tube, which forms an air-tube between the pharynx and the tympanum for the purpose of regulating pressure on the mem- brana tympani. During rest the tube is open, but it is closed during the act of deglutition. As this action is frequently taking place, not only when food or drink is introduced, but when saliva is swallowed, it is evident that the pressure of the air in the tympanum will be kept in a state of equilibrium with that of the external air on the outer surface of the membrana tym- pani, and that thus the membrana tympani will be rendered independent of variations of atmospheric pressure such as occur when we descend in a diving bell or ascend in a balloon. By a forcible expiration, the oral and nasal cavities being closed, air may be driven into the tympanum, while a forcible inspiration (Valsalva's experiment) will draw air from that cavity. In the first case, the membrana tympani will bulge outwards, in the second case inwards, and in both, from excessive stretching of the membrane, there will be partial deafness, especially for sounds of high pitch. Permanent occlusion of the tube is one of the most common causes of deafness. The membrana tympani is capable of being set into vibration by a sound of any pitch included in the range of perceptible sounds. It responds exactly as to number of vibrations (pitch), intensity of vibrations (intensity), and complexity of vibration (quality or timbre). Consequently we can hear a sound of any given pitch, of a certain intensity, and in its own specific timbre or quality. Generally speaking, very high tones are heard more easily than low tones of the same intensity. As the membrana tympani is not only fixed by its margin to a ring or tube of bone, but is also adherent to the handle of the malleus, which follows its movements, its vibrations meet with considerable resistance. This diminishes the intensity of its vibrations, and prevents also the continued vibration of the membrane after an external pressure has ceased, so that a sound is not heard much longer than its physical cause lasts. The tension of the membrane may be affected (i) by differences of pressure on the two surfaces of the membrana tympani, as may occur during forcible expira- tion or inspiration, and (2) by muscular action, due to con- traction of the tensor tympani muscle. This small muscle arises from the apex of the petrous temporal and the cartilage of the Eustachian tube, enters the tympanum at its anterior wall, and is inserted into the malleus near its root. The handle of the malleus is inserted between the layers of the membrana tympani, and, as the malleus and incus move round an axis passing through the neck of the malleus from before backwards, the action of the muscle is to pull the membrana tympani inwards towards the tympanic cavity in the form of a cone, the meridians of which are not straight but curved, with convexity outwards. When the muscle contracts, the handle of the malleus is drawn still farther inwards, and thus a greater tension of the tympanic membrane is produced. On relaxation of the muscle, the mem- brane returns to its position of equilibrium by its elasticity and by the elasticity of the chain of bones. This power of varying the tension of the membrane is an accommodating mechanism for receiving and transmitting sounds of different pitch. With different degrees of tension it will respond more readily to sounds of different pitch. Thus, when the membrane is tense, it will readily respond to high sounds, while relaxation will be the condition most adapted for low tones. In addition, 'increased tension of the membrane, by increasing the resistance, will diminish the intensity of vibrations. This is especially the case for sounds of low pitch. The vibrations of the membrana tympani are transmitted to the internal ear partly by the air which the middle ear or tyrn- panum contains, and partly by the chain of bones, consisting of the malleus, incus and stapes. Of these, transmission by the chain of bones is by far the most important. In birds and in the amphibia, this chain is represented by a single rod-like ossicle, the columella, but in man the two membranes — the membrana tympani and the membrane filling the fenestra ovalis — are con- nected by a compound lever consisting of three bones, namely, the malleus, or hammer, inserted into the membrana tympani, the incus, or anvil, and the stapes, or stirrup, the base of which is attached to a membrane covering the oval window. It must also be noted that in the transmission of vibrations of the mem- brana tympani to the fluid in the labyrinth or internal ear, through the oval window, the chain of ossicles vibrates as a whole and acts efficiently, although its length may be only a fraction of the wave-length of the sound transmitted. The chain is a lever in which the handle of the malleus forms the long arm, the fulcrum is where the short process of the incus abuts against the wall of the tympanum, while the long process of the incus, carrying the stapes, forms the short arm. The mechanism is a lever of the second order. Measurements show that the ratio of the lengths of the two arms is as 1-5:1; the ratio of the resulting force at the stapes is therefore as 1:1-5; while the amplitudes of the movements at the tip of the handle of the malleus and the stapes is as 1-5:1. Hence, while there is a diminution in amplitude there is a gain in power, and thus the pressures are conveyed with great efficiency from the membrana tympani to the labyrinth, while the amplitude of the oscillation is diminished so as to be adapted to the small capacity of the labyrinth. As the drum-head is nearly twenty times greater in area than the membrane covering the oval window, with which the base of the stapes is connected, the energy of the movements of the membrana tympani is concentrated on an area twenty times smaller; hence the pressure is increased thirtyfold (1-5X20) when it acts at the base of the stapes. Experiments on the human ear have shown that the movement of greatest amplitude was at the tip of the handle of the malleus, 0-76 mm.; the movement of the tip of the long arm process of the incus was 0-21 mm.; while the greatest amplitude at the base of the stapes was only -07 id mm. Other observations have shown, the movements at the stapes to have a still smaller amplitude, varying from o-coi to 0-032 mm. With tones of feeble intensity the movements must be almost infinitesimal. There may also be very minute transverse movements at the base of the stapes. 3. Transmission in the Internal Ear. — The internal ear is composed of the labyrinth, formed of the vestibule or central part, the semicircular canals, and the cochlea, each of which consists of an osseous and a membranous portion. The osseous labyrinth may be regarded as an osseous mould in the petrous portion of the temporal bone, lined by tesselated endothelium, and containing a small quantity of fluid called the pcrilymph. In this mould, partially surrounded by, and to some extent floating in, this fluid, there is the membranous labyrinth, in certain parts of which we find the terminal apparatus in connexion with the auditory nerve, immersed in another fluid called the endolymph. The membranous labyrinth consists of a vestibular portion formed by two small sac-like dilatations, called the saccule and the utricle, the latter of which communicates with the semicircular canals by five openings. Each canal consists of a tube, bulging out at each extremity so as to form the so-called ampulla, in which, on a projecting ridge, called the crista acuslica, there are cells bearing long auditory hairs, which are the peripheral end-organs of the vestibular branches of the auditory nerve. The cochlear division of the membranous labyrinth consists of the ductus cochlearis, a tube of triangular form fitting in between the two cavities in the cochlea, called the scala vestibuli, because it commences in the vestibule, and the scala tympani, because it ends in the tympanum, at the round window. These two scalae communicate at the apex of the cochlea. The roof of the ductus cochlearis is formed by a thin membrane called the membrane of Reissner, while its floor consists of the basilar membrane, on which we find the remarkable organ ofCorti, which constitutes 124 HEARING the terminal organ of the cochlear division of the auditory nerve. It is sufficient to state here that this organ consists essentially of an arrangement of epithelial cells bearing hairs which are in communication with the terminal filaments of this portion of the auditory nerve, and that groups of these hairs pass through holes in a closely investing membrane, membrana reticidaris, which may act as a damping apparatus, so as quickly to stop their movements. The ductus cochlearis and the two scalae are filled with fluid. Sonorous vibrations may reach the fluid in the labyrinth by three different ways — (i) by the osseous walls of the labyrinth, (2) by the air in the tympanum and the round window, and (3) by the base of the stapes inserted into the oval window. When the head is plunged into water, or brought into direct contact with any vibrating body, vibrations must be transmitted directly. Vibrations of the air in the mouth and in the nasal passages are also communicated directly to the walls of the cranium, and thus pass to the labyrinth. In like manner, we may experience auditive sensations, such as blowing, rubbing and hissing sounds, due to muscular contraction or to the passage of blood in vessels close to the auditory organ. It is doubtful whether any vibrations are communicated to the fluid in the labyrinth by the round window. Vibrations which cause hearing are communicated by the chain of bones. When the base of the stirrup is pushed into the oval window, the pressure in the laby- rinth increases, and, as the only mobile part of the wall of the labyrinth is the membrane covering the round window, this membrane is forced outwards; when the base of the stirrup moves outwards a reverse action takes place. Thus the fluid of the labyrinth receives a series of pulses isochronous with the movements of the base of the stirrup, and these pulses affect the terminal apparatus in connexion with the auditory nerve. The sacs of the internal ear, known as the utricle and saccule, receive the impulses of the base of the stapes. They are organs connected with the perception of sounds as sounds, without reference to pitch or quality. For the analysis of tone a cochlea is necessary. Even in mammals all the parts of the ear may be destroyed or affected by disease, except these sacs, without causing complete deafness. It has been suggested by Lee (Amer. Jour, of Physiol. vol. i. No. i, p. 128) that in fishes the sac has nothing to do with hearing, but serves for the perception of movements, such as those of rotation and translation through space, movements much coarser than those that form the physical basis of sound. He considers, also, that as fishes, with few exceptions, are dumb, they are also deaf. In the fish there are peculiar organs along the lateral line which are known to be connected with the perception of movements of the body as a whole, and Beard (Zool. Anz. Leipzig, 1884, Bd. vii. S. 140) has attempted to trace a phylo- genetic connexion between the sacs of the internal ear and the organs in the lateral line. According to this view, when animals became air-breathers, a part of the ear (the papilla acustica basilaris) was gradually evolved for the perception of delicate vibrations of sound. (See EQUILIBRIUM.) It is by means of the cochlea that we discriminate pitch, hear beats, and are affected by quality of tone. Since the size of the membranous labyrinth is so small, measur- ing, in man, not more than 5 in. in length by | in. in diameter at its widest part, and since it is a chamber consisting partly of conduits of very irregular form, it is impossible to state accurately the course of vibrations transmitted to it by impulses com- municated from the base of the stirrup. In the cochlea vibrations must pass from the saccule along the scala vestibuli to the apex, thus affecting the membrane of Reissner, which forms its roof; then, passing through the opening at the apex (the helicotrema) , they must descend by the scala tympani to the round window, and affect in their passage the membrana basilaris, on which the organ of Corti is situated. From the round window impulses must be reflected backwards, but how they affect the advancing impulses is not known. But the problem is even more complex when we take into account the fact that impulses are trans- mitted simultaneously to the utricle and to the semicircular canals communicating with it by five openings. The mode of action of these vibrations or impulses upon the nervous termina- tions is still unknown ; but to appreciate critically the hypothesis which has been advanced to explain it, it is necessary, in the first place, to refer to some of the general characters of auditory sensation. 4. General Characters of Auditory Sensations. — Certain con- ditions are necessary for excitation of the auditory nerve sufficient to produce a sensation. In the first place, the vibrations must have a certain amplitude and energy; if too feeble, no impression will be produced. Various physicists have attempted to measure the sensitiveness of the ear by estimating the amplitude of the molecular move- ments necessary to call forth the feeblest audible sound. Thus A. Topler and L. Boltzmann, on data founded on experiments with organ pipes, state that the ear is affected by vibrations of molecules of the air not more in amplitude than -0004 mm. at the ear, or o-i of the wave-length of green light, and that the energy of such a vibration on the drum-head is not more than •5^3 billionth kilog., or i^th of that produced upon an equal surface of the retina by a single candle at the same distance (Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem., Leipzig. 1870, Bd. cxli. S. 321). Lord Rayleigh, by two other methods, arrived at the conclusion " that the streams of energy required to influence the eye and ear are of the same order of magnitude." He estimated the ampli- tude of the movement of the aerial particles, with a sound just audible, as less than the ten-millionth of a centimetre, and the energy emitted when the sound was first becoming audible, at 42-1 ergs per second. He also states that in considering the amplitude or condensation in progressive aerial waves, at a distance of 27-4 metres from a tuning-fork, the maximum con- densation was = 6-oXio~9 cm., a result showing "that the ear is able to recognize the addition or subtraction of densities far less than those to be found in our highest vacua " (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1877, vol. xxvi. p. 248; Land. Edin. and Dub. Phil. Mag., 1894, vol. xxxviii. p. 366). In the next place, vibrations must have a certain duration to be perceived; and lastly, to excite a sensation of a continuous musical sound, a certain number of impulses must occur in a given interval of time. The lower limit is about 30, and the upper about 30,000 vibrations per second. Below 30, the individual impulses may be observed, and above 30,000 few ears can detect any sound at all. The extreme upper limit is not more than 35,000 vibrations per second. Auditory sensations are of two kinds — noises and musical sounds. Noises are caused by impulses which are not regular in intensity or duration, or are not periodic, or they may be caused by a series of musical sounds occurring instantaneously so as to produce discords, as when we place our hand at random on the key-board of a piano. Musical tones are produced by periodic and regular vibrations. In musical sounds three characters are prominent — intensity, pitch and quality. Intensity depends on the amplitude of the vibration, and a greater or lesser amplitude of the vibration will cause a corresponding movement of the transmitting apparatus, and a corresponding intensity of excitation of the terminal apparatus. Pitch, as a sensation, depends on the length of time in which a single vibration is executed, or, in other words, the number of vibrations in a given interval of time. The ear is capable of appreciating the relative pitch or height of a sound as compared with another, although it may not ascertain precisely the absolute pitch of a sound. What we call an acute or high tone is produced by a large number of vibrations, while a grave or low tone is caused by few. The musical tones which can be used with advantage range between 40 and 4000 vibrations per second, extending thus from 6 to 7 octaves. According to E. H. Weber, practised musicians can perceive a difference of pitch amounting to only the •jVth of a semitone, but this is far beyond average attainment. In a few individuals, and especially in early life, there may be an appreciation of absolute pitch. Quality or timbre (or Klang) is that peculiar characteristic of a musical sound by which we may identify it as proceeding from a particular instru- ment or from a particular human voice. It depends on the fact HEARING 125 Funda- mental Tone. Notes ... do1 Partial tones . t Number of ) vibrations $ 33 that many waves of sound that reach the ear are compound wave systems, built up of constituent waves, each of which is capable of exciting a sensation of a simple tone if it be singled out and reinforced by a resonator (see SOUND), and which may sometimes be heard without a resonator, after special practice and tuition. Thus it appears that the ear must have some arrangement by which it resolves every wave system, however complex, into simple pendular vibrations. When we listen to a sound of any quality we recognize that it is of a certain pitch. This depends on the number of vibrations of one tone, predominant in intensity over the others, called the fundamental or ground tone, or first partial tone. The quality, or timbre, depends on the number and intensity of other tones added to it. These are termed harmonic or partial tones, and they are related to the first partial or funda- mental tone in a very simple manner, being multiples of the fundamental tone: thus — Upper Partials or Harmonics. do2 sol2 do3 mi3 sol3 sit>3 do4 re4 mi4 234567 89 10 66 99 132 165 198 231 264 297 330 When a simple tone, or one free from partials, is heard, it gives rise to a simple, soft, somewhat insipid sensation, as may be obtained by blowing across the mouth of an open bottle or by a tuning-fork. The lower partials added to the fundamental tone give softness combined with richness; while the higher, especially if they be very high, produce a brilliant and thrilling effect, as is caused by the brass instruments of an orchestra. Such being the facts, how may they be explained physiologically ? Little is yet known regarding the mode of action of the vibra- tions of the fluid in the labyrinth upon the terminal apparatus connected with the auditory nerve. There can be no doubt that it is a mechanical action, a communication of impulses to delicate hair-like processes, by the movements of which the nervous filaments are irritated. In the human ear it has been estimated that there are about 3000 small arches formed by the rods of Corti. Each arch rests on the basilar membrane, and supports rows of cells having minute hair-like processes. It would appear also that the filaments of the auditory nerve terminate in the basilar membrane, and possibly they may be connected with the hair-cells. At one time it was supposed by Helmholtz that these fibres of Corti were elastic and that they were tuned for particular sounds, so as to form a regular series corresponding to all the tones audible to the human ear. Thus 2800 fibres distributed over the tones of seven octaves would give 400 fibres for each octave, or nearly 33 for a semitone. Helmholtz put forward the hypothesis that, when a pendular vibration reaches the ear, it excites by sympathetic vibration the fibre of Corti which is tuned for its proper number of vibrations. If, then, different fibres are tuned to tones of different pitch, it is evident that we have here a mechanism which, by exciting different nerve fibres, will give rise to sensations of pitch. When the vibration is not simple but compound, in consequence of the blending of vibrations corresponding to various harmonics or partial tones, the ear has the power of resolving this compound vibration into its elements. It can orjy do so by different fibres responding to the constituent vibrations of the sound — one for the fundamental tone being stronger, and giving the sensation of a particular pitch to the sound, and the others, corresponding to the upper partial tones, being weaker, and causing undefined sensations, which are so blended together in consciousness as to terminate in a complex sensation of a tone of a certain quality or timbre. It would appear at first sight that 33 fibres of Corti for a semitone are not sufficient to enable us to detect all the gradations of pitch in that interval, since, as has been stated above, trained musicians may distinguish a difference of i^j-th of a semitone. To meet this difficulty, Helmholtz stated that if a sound is produced, the pitch of which may be supposed to come between two adjacent fibres of Corti, both of these will be set into sympathetic vibration, but the one which comes nearest to the pitch of the sound will vibrate with greater intensity than the other, and that consequently the pitch of that sound would be thus appreciated. These theoretical views of Helmholtz have derived much support from experiments of V. Hensen, who observed that certain hairs on the antennae of My sis, a Crustacean, when seen with a low microscopic power, vibrated with certain tones produced by a keyed horn. It was seen that certain tones of the horn set some hairs into strong vibration, and other tones other hairs. Each hair responded also to several tones of the horn. Thus one hair responded strongly to d% and d'#, more weakly to g, and very weakly to G. It was probably tuned to some pitch between d" and d"%. (Studien iiber das Cehororgan der Dccapoden, Leipzig, 1863.) Histological researches have led to a modification of this hypothesis. It has been found that the rods or arches of Corti are stiff structures, not adapted for vibrating, but apparently constituting a support for the hair-cells. It is also known that there are no rods of Corti in the cochlea of birds, which are capable nevertheless of appreciating pitch. Hensen and Helm- holtz suggested the view that not only may the segments of the membrana basilaris be stretched more in the radial than in the longitudinal direction, but different segments may be stretched radially with different degrees of tension so as to resemble a series of tense strings of gradually increasing length. Each string would then respond to a vibration of a particular pitch communicated to it by the hair-cells. The exact mechanism of the hair-cells and of the membrana reticularis, which looks like a damping apparatus, is unknown. 5. Physiological Characters of Auditory Sensation. — Under ordinary circumstances auditory sensations are referred to the outer world. When we hear a sound, we associate it with some external cause, and it appears to originate in a particular place or to come in a particular direction. This feeling of exteriority of sound seems to require transmission through the membrana tympani. Sounds which are sent through the walls of the cranium, as when the head is immersed in, and the external auditory canals are filled with, water, appear to originate in the body itself. An auditory sensation lasts a short time after the cessation of the exciting cause, so that a number of separate vibrations, each capable of exciting a distinct sensation if heard alone, may succeed each other so rapidly that they are fused into a single sensation. If we listen to the puffs of a syren, or to vibrating tongues of low pitch, the single sensation is usually produced by about 30 or 35 vibrations per second; but when we listen to beats of considerable intensity, produced by two adjacent tones of sufficiently high pitch, the ear may follow as many as 132 intermissions per second. The sensibility of the ear for sounds of different pitch is not the same. It is more sensitive for acute than for grave sounds, and it is probable that the maximum degree of acuteness is for sounds produced by about 3000 vibrations per second, that is near /a5^. Sensibility as to pitch varies much with the individual. Thus some musicians may detect a difference of roVffth of the total number of vibrations, while other persons may have difficulty in appreciating a semitone. 6. Analytical Power of the Ear. — When we listen to a compound tone, we have the power of picking out these partials from the general mass of sound. It is known that the frequencies of the partials as compared with that of the fundamental tone are simple multiples of the frequency of the fundamental, and also that physic- ally the waves of the partials so blend with each other as to produce waves of very complicated forms. Yet the ear, or the ear and the brain together, can resolve this complicated wave-form into its constituents, and this is done more easily if we listen to the sound with resonators, the pitch of which corresponds, or nearly corre- sponds, to the frequencies of the partials. Much discussion has taken place as to how the ear accomplishes this analysis. All are agreed that there is a complicated apparatus in the cochlea which may serve this purpose; but while some arc of opinion that this structure is sufficient, others hold that the analysis takes place in the brain. When a complicated wave falls on the drum-head, it must move out and in in a way corresponding to the variations of pressure, and these variations will, in a single vibration, depend on the greater or less degree of complexity of the wave. Thus a single tone will cause a movement like that of a pendulum, a simple pendular vibration, 126 HEARING while a complex tone, although occurring in the same duration of time, will cause the drum-head to move out and in in a much more complicated manner. The complex movement will be conveyed to the base of the stapes, thence to the vestibule, and thence to the cochlea, in which we find the ductus cochlearis containing the organ of Cord. It is to be noted also that the parts in the cochlea are so small as to constitute only a fraction of the wave-length of most tones audible to the human ear. Now it is evident that the cochlea must act either as a whole, all the nerve fibres being affected by any variations of pressure, or the nerve fibres may have a selective action, each fibre being excited by a wave of a definite period, or there may exist small vibratile bodies between the nerve filaments and the pressures sent into the organ. The last hypothesis gives the most rational explanation of the phenomena, and on it is founded a theory generally accepted and associated with the names of Thomas Young and Hermann Helmholtz. It may be shortly stated as follows : — " (i) In the cochlea there are vibrators, tuned to frequencies within the limits of hearing, say from 30 to 40,000 or 50,000 vibs. per second. (2) Each vibrator is capable of exciting its appropriate nerve filament or filaments, so that a nervous impulse, correspond- ing to the frequency of the vibrator, is transmitted to the brain — not corresponding necessarily, as regards the number of nervous impulses, but in such a way that when the impulses along a particular nerve filament reach the brain, a state of consciousness is aroused which does correspond with the number of the physical stimuli and with the period of the auditory vibrator. (3) The mass of each vibrator is such that it will be easily set in motion, and after the stimulus has ceased it will readily come to rest. (4) Damping arrangements exist in the ear, so as quickly to extinguish movements of the vibrators. (5) If a simple tone falls on the ear, there is a pendular movement of the base of the stapes, which will affect all the parts, causing them to move; but any part whose natural period is nearly the same as that of the sound will respond on the principle of sympathetic resonance, a particular nerve filament or nerve filaments will be affected, and a sensation of a tone of definite pitch will be experienced, thus accounting for discrimination in pitch. (6) Intensity or loudness will depend on the amplitude of movement of the vibrating body, and consequently on the intensity of nerve stimulation. (7) If a compound wave of pressure be com- municated by the base of the stapes, it will be resolved into its constituents by the vibrators corresponding to tones existing in it, each picking out its appropriate portion of the wave, and thus irritating corresponding nerve filaments, so that nervous impulses are transmitted to the brain, where they are fused in such a way as to give rise to a sensation of a particular quality or character, but still so imperfectly fused that each constituent, by a strong effort of attention, may be specially recognized " (article " Ear," by M'Kendrick, Schafer's Text-Book, he. cit.). The structure of the ductus cochlearis meets the demands of this theory, it is highly differentiated, and it can be shown that in it there are a sufficient number of elements to account for the delicate appreciation of pitch possessed by the human ear, and on the basis that the highly trained ear of a violinist can detect a difference of s^th of a semitone (M'Kendrick, Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1896, vol. xxxviii. p. 780; also Schafer's Text-Book, loc. cit.). Measurements of the cochlea have also shown such differentiation as to make it difficult to imagine that it can act as a whole. A much less complex organ might have served this purpose (M'Kendrick, op. cit.). The following table, given by Retzius (Das Gehororgan der Wirbelthiere, Bd. ii. S. 356), shows differentiations in the cochlea of man, the cat and the rabbit, all of which no doubt hear tones, although in all probability they have very different powers of discrimination: — Man. Cat. Rabbit. Ear-teeth .... Holes in habenula for nerves Inner rods of Corti's organ Outer rods of Corti's organ Inner hair-cells (one row) Outer hair-cells (several rows) Fibres in basilar membrane 7. Dissonance. — The theory can also be used to explain dissonance. When two tones sufficiently near in pitch are simultaneously sounded, beats are produced. If the beats are few in number they can be counted, because they give rise to separate and distinct sensations; but if they are numerous they blend so as to give roughness or dis- sonance to the interval. The roughness or dissonance is most dis- agreeable with about 33 beats falling on the ear per second. When two compound tones are sounded, say a minor third on a harmonium in the lower part of the keyboard, then we have beats not only between the primaries, but also between the upper partials of each of the primaries. The beating distance may, for tones of medium pitch, be fixed at about a nvnor third, but this interval will expand for intervals on low tones and contract for intervals on high ones. This explains why the same interval in the lower part of the scale may give slow beats that are not disagreeable, while in the higher part it may cause harsh and unpleasant dissonance. The partials up to the seventh are beyond beating distance, but above this they 2,490 2,430 1,550 3,985 2,780 1,650 5,590 4,700 2,800 3,848 3,300 1,900 3,487 2,600 1, 600 11,750 9,900 6,100 23,750 15,700 .10,500 come close together. Consequently instruments (such as tongues, or reeds) that abound in upper partials cause an intolerable dissonance if one of the primaries is slightly out of tune. Some intervals are pleasant and satisfying when produced on instruments having few partials in their tones. These are concords. Others are less so, and they may give rise to an uncomfortable sensation. These are discords. In this way unison, {, minor third f, major third !j, fourth J, fifth I, minor sixth g, major sixth £ and octave f , are all concords; while a second §, minor seventh *f and major seventh >/, are discords. Helmholtz compares the sensation of dissonance to that of a flickering light on the eye. " Something similar I have found to be produced by simultaneously stimulating the skin, or margin of the lips, by bristles attached to tuning-forks giving forth beats. If the frequency of the forks is great, the sensation is that of a most disagreeable tickling. It may be that the instinctive effort at analysis of tones close in pitch causes the disagreeable sensation " (Schafer's Text-Book, op. cit. p. 1187). 8. Other Theories. — In 1865 Rennie objected to the analysis theory, and urged that the cochlea acted as a whole (Ztschr. f. rat. Med., Dritte Reihe, Bd. xxiv. Heft I, S. 12-64). This view was revived by Voltolini (Virchow's Archiv, Bd. c. S. 27) some years later, and in 1886 it was urged by E. Rutherford (Rep. Brit. Assoc. Ad. Sc., 1886), who compared the action of the cochlea to that of a telephone plate. According to this theory, all the hairs of the auditory cells vibrate to every note, and the hair-cells transform sound vibrations into nerve vibrations or impulses, similar in fre- quency, amplitude and character to the sound vibrations. There is no analysis in the peripheral organ. A. D. Waller, in 1891 (Proc. Physiol. Soc., Jan. 20, 1891) suggested that the basilar membrane as a whole vibrates to every note, thus repeating the vibrations of the membrana tympani; and since the hair-cells move with the basilar membrane, they produce what may be called pressure patterns against the tectorial membranes, and filaments of the auditory nerve are stimulated by these pressures. Waller admits a certain degree of peripheral analysis, but he relegates ultimate analysis to the brain. These theories, dispensing with peripheral analysis, leave out of account the highly complex structure of the cochlea, or, in other words, they assign to that structure a comparatively simple function which could be performed by a simple membrane capable of vibrating. We find that the cochlea becomes more elaborate as we ascend the scale of animals, until in man, who possesses greater powers of analysis than any other being, the number of hair-cells, fibres of the basilar membrane and arches of Corti are all much increased in number (see Retzius's table, supra). The principle of sympathetic resonance appears, therefore, to offer the most likely solution of the problem. Hurst's view is that with each movement of the stapes a wave is generated which travels up the scala vestibuli, through the helicotrema into the scala tympani and down the latter to the fenestra rotunda. The wave, however, is not merely a movement of the basilar membrane, but an actual movement of fluid or a transmission of pressure. As the one wave ascends while the other descends, a pressure of the basilar membrane occurs at the point where they meet; this causes the basilar membrane to move to- wards the tectorial membrane, forcing this membrane suddenly against the apices of the hair-cells, thus irritating the nerves. The point at which the waves meet will depend on the time interval between the waves (Hurst, " A New Theory of Hearing," Trans. Biol. Soc. Liverpool, 1895, vol. ix. p. 321). More recently Max Mayer has advanced a theory somewhat similar. He supposes that with each movement of the stapes corresponding to a vibration, a wave travels up the scala vestibuli, pressing the basilar membrane down- wards. As it meets with resistance in passing upwards, its amplitude therefore diminishes, and in this way the distance up the scala through which the wave progresses will be determined by its ampli- tude. The wave in its progress irritates a certain number of nerve terminations, consequently feeble tones will irritate only those nerve fibres that are near the fenestra ovalis, while stronger tones will pass farther up and irritate a larger number of nerve fibres the same number of times per unit of time. Pitch, according to this view, depends on the number of stimuli per second, while loudness depends on the number of nerve fibres irritated. Mayer also applies the theory to the explanation of the powers of the cochlea as an analyser, by supposing that with a compound tone these are at maxima and minima of stimulation. As the compound wave travels up the scala, portions of the wave corresponding to maxima and minima die away in consecutive series, until only a maximum and minimum are left ; and, finally, as the wave travels farther, these also disappear. With each maximum and minimum different parts of the basilar membrane are affected, and affected a different number of times per second, according to the frequencies of the partials existing in the compound tone. Thus with a fifth, 2 : 3, there are three maxima and three minima ; but the compound tone is resolved into three tones having vibration frequencies in the ratio of 3 : 2 : I. According to Mayer, we actually hear when a fifth is sounded tones of the relationship of 3:2:1, the last (l) being the differential tone. He holds, also, that combinational tones are entirely subjective (Max Mayer, Ztschr. f. Psych, und Phys. d. Sinnesorgane, Leipzig, Bd. xvi. and xvii. ; also Verhandl. d. physiolog. Gesellsch. zu Berlin, Feb. 18, 1898, S. 49). Two fatal objections can be urged to these theories, namely, first, it is impossible to conceive of minute waves following each other in HEARING 127 rapid succession in the minute tubes forming the scalae — the length of the scala being only a very small part of the wave-length of the sound; and, secondly, neither theory takes into account the differ- entiation of structure found in the epithelium of the organ of Corti. Each push in and out of the base of the stapes must cause a move- ment of the fluid, or a pressure, in the scalae as a whole. There are difficulties in the way of applying the resonance theory to the perception of noises. Noises have pitch, and also each noise has a special character; if so, if the noise is analysed into its con- stituents, why is it that it seems impossible to analyse a noise, or to perceive any musical element in it ? Helmholtz assumed that a sound is noisy when the wave is irregular in rhythm, and he suggested that the crista and macula acustica, structures that exist .not in the cochlea but in the vestibule, have to do with the per- ception of noise. These structures, however, are concerned rather in the sense of the perception of equilibrium than of sound (see EQUILIBRIUM). 9. Hitherto we have considered only the audition of a single sound, but it is possible also to have simultaneous auditive sensa- tions, as in musical harmony. It is' difficult to ascertain what is the limit beyond which distinct auditory sensations may be perceiyed. We have in listening to an orchestra a multiplicity of sensations which produces a total effect, while, at the same time, we can with ease single out and notice attentively the tones of one or two special instruments. Thus the pleasure of music may arise partly from listening to simultaneous, and partly from tha effect of contrast or suggestion in passing through successive, auditory sensations. The ' principles of harmony belong to the subject of music (see HARMONY), but it is necessary here briefly to refer to these from the physiological point of view. If two musical sounds reach the ear at the same moment, an agreeable or disagreeable sensation is experienced, which may be termed a concord or a discord, and it can be shown by experiment with the syren that this depends upon the vibrational numbers of the two tones. The octave (i : 2), the twelfth (l : 3) and double octave (i : 4) are absolutely consonant sounds; the fifth (2 : 3) is said to be perfectly consonant; then follow, in the direction of dissonance, the fourth (3 : 4), major sixth (3 : 5). major third (4 : 5), minor sixth (5 : 8) and the minor third (5 : 6). Helmholtz has attempted to account for this by the appli- cation of his theory of beats. Beats are observed when two sounds of nearly the same pitch are produced together, and the number of beats per second is equal to the difference of the number of vibrations of the two sounds. Beats give rise to a peculiarly disagreeable intermittent sensation. The maximum roughness of beats is attained by 33 per second; beyond 132 per second, the individual impulses are blended into one uniform auditory sensation. When two notes are sounded, say on a piano, not only may the first, fundamental or prime tones beat, but partial tones of each of the primaries may beat also, and as the difference of pitch of two simultaneous sounds augments, the number of beats, both of prime tones and of harmonics, augments also. The physio- logical effect of beats, though these may not be individually dis- tinguishable, is to give roughness to the ear. If harmonics or partial tones of prime tones coincide, there are no beats; if they do not coincide, the beats produced will give a character of roughness to the interval. Thus in the octave and twelfth, all the partial tones of the acute sound coincide with the partial tones of the grave sound; in the fourth, major sixth and major third, only two pairs of the partial tones coincide, while in the minor sixth, minor third and minor seventh only one pair of the harmonics coincide. It is possible by means of beats to measure the sensitiveness of the ear by determining the smallest difference in pitch that may give rise to a beat. In no part of the scale can a difference smaller than O'2 vibration per second be distinguished. The sensitiveness varies with pitch. Thus at 120 vibs. per second 0-4 vib. per second, at 500 about 0-3 vib. per second, and at 1000, 0-5 vib. per second can be distinguished. This is a remarkable illustration of the sensitiveness of the ear. When tones of low pitch are produced that do not rapidly die away, as by sounding heavy tuning-forks, not only may the beats be perceived corresponding to the difference between the frequencies of the forks, but also other sets of beats. Thus, if the two tones have frequencies of 40 and 74, a two-order beat may be heard, one haying a frequency of 34 and the other of 6, as 74 -1-40 = i +a positive remainder of 34, and 74-1-40 = 2-6, or 80-74, a negative remainder of 6. The lower beat is heard most distinctly when the number is less than half the frequency of the lower primary, and the upper when the number is greater. The beats we have been considering are produced when two notes are sounded slightly differing in frequency, or at all events their frequencies are not so great as those of two notes separated by a musical interval, such as an octave or a fifth. But Lord Kelvin has shown that beats may also be produced on slightly inharmonious musical intervals (Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed. 1878, vol. ix. p. 602). Thus, take two tuning- forks, w<2 = 256 and M/3 = 5I2; slightly flatten ut3 so as to make its frequency 510, and we hear, not a roughness corresponding to 254 beats, but a slow beat of 2 per second. The sensation also passes through a cycle, the beats now sounding loudly and fading away in intensity, again sounding loudly, and so on. One might suppose that the beat occurred between 510 (the frequency of ut3 flattened) and 512, the first partial of utt, namely uta, but this is not so, as the beat is most audible when utt is sounded feebly. In a similar way, beats may be produced on the approximate harmonies 2:3, 3:4, 4:5, 5 : 6, 6 : 7, 7 : 8, I : 3, 3 : 5, and beats may even be produced on the major chord 4:5:6 by sounding uta, mis, sol3, with soli or mis slightly flattened, " when a peculiar beat will be heard as if a wheel were being turned against a surface, one small part of which was rougher than the rest." These beats on imperfect harmonies appear to indicate that the ear does distinguish between an increase of pressure on the drum-head and a diminution, or between a push and a pull, or, in other words, that it is affected by phase. This was denied by Helmholtz. 10. Beat Tones. — Considerable difference of opinion exists as to whether beats can blend so as to give a sensation of tone; but R. Konig, by using pure tones of high pitch, has settled the question. These tones were produced by large tuning-forks. Thus M/6 = 2O48 and ^6 = 2304. Then the beat tone is ^3 = 256 (2304-2048). If we strike the two forks, ut3 sounds as a grave or lower beat tone. Again, «26 = 2O48 and $16=3840. Then (2048)2-3840=256, a negative remainder, ut3, as before, and when both forks are sounded ut3 will be heard. Again, ute = 2048 and sol, = 3072, and 3072-2048 = 1024, or utt,, which will be distinctly heard when ute and sole, are sounded (Konig, Quelques experiences d'acoustique, Paris, 1882, p. 87). 11. Combination Tones. — Frequently, when two tones are sounded, not only do we hear the compound sound, from which we can pick out the constituent tones, but we may hear other tones, one of which is lower in pitch than the lowest primary, and the other is higher in pitch than the higher primary. These, known as combination tones, are of two classes: differential tones, in which the frequency is the difference of the frequencies of the generating tones, and summational tones, having a frequency which is the sum of the frequencies of the tones producing them. Differential tones, first noticed by Sorge about 1740, are easily heard. Thus an interval of a fifth, 2:3, gives a differential tone I , that is, an octave below 2; a fourth, 3:4, gives I, a twelfth below 3; a major third, 4 : 5i gives i, two octaves below 4; a minor third, 5:6, gives I, two octaves and a major third below 5; a major sixth, 3:5, gives 2, that is, a fifth below 3 ; and a minor sixth, 5 : 8, gives 3, that is, a major sixth below 5. Summational tones, first noticed by Helm- holtz, are so difficult to hear that much controversy has taken place as to their very existence. Some have contended that they are produced by beats. It appears to be proved physically that they may exist in the air outside of the ear. Further differential tones may be generated in the, middle ear. Helmholtz also demon- strated their independent existence, and he states that " whenever the vibrations of the air or of other elastic bodies, which are set in motion at the same time by two generating simple tones, are so powerful that they can no longer be considered infinitely small, mathematical theory shows that vibrations of the air must arise which have the same vibrational numbers as the combination tones " (Helmholtz, Sensations of Tone, p. 235). The importance of these combinational tones in the theory of hearing is obvious. If the ear can only analyse compound waves into simple pendular vibrations of a certain order (simple multiples of the prime tone), how can it detect combinational tones, which dp not belong to that order ? Again, if such tones are purely subjective and only exist in the mind of the listener, the fact would be fatal to the resonance theory. There can be no doubt, however, that the ear, in dealing with them, vibrates in some part of its mechanism with each generator, while it also is affected by the combinational tone itself, according to its frequency. 12. Hearing with two ears does not appear materially to influence auditive sensation, but probably the two organs are enabled, not only to correct each other's errors, but also to aid us in determin- ing the locality in which a sound originates. It is asserted by G. T. Fechner that one ear may perceive the same tone at a slightly higher pitch than the other, but this may probably be due to some slight pathological condition in one ear. If two tones, produced by two tuning-forks, of equal pitch, are produced one near each ear, there is a uniform single sensation; if one of the tuning-forks be made to revolve round its axis in such a way that its tone increases and diminishes in intensity, neither fork is heard continuously, but both sound alternately, the fixed one being only audible when the revolving one is not. It is difficult to decide whether excitations of corresponding elements in the two ears can be distinguished from each other. It is probable that the resulting sensations may be distinguished, provided one of the generating tones differs from the other in intensity or quality, although it may be the same in pitch. Our judgment as to the direction of sounds is formed mainly from the different degrees of intensity with which they are heard by two ears. Lord Rayleigh states that diffraction of the sound-waves will occur as they pass round the head to the ear farthest from the source of sound; thus partial tones will reach the two ears with different intensities, and thus quality of tone may be affected (Trans. Music. Soc., London, 1876). Silvanus P. Thompson advo- cates a similar view, and he shows that the direction of a complex tone can be more accurately determined than the direction of a simple tone, especially if it be of low pitch (Phil. Mag., 1882). (J- G. M.) 128 HEARN— HEARSE HEARN, LAFCADIO (1850-1904), author of books about Japan, was born on the 27th of June 1850 in Leucadia (pro- nounced Lefcadia, whence his name, which was one adopted by himself), one of the Greek Ionian Islands. He was the son of Surgeon-major Charles Hearn, of King's County, Ireland, who, during the English occupation of the Ionian Islands, was stationed there, and who married a Greek wife. Artistic and rather bohemian tastes were in Lafcadio Hearn's blood. His father's brother Richard was at one time a well-known member of the Barbizon set of artists, though he made no mark as a painter through his lack of energy. Young Hearn had rather a casual education, but was for a time (1865) at Ushaw Roman Catholic College, Durham. The religious faith in which he was brought up was, however, soon lost; and at nineteen, being thrown on his own resources, he went to America and at first picked up a living in the lower grades of newspaper work. The details are obscure, but he continued to occupy himself with journalism and with out-of-the-way observation and reading, and meanwhile his erratic, romantic and rather morbid idio- syncrasies developed. He was for some time in New Orleans, writing for the Times Democrat, and was sent by that paper for two years as correspondent to the West Indies, where he gath- ered material for his Two Years in the French West Indies (1890). At last, in 1891, he went to Japan with a commission as a news- paper correspondent, which was quickly broken off. But here he found his true sphere. The list of his books on Japanese subjects tells its own tale: Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan (1894); Out of the East (1895); Kokoro (1896); Gleanings in Buddha Fields (1897); Exotics and Retrospections (1898); In Ghostly Japan (1899); Shadowings (1900); A Japanese Miscellany (1901); Kotto (1902); Japanese Fairy Tales and Kwaidan (1903), and (published just after his death) Japan, an Attempt at Interpretation (1904), a study full of knowledge and insight. He became a teacher of English at the Uni- versity of Tokyo, and soon fell completely under the spell of Japanese ideas. He married a Japanese wife, became a naturalized Japanese under the name of Yakumo Koizumi, and adopted the Buddhist religion. For the last two years of his life (he died on the 26th of September 1904) his health was failing, and he was deprived of his lecturership at the University. But he had gradually become known to the world at large by the originality, power and literary charm of his writings. This wayward bohemian genius, who had seen life in so many climes, and turned from Roman Catholic to atheist and then to Buddhist, was curiously qualified, among all those who were " interpreting " the new and the old Japan to the Western world, to see it with unfettered understanding, and to express its life and thought with most intimate and most artistic sincerity. Lafcadio Hearn's books were indeed unique for their day in the literature about Japan, in their combination of real knowledge with a literary art which is often exquisite. See Elizabeth Bisland, The Life and Letters of Lafcadio Hearn (2 vols., 1906); G. M. Gould, Concerning Lafcadio Hearn (1908). HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745-1792), English explorer, was born in London. In 1756 he entered the navy, and was some time with Lord Hood; at the end of the Seven Years' War (1763) he took service with the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1768 he examined portions of the Hudson's Bay coasts with a view to improving the cod fishery, and in 1760-1772 he was employed in north-western discovery, searching especially for certain copper mines described by Indians. His first attempt (from the 6th of November 1769) failed through the desertion of his Indians; his second (from the 23rd of February 1770) through the breaking of his quadrant; but in his third (December 1770 to June 1772) he was successful, not only discovering the copper of the Coppermine river basin, but tracing this river to the Arctic Ocean. He reappeared at Fort Prince of Wales on the 30th of June 1772. Becoming governor of this fort in 1775, he was taken prisoner by the French under La Perouse in 1782. He returned to England in 1787 and died there in 1792. See his posthumous Journey from Prince of Wales Fort in Hudson's 'Bay to the Northern Ocean (London, 1795). HEARNE, THOMAS (1678-1735), English antiquary, was born in July 1678 at Littlefield Green in the parish of White Waltham, Berkshire. Having received his early education from his father, George Hearne, the parish clerk, he showed such taste for study that a wealthy neighbour, Francis Cherry of Shottes- brooke (c. 1665-1713), a celebrated nonjuror, interested himself in the boy, and sent him to the school at Bray " on purpose to learn the Latin tongue."' Soon Cherry took him into his own house, and his education was continued at Bray until Easter 1696, when he matriculated at St Edmund Hall, Oxford. At the university he attracted the attention of Dr John Mill (1645- 1707), the principal of St Edmund Hall, who employed him to compare manuscripts and in other ways. Having taken the degree of B.A. in 1699 he was made assistant keeper of the Bodleian Library, where he worked on the catalogue of books, and in 1712 he was appointed second keeper. In 1715 Hearne was elected architypographus and esquire bedell in civil law in the university, but objection having been made to his holding this office together with that of second librarian, he resigned it in the same year. As a nonjuror he refused to take the oaths of allegiance to King George I., and early in 1716 he was deprived of his librarianship. However he continued to reside in Oxford, and occupied himself in editing the English chroniclers. Having refused several important academical positions, including the librarianship of the Bodleian and the Camden professorship of ancient history, rather than take the oaths, he died on the roth of June 1735. Hearne's most important work was done as editor of many of the English chroniclers, and until the appearance of the " Rolls "scries his editions were in many cases the only ones extant. Very carefully prepared, they were, and indeed are still, of the greatest value to historical students. Perhaps the most important of a long list are: Benedict of Peterborough's (Benedictus Abbas) De vita et gestis Henrici II. et Ricardi I. (1735); John of Fordun's Scotichronicon (1722); the monk of Evesham's Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II. (1729); Robert Mannyng's translation of Peter Langtoft's Chronicle (1725); the work of Thomas Otterbourne and John Whethamstede as Duo rerum Anglicarum scriptores veleres (1732); Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle (1724); J. Sprptt's Chronica (1719); the Vita et gesta Henrici V., wrongly attributed to Thomas Elmham (1727); Titus Livy's Vita Henrici V. (1716); Walter of Heming- burgh's Chronicon (1731); and William of Newburgh's Histcria rerum Anglicarum (1719). He also edited John Leland's Itinerary (1710-1712) and the same author's Collectanea (1715); W. Camden's A nnales rerum A nglicarum et Hibernicarum regnante Elizabetha (1717); Sir John Spelman's Life of Alfred (1709); and W. Roper's Life of Sir Thomas More (1716). He brought out an edition of Livy (1708) ; one of Pliny's Epistolae et panegyricus (1703); and one of the Acts of the Apostles (1715). Among his other compilations may be mentioned: Ductor historicus, a Short System of Universal History (1704, 1705, 1714, 1724); A Collection of Curious Discourses by Eminent Antiquaries (1720); and Reliquiae Bodleianae (1703). Hearne left his manuscripts to William Bedford, who sold them to Dr Richard Rawlinson, who in his turn bequeathed them to the Bodleian. Two volumes of extracts from his voluminous diary were published by Philip Bliss (Oxford, 1857), and afterwards an enlarged edition in three volumes appeared (London, 1869). A large part of his diary entitled Remarks and Collections, 1705—1714, edited by C. E. Doble and D. W. Rannie, has been published by the Oxford Historical Society (1885-1898). Bibliotheca Hearniana, excerpts from the catalogue of Hearne's library, has been edited by B. Botfield (1848). See Impartial Memorials of the Life and Writings of Thomas Hearne by several hands (1736) ; and W. D. Macray, Annals of the Bodleian Library (1890). Hearne's autobiography is published in W. Huddes- ford's Lives of Leland, Hearne and Wood (Oxford, 1772). T. Ouvry's Letters addressed to Thomas Hearne has been privately printed (London, 1874). HEARSE (an adaptation of Fr. herse, a harrow, from Lat. hirpex, hirpicem, rake or harrow, Greek apira£), a vehicle for the conveyance of a dead body at a funeral. The most usual shape is a four-wheeled car, with a roofed and enclosed body, sometimes with glass panels, which contains the coffin. This is the only current use of the word. In its earlier forms it is usually found as " herse," and meant, as the French word did, a harrow (q.v.). It was then applied to other objects resembling a harrow, following the French. It was then used of a portcullis, and thus becomes a heraldic term, the " herse " being frequently borne as a " charge, " as in the arms of the City of Westminster. The ANATOMY] HEART 129 chief application of the word is, however, -to various objects used in funeral ceremonies. A " herse " or " hearse " seems first to have been a barrow-shaped framework of wood, to hold lighted tapers and decorations placed on a bier or coffin; this later developed into an elaborate pagoda-shaped erection of woodwork or metal for the funerals of royal or other distinguished persons. This held banners, candles, armorial bearings and other heraldic devices. Complimentary verses or epitaphs were often attached to the " hearse." An elaborate " hearse " was designed by Inigo Jones for the funeral of James I. The " hearse " is also found as a permanent erection over tombs. It is generally made of iron or other metal, and was used, not only to carry lighted candles, but also for the support of a pall during the funeral ceremony. There is a brass " hearse " in the Beauchamp Chapel at Warwick Castle, and one over the tomb of Robert Marmion and his wife at Tanfield Church near Ripon. HEART, in anatomy. — The heart1 is a four-chambered muscular bag, which lies in the cavity of the thorax between the two lungs. It is surrounded by another bag, the pericardium, for protective and lubricating purposes (see COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES). Externally the heart is somewhat conical, its base being directed upward, backward and to the right, its apex downward, forward and to the left. In transverse section the cone is flattened, so that there is an anterior and a posterior surface and a superior and inferior border. The superior border, running obliquely downward and to the left, is very thick, and so gains the name of margo obtusus, while the inferior border is horizontal and sharp and is called margo acutus (see fig. i). The divisions between the four chambers of the heart (namely, the two auricles and two ventricles) are indicated on the surface by grooves, and when these are followed it will be seen that the FIG. I. The Thoracic Viscera. — In this diagram the lungs are turned to the side, and the pericardium removed to display the heart, o, upper, a', lower lobe of left lung; b, upper, b', middle, 6', lower lobe of right lung; c, trachea; d, arch of aorta; e, superior vena cava; /, pulmonary artery; g, left, and ft, right auricle; k, right, and /, left ventricle; m, inferior vena cava; n, descending aorta; I, innominate artery; 2, right, and 4, left common carotid artery; 3, right, and 5, left subclayian artery; 6, 6, right and left innominate vein; 7 and 9, left and right internal jugular veins; 8 and 10, left and right subclavian veins; II, 12, 13, left pulmonary crtery, bronchus and vein; 14, 15, 16, right pulmonary bronchus, artery and vein ; 17 and 18, left and right coronary arteries. right auricle and ventricle lie on the front and right side, while the left auricle and ventricle are behind and on the left. The right auricle is situated at the base of the heart, and its outline is seen on looking at the organ from in front. Into the 'In O. Eng. heorte; this is a common Teut. word, cf. Dut. hart, (j-er. Herz, Goth, hairto; related by root are Lat. cor and Gr. KapSla: ie ultimate root i; hard-, to quiver, shake. xiii. 5 posterior part of it open the two venae cavae (see fig. 2), the superior (a) above and the inferior (b) below. In front and to the left of the superior vena cava is the right auricular appendage (e) which overlaps the front of the root of the aorta, while running obliquely from the front of one vena cava to the other is a shal- low groove called the sulcus terminalis, which indicates the original separation between the true auricle in front and the sinus venosus behind. When the auricle is opened by turning the front wall to the right as a flap the following structures are exposed: 1. A muscular ridge, called the crista termin- alis, corresponding to the sulcus terminalis on the exterior. 2. A series of ridges on the anterior wall FIG. 2. Cavities of the Right Side of the Heart. — a, superior, and b, inferior vena cava; c, arch of aorta; d, pulmonary artery ; e, right, and/, left auricular append- age; g, fossa ovalis; h, Eustachian valve; k, mouth of coronary vein; /, m, n, cusps of the tricuspid valve; o, o, papillary muscles; p, semilunar valve; g, corpus Arantii; r, lunula. and in the appendage, running downward from the last and at right angles to it, like the teeth of a comb; these are known as musculi pectinati. 3. The orifice of the superior vena cava (fig. 2, a) at the upper and back part of the chamber. 4. The orifice of the inferior vena cava (fig. 2, b) at the lower and back part. 5. Attached to the right and lower margins of this opening are the remains of the Eustachian valve (fig. 2, h), which in the foetus directs the blood from the inferior vena cava, through the joramen ovale, into the left auricle. 6. Below and to the left of this is the opening of the coronary sinus (fig. 2, k), which collects most of the veins returning blood from the substance of the heart. 7. Guarding this opening is the coronary valve or valve of Thebesius. 8. On the posterior or septal wall, between the two auricles, is an oval depression, called the fossa ovalis (fig. 2, g), the remains of the original communication between the two auricles. In about a quarter of all normal hearts there is a small valvular communication between the two auricles in the left margin of this depression (see " 7th Report of the Committee of Collective Investigation," /. Anal, and Phys. vol. xxxii. p. 164). 9. The annulus ovalis is the raised margin surrounding this depression. 10. On the left side, opening into the right ventricle, is the right auricula-ventricular opening. n. On the right wall, between the two caval openings, may occasionally be seen a slight eminence, the tubercle of Lower, which is supposed to separate the two streams of blood in the embryo. 12. Scattered all over the auricular wall are minute depres- sions, the foramina Thebesii, some of which receive small veins from the substance of the heart. The right ventricle is a triangular cavity (see fig. 2) the base of which is largely formed by the auriculo-ventricular orifice. To the left cf this it is continued up into the root of the pulmonary artery, and this part is known as the infundibulum. Its anterior wall forms part of the anterior surface of the heart, while its posterior wall is chiefly formed by the septum ventriculorum, S 130 HEART [ANATOMY between it and the left ventricle. Its lower border is the margo acutus already mentioned. In transverse section it is crescentic, since the septal wall bulges into its cavity. In its interior the following structures are seen: 1. The tricuspid valve (fig. 2, /, m, n) guarding against reflux of blood into the right auricle. This consists of a short cylindrical curtain of fibrous tissue, which projects into the ventricle from the margin of the auriculo-ventricular aperture, while from its free edge three triangular flaps hang down, the bases of which touch one another. These cusps are spoken of as septal, marginal and infundibular, from their position. 2. The chordae tendineae are fine fibrous cords which fasten the cusps to the musculi papillares and ventricular wall, and prevent the valve being turned inside out when the ventricle contracts. 3. The columnae carneae are fleshy columns, and are of three kinds. The first are attached to the wall of the ventricle in their whole length and are merely sculptured in relief, as it were; the second are attached by both ends and are free in the middle; while the third are known as the musculi papillares and are attached by one end to the ventricular wall, the other end giving attachment to the chordae tendineae. These musculi papillares are grouped into three bundles (fig. 2, 0). 4. The moderator band is really one of the second kind of columnae carneae which stretches from the septal to the anterior wall of the ventricle. 5. The pulmonary valve (fig. 2, p) at the opening of the pulmonary artery has three crescentiCj pocket-like cusps, which, when the ventricle is filling, completely close the aperture, but during the contraction of the ventricle fit into three small niches known as the sinuses of Valsalva, and so are quite out of the way of the escaping blood. In the middle of the free margin of each is a small knob called the corpus Arantii (fig. 2, 17), and on each side of this a thin crescent-shaped flap, thelunula (fig. 2, r), which is only made of two layers of endocardium, whereas in the rest of the cusp there is a fibrous backing between these two layers. The left auricle is situated at the back of the base of the heart, behind and to the left of the right auricle. Running down behind it are the oesophagus and the thoracic aorta. When it is opened it is seen to have a much lighter colour than the other cavities, owing to the greater thickness of its endocardium obscuring the red muscle beneath. There are no musculi pectinati except in the auricular appendage. The openings of the four pulmonary, veins are placed two on each side of the posterior wall, but sometimes there may be three on the right side, and only one on the left. On the septal wall is a small depression like the mark of a finger-nail, which corresponds to the anterior part of the fossa ovalis and often forms a valvular communication with the right auricle. The auriculo-ventricular orifice is large and oval, and is directed downward and to the left. Foramina Thebesii and venae minimae cordis are found in this auricle, as in the right, although the chamber is one for arterial or oxidized blood. At the lower part of the posterior surface of the unopened auricle, lying in the left auriculo-ventricular furrow, is the coronary sinus, which receives most of the veins returning the blood from the heart substance; these are the right and left coronary veins at each extremity and the posterior and left cardiac veins from below. One small vein, called the oblique vein of Marshall, runs down into it across the posterior surface of the auricle, from below the left lower pulmonary vein, and is of morphological interest. The left ventricle is conical, the base being above, behind and to the right, while the apex corresponds to the apex of the heart and lies opposite the fifth intercostal space, 33 in. from the mid line. The following structures are seen inside it: — 1. The mitral valve guarding the auriculo-ventricular opening has the same arrangement as the tricuspid, already described, save that there are only two cusps, named marginal and aortic, the latter of which is the larger. 2. The chordae tendineae and columnae carneae resemble those of the right ventricle, though there are only two bundles of musculi papillares instead of three. These are very large. A moderator band has been found as an abnormality (see /. Anal, and Phys. vol. xxx. p. 568). 3. The aortic valve has the same structure as the pulmonary, though the cusps are more massive. From the anterior and left posterior sinuses of Valsalva the coronary arteries arise. That part of the ventricle just below the aortic valve, corresponding to the infundibulum on the right, is known as the aortic vestibule. The walls of the left ventricle are three times as thick as those of the right, except at the apex, where they are thinner. The septum ventriculorum is concave towards the left ventricle, so that a transverse section of that cavity is nearly circular. The greater part of it has nsarly the same thickness as the rest of the left ventricular wall and is muscular, but a small portion of the upper part is membranous and thin, and is called the pars membranacea, septi; it lies between the aortic and pulmonary orifices. Structure of the Heart. — The arrangement of the muscular fibres of the heart is very complicated and only imperfectly known. For details one of the larger manuals, such as Cunning- ham's Anatomy (London, 1910), or Gray's Anatomy (London, 1 909) , should be consulted. The general scheme is that there are superficial fibres common to the two auricles and two ventricles and deeper fibres for each cavity. Until recently no fibres had been traced from the auricles to the ventricles, though Gaskell predicted that these would ba found, and the credit for first demonstrating them is due to Stanley Kent, their details having subsequently been worked out by W. His, Junr., and S. Tawara. The fibres of this auriculo-ventricular bundle begin, in the right auricle, below the opening of the coronary sinus, and run forward on the right side of the auricular septum, below the fossa ovalis, and close to the auriculo-ventricular septum. Above the septal flap of the tricuspid valve they thicken and divide into two main branches, one on either sid-e of the ventricular septum, which run down to the bases of the anterior and posterior papillary muscles, and so reach the walls of the ventricle, where their secondary branches form the fibres of Purkinje. The bundle is best seen in the hearts of young Ruminants, and it is presumably through it that the wave of contraction passes from the auricles to the ventricles (see article by A. Keith and M. Flack, Lancet, nth of August 1906, p. 359). The central fibrous body is a triangular mass of fibre-cartilage, situated between the two auriculo-ventricular and the aortic orifices. The upper part of the septum ventriculorum blends with it. The endocardium is a delicate layer of endothelial cells backed by a very thin layer of fibro-elastic tissue ; it is continuous with the endothelium of the great vessels and lines the whole of the cavities of the heart. The heart is roughly about the size of the closed fist and weighs from 8 to 12 oz.; it continues to increase in size up to about fifty years of age, but the increase is more marked in the male than in the female. Each ventricle holds about 4 f. oz. of blood, and each auricle rather less. The nerves of the heart are derived from the vagus, spinal accessory and sympathetic, through the superficial and deep cardiac plexuses. Embryology. In the article on the arteries (q.v.) the formation and coal- escence of the two primitive ventral aortas to form the heart are noticed, so that we may here start with a straight median tube lying ventral to the pharynx and being prolonged cephalad into the ventral aortae and caudad into the vitelline veins. This soon shows four dilatations, which, from the tiil towards the head end, are called the sinus venosus, ths auricle, the ventricle and the truncus 1 arteriosus. As the tubular heart grows more rapidly than the pericardium which contains it, ic becomes bent into the form of an S laid on its side (OT), the ventral convexity being the ventricle and the dorsal the auricle. The passage from the auricle to the ventricle is known as the auricular canal, and in the dorsal and ventral parts of this appear two thickenings 1 This is often called bulbus arteriosus, but it will be seen that the term is used rather differently in comparative anatomy. ANATOMY] HEART known as endocardial cushions, which approach one another and leave a transverse slit between them (fig. 3, E.G.). Eventually these two cushions fuse in the middle line, obliterating the central part of the slit, while the lateral parts remain as the two auriculo-ventricular orifices; this fusion is known as the septum intermedium. From the bottom (ventral convexity) of the ventricle an antero-posterior median septum grows up, which is the septum inferius or septum ventriculorum (fig. 3, V). Posteriorly (caudally) this septum fuses with the septum intermedium, but ante- riorly it is free at the lower part of the truncus arteriosus. On referring to the development of the arteries (see ARTERIES) it will be seen that another FIG. 3. — Formation of Septa. Diagram septum starts between of the formation of some of thi septa of tne [ast two pairs of the heart (viewed from the right side). S.V. Sinus venosus. Au. Auricle. aortic arches and grows downward (caudad) until B.C. Endocardial cushions forming it reaches and joins with septum intermedium. the septum inferius just V. Septum ventriculorum. mentioned. This septum T.Ar. Septum^aorticum mtruncus ar- agrticum (formed by two V.A. Ventral aorta. ingrowths from the wall of the vessel which fuse later) becomes twisted in such a way that the right ventricle is continuous with the last pair of aortic arches (pulmonary artery), while the left ventricle communicates with the other arches (the permanent ventral aorta and its branches); it joins the septum ventriculorum in the upper part of the ventricular cavity and so forms the pars membranacea septi (fig. 3, T. Ar). The fate of the sinus venosus and auricle must now be followed. Into the former, at first, only the two vitelline veins open, but later, as they develop, the ducts of Cuvier and the umbilical veins join in (see VEINS). As the ducts of Cuvier come from each side the sinus spreads out to meet them and becomes transversely elongated. The slight constriction, which at first is the only separation between the sinus and the auricle, becomes more marked, and later the opening is into the right part of the auricle, and is guarded by two valvular folds of endocardium (the venous valves) which project into that cavity, and are continuous above with a temporary downgrowth from the roof, known as the septum spurium. Later the right side of the sinus enlarges, and so does the right part of the aperture, until the back part of the right side of the auricle and the right part of the sinus venosus are thrown into one, and the only remnants of the partition are the crista terminalis and the Eustachian and Thebesian valves. The left part of the sinus venosus, which does not enlarge at the same rate as the right part, remains as the coronary sinus. It will now be seen why, in the adult heart, all the veins which open into the right auricle open into its posterior part, behind the crista terminalis. The septum spurium has been referred to as a temporary structure; the real division between the two auricles occurs at a later date than that between the ventricles and to the left of the septum spurium. It is formed by two partitions, the first of which, called the septum primum, grows down from the auricular roof. At first it does not quite reach the endocardial cushions in the auricular canal, already mentioned, but leaves a gap, called the ostium primum, between. This has nothing to do with the foramen oiiale, which occurs as an independent perforation higher up, and at first is known as the ostium secundum. When it is established the septum primum grows down and meets the endocardial cushions, and so the ostium primum is obliterated. The septum secundum grows down on the right of the septum primum and is never complete; it grows round and largely overlaps the foramen ovale and its edges form the annulus ovalis, so that, in the later months of foetal life, the foramen ovale is a valvular opening, the floor of which is formed by the septum primum and the margins by the septum secundum. The closure of the foramen is brought about by adhesion of the two septa. The pulmonary veins of the two sides at first join one another, dorsal to the left auricle, and open into that cavity by a single median trunk, but, as the auricle grows, this trunk and part of the right and left veins are absorbed into its cavity. The mitral and tricuspid valves are formed by the shortening of the auricular canal which becomes telescoped into the ventricle, and the cusps are the remnants of this telescoping process. The columnae carneae and chordae tendineae are the remains of a spongy network which originally filled the cavity of the primary ventricle. The aortic and pulmonary valves are laid down in the ventral aorta, before it is divided into aorta and pulmonary artery, as four endocardial cushions; anterior, posterior and two lateral. The septum aorticum cuts the latter two into two, so that each artery has the rudiments of three cusps. Abnormalities of the heart are very numerous, and can usually be explained by a knowledge of its development. They often cause grave clinical symptoms. A clear and well-illustrated review of the most important of them will be found in the chapter on congenital disease of the heart in Clinical Applied Anatomy, by C. R. Box and W. McAdam Eccles, London, 1906. For further details of the embryology of the heart see Oscar Hertwijj's Entwickelungslehre der Wirbeltiere (Jena, 1902) ; G. Born, " Entwicklung des Saugetierherzens," Archiv f. mik. Anal. Bd. 33 (1889); W. His, Anatomic mensMicher Embryonen (Leipzig, 1881- l88s); Quain's Anatomy, vol. i. (1908); C. S. Minot, Human Embryology (New York, 1892); and A. Keith, Human Embryology and Morphology (London, 1905). Comparative A natomy. In the Acrania (e.g. lancelet) there is no heart, though the vessels are specially contractile in the ventral part of the pharynx. In the Cyclostomata (lamprey and hag), and Fishes, the heart has the same arrangement which has been noticed in the human embryo. There is a smooth, thin-walled sinus venosus, a thin reticulate-walled auricle, produced laterally into two appendages, a thick-walled ventricle, and a conus arteriosus containing valves. In addition to these the beginning of the ventral aorta is often thickened and expanded to form a bulbus arteriosus, which is non-contractile, and, strictly speaking, should rather be described with the arteries than with the heart. In relation to human embryology the smooth sinus venosus and reticulated auricle are interesting. Between the auricle and ventricle is the auriculo-ventricular valve, which primarily consists of two cusps, comparable to the two endocardial cushions of the human embryo, though in some forms they may be sub- divided. In the interior of the ventricle is a network of muscular trabeculae. The conus arteriosus in the Elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) and Ganoids (sturgeon) is large and provided with several rows of semilunar valves, but in the Cyclostomes (lamprey) and Teleosts (bony fishes) the conus is reduced and only the anterior (cephalic) row of valves retained. With the reduction of the conus the bulbus arteriosus is enlarged. So far the heart is a single tubular organ expanded into various cavities and having the characteristic C/3-shaped form seen in the human embryo; it contains only venous blood which is forced through the gills to be oxidized on its way to the tissues. In the Dipnoi (mud fish), in which rudimentary lungs, as well as gills, are developed, the auricle is divided into two, and the sinus venosus opens into the right auricle. The conus arteriosus too begins to be divided into two chambers, and in Protopterus this division is complete. This division of the heart is one instance in which mammalian ontogeny does not repeat the processes of phylogeny, because, in the human embryo, it has been shown that the ventricular septum appears before the auricular. This want of harmony is sometimes spoken of as the " falsification of the embryological record." In the Amphibia there are also two auricles and one ventricle, 132 HEART [DISEASE though in the Urodela (tailed amphibians) the auricular septum is often fenestrated. The sinus venosus is still a separate chamber, and the conus arteriosus, which may contain many or few valves, is usually divided into two by a spiral fold. Structurally the amphibian heart closely resembles the dipnoan, though the increased size of the left auricle is an advance. In the Anura (frogs and toads) the whole ventricle is filled with a spongy network which prevents the arterial and venous blood from the two auricles mixing to any great extent. (For the anatomy and physiology of the frog's heart, see The Frog, by Milnes Marshall.) In the Reptiles the ventricular septum begins to appear; this in the lizards is quite incomplete, but in the crocodiles, which are usually regarded as the highest order of living reptiles, the partition has nearly reached the top of the ventricle, and the condition resembles that of the human embryo before the pars membranacea septi is formed. The conus arteriosus becomes included in the ventricular cavity, but the sinus venosus still remains distinct, and its opening into the right ventricle is guarded by two valves which closely resemble the two venous valves in the auricle of the human embryo already referred to. In the Birds the auricular and ventricular septa are complete; the right ventricle is thin-walled and crescentic in section, as in Man, and the musculi papillares are developed. The left auriculo- ventricular valve has three membranous cusps with chordae tendineae attached to them, but the right auriculo-ventricular valve has a large fleshy cusp without chordae tendineae. The sinus venosus is largely included in the right auricle, but remains of the two venous valves are seen on each side of the orifice of the inferior vena cava. In the Mammals the structure of the heart corresponds closely with the description of that of Man already given. In the Ornithorynchus, among the Monotremes, the right auriculo- ventricular valve has two fleshy and two membranous cusps, thus showing a resemblance to that of the bird. In the Echidna, the other member of the order, however, both auriculo-ventricular valves are membranous. In the Edentates the remains of the venous valves at the opening of the inferior vena cava are better marked than in other orders. In the Ungulates the moderator band in the right ventricle is especially well developed, and the central fibrous body at the base of the heart is often ossified, forming the os cordis so well known in the heart of the ox. The position of the heart in the lower mammals is not so oblique as it is in Man. For further details, see C. Rose, Beitr. z. vergl. Anat. des Herzens der Wirbelthiere Morph. Jahrb., Bd. xvi. (1890); R. Wiedersheim, Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbelthiere (Jena, 1902) (for literature) ; also Parker and Haswell's Zoology (London, 1897). (F. G. P.) HEART DJSEASE. — In the early ages of medicine, the absence of correct anatomical, physiological and pathological knowledge prevented diseases of the heart from being recognized with any certainty during life, and almost entirely precluded them from becoming the object of medical treatment. But no sooner did Harvey (1628) publish his discovery of the circulation of the blood, and its dependence on the heart as its central organ, than derangements of the circulation began to be recognized as signs of disease of that central organ. (See also under VASCULAR SYSTEM.) Among the earliest to profit by this discovery and to make important contributions to the literature of diseases of the heart and circulation were, R. Lower (1631-1691), R. Vieussens (1641-1716), H. Boerhave (1668-1738) and the great patho- logists at the beginning of the i8th century, G. M. Lancisi (1654-1720), G. B. Morgagni (1682-1771) and J. B. Senac (1693-1770). The works of these writers form very interesting reading, and it is remarkable how careful were the observations made, and how sound the conclusions drawn, by these pioneers of scientific medicine. J. N. Corvisart (1755-1821) was one of the earliest to make practical use of R. T. Auenbrugger's (1722- 1809) invention of percussion to determine the size of the heart. R. T. H. Laennec (1781-1826) was the first to make a scientific application of mediate auscultation to the diagnosis of disease of the chest, by the invention of the stethoscope. J. Bouillaud (1796-1881) extended its use to the diagnosis of disease of the heart. ToJamesHope (1801-1841) we owe much of the precision we have now attained in diagnosis of valvular disease from abnormalities in the sounds produced during cardiac movements. This short list by no means exhausts the earlier literature on the subject, but each of these names marks an era in the progress of the diagnosis of cardiac disease. In later years the literature on this subject has become very copious. The heart and great vessels occupy a position immediately to the left of the centre of the thoracic cavity. The anterior surface of the heart is projected against the chest wall and is surrounded on either side by the lungs, which are resonant organs, so that any increase in the size of the heart, " dilatation," can be de- tected by percussion. By placing the hand on the chest, palpa- tion, the impulse of the left ventricle, or apex beat, can normally be felt just below and internal to the nipple. Deviations from the normal in the position or force of the apex beat will afford important information as to the nature of the pathological changes in the heart. Thus, displacement downwards and out- wards of the apex beat, with a forcible thrusting impulse, will indicate hypertrophy, or increase of the muscular wall and increased driving power of the left ventricle, whereas a similar displacement with a feeble diffuse impulse will indicate dilatation, or over-distension of its cavity from stretching of the walls. By auscultation, or listening with a suitable instrument named a stethoscope over appropriate areas, we can detect any abnor- mality in the sounds of the heart, and the presence of murmurs indicative of disease of one or other of the valves of the heart. The pericardium is a fibro-serous sac which loosely envelops the heart and the origin of the great vessels. Inflammation of this sac, or pericarditis, is apt to occur as a result of rheumatism, more especially in children. It may also occur as a complication of pneumonia. It is a serious affection associated with pain over the heart, fever, shortness of breath, rapid pulse and dilatation of the heart. As a result of the inflammation, fluid may accu- mulate in the pericardial sac, or the walls of the sac may become adherent to the heart and tend to embarrass its action. In favourable cases, however, recovery may take place without any untoward sequelae. Diseases of the heart may be classified in two main groups, (i) Disease of the valves, and (2) Disease of the walls of the heart. i. Valvular Disease. — Inflammation of the valves of the heart, or endocarditis, is one of the most common complications of rheumatism in children and young adults. More severe types, which are apt to prove fatal from a form of blood poisoning, may result when the valves of the heart are attacked by certain micro-organisms, such as the pneumccoccus, which is responsible for pneumonia, the streptococcus and the staphylococcus pyogenes, the gonococcus and the influenza bacillus. As a result of endocarditis, one or more of the valves may be seriously damaged, so that it leaks or becomes incompetent. The valves of the left side of the heart, the aortic and mitral valves, are affected far more commonly than those of the right side. It is indeed comparatively rarely that the latter are attacked. In the process of healing of a damaged valve, scar tissue is formed which has a tendency to contract, so that in some cases the orifice of the valve becomes narrowed, and the resulting stenosis or narrowing gives rise to obstruction of the blood stream. We may thus have incompetence or stenosis of a valve or both combined. Valvular lesions are detected on auscultation over appropriate areas by the blowing sounds or murmurs to which they give rise, which modify or replace the normal heart sounds. Thus, lesions of the mitral valve give rise to murmurs which are heard at the apex beat of the heart, and lesions of the aortic valves to murmurs which are heard over the aortic area, in the second right inter- costal space. Accurate timing of the murmurs in relation to the heart sounds enables us to judge whether the murmur is due to stenosis or incompetence of the valve affected. DISEASE] HEART 133 If the valvular lesion is severe, it is essential for the proper maintenance of the circulation that certain changes should take place in the heart to compensate for or neutralize the effects of the regurgitation or obstruction, as the case may be. In affec- tions of the aortic valve, the extra work falls on the left ventricle, which enlarges proportionately and undergoes hypertrophy. In affections of the mitral valve the effect is felt primarily by the left auricle, which is a thin walled structure incapable of under- going the requisite increase in power to resist the backward flow through the mitral orifice in case of leakage, or to overcome the effects of obstruction in case of stenosis. The back pressure is therefore transmitted to the pulmonary circulation, and as the right ventricle is responsible for maintaining the flow of blood through the lungs, the strain and extra work fall on the right ventricle, which in turn enlarges and undergoes hypertrophy. The degree of hypertrophy of the left or right ventricle is thus, up to a certain point, a measure of the extent of the lesion of the aortic or mitral valve respectively. When the effects of the valvular lesion are so neutralized by these structural changes in the heart that the circulation is equably maintained, " com- pensation " is said to be efficient. When the heart gives way under the strain, compensation is said to break down, and dropsy, shortness of breath, cough and cyanosis, are among the distressing symptoms which may set in. The mere existence of a valvular lesion does not call for any special treatment so long as compensation is efficient, and a large number of people with slight valvular lesions are living lives indistinguishable from those of their neighbours. It will, however, be readily understood that in the case of the more serious lesions certain precautions should be observed in regard to over-exertion, excitement, over-indulgence in tobacco or alcohol, &c., as the balance is more readily upset and any undue strain on the heart may cause a breakdown of compensation. When this occurs treatment is required. A period of rest in bed is often sufficient to enable 'the heart to recover, and this may be supplemented as required by the administration of mercurial and saline purgatives to relieve the embarrassed circulation, and of suitable cardiac tonics, such as digitalis and strychnin, to reinforce and strengthen the heart's action. 2. Affections of the Muscular Wall of the Heart. — Dilatation of the heart, or stretching of the walls of the heart, is an incident, as has already been stated, in pericarditis and in the earlier stages of valvular disease antecedent to hypertrophy. Temporary over-distension or dilatation of the cavities of the heart occurs in violent and protracted exertion, but rapidly subsides and is in no wise harmful to the sound and vigorous heart of the young. It is otherwise if the heart is weak and flabby from a too sedentary life or degenerative changes in its walls or during convalescence from a severe illness, when the same circumstances which will not injure a healthy heart, may give rise to serious dilatation from which recovery may be very protracted. Influenza is a common cause of cardiac dilatation, and is liable to be a source of trouble after the acute illness has subsided, if the patient goes about and resumes his ordinary avocations too soon. Fatty or fibroid degeneration of the heart wall may occur in later life from impaired nutrition of the muscle, due to partial obstruction of the blood-vessels supplying it, when they are the seat of the degenerative changes known as arteriosclerosis or atheroma. The affection known as angina pectoris (q.v.) may be a further consequence of this defective blood-supply. The treatment will vary according to the nature of the case. In serious cases of dilatation, rest in bed, purgatives and cardiac tonics may be required. In commencing degenerative change the Oertel treatment, consisting of graduated exercise up a gentle slope, limitation of fluids and a special diet, may be indicated. In cases of slight dilatation after influenza or recent illness, the Schott treatment by baths and exercises as carried out at Nauheim mav be sometimes beneficial. The change of air and scene, the enforced rest, the placid life, together with freedom from excitement and worry, are among the most important factors which contribute to success in this class of case. Disorders of Rhythm of the Heart's Action. — Under this heading may be grouped a number of conditions to which the name " functional affections of the heart " has sometimes been applied, inasmuch as the disturbances in question cannot usually be attributed to definite organic disease of the heart. We must, of course, exclude from this category the irregularity in the force and frequency of the pulse, which is commonly associated with incompetence of the mitral valve. The heart is a muscular organ possessing certain properties, rhythmicity, excitability, contractility, conductivity and ton- icity, as pointed out by Gaskell, in virtue of which it is able to maintain a regular automatic beat independently of nerve stimulation. It is, however, intimately connected with the brain, blood-vessels and the abdominal and thoracic viscera, by innumerable nerves, through which impulses or messages are being constantly sent to and received from these various portions of the body. Such messages may give rise to disturbances of rhythm with which we are all familiar. For instance, sudden fright or emotion may cause a momentary arrest of the heart's action, and excitement or apprehension may set up a rapid action of the heart or palpitation. Palpitation, again, is often the result of digestive disorders, the message in this case being received from the stomach, instead of the brain as in emotional disturbances. It may also result from over-indulgence in tobacco and alcohol. Tachycardia is the name applied to a more or less permanent increase in the rate of the heart-beat. It is usually a prominent feature in the affection known as Graves' disease or exophthalmic goitre. It may also result from chronic alcoholism. In the condition known as paroxysmal tachycardia there appears to be no adequate explanation for its onset. Bradycardia or abnormal slowness of the heart-beat, is the converse of tachycardia. An abnormally slow pulse is met with in melancholia, cerebral tumour, jaundice and certain toxic conditions, or may follow an attack of influenza. There is, however, a peculiar affection characterized by abnormal slowness of pulse (often ranging as low as 30), and the onset, from time to time, of epileptiform or syncopal attacks. To this the name " Stokes-Adams disease " has been applied, as it was first called attention to by Adams in 1827, and subsequently fully described by Stokes in 1836. It is usually associated with senile degenerative change of the heart and vascular system, and is held to be due to impairment of conductivity in the muscular fibres (bundle of His) which transmit the wave of contraction from the auricle to the ventricle. It is of serious significance in view of the symptoms associated with it. Intermittency of the Pulse. — By this is understood a pulse in which a beat is dropped from time to time. The dropping of a beat may occur at regular intervals every two, four or six beats, &c., or occasionally at irregular intervals after a series of normal beats. On examining the heart, it is found, as a rule, that the cause of the intermission at the wrist is not actual omission of a heart-beat, but the occurrence of a hurried imperfect cardiac contraction which does not transmit a pulse-wave to the wrist. It is' not characteristic of any special form of heart affection, and is rarely of serious import. It may be due to reflex digestive disturbances, or be associated with conditions of nervous breakdown and irritability, or with an atonic and relaxed condition of the heart muscle. The treatment of these disorders of rhythm of the heart will vary greatly according to the cause and is often a matter of considerable difficulty. (J. F. H. B.) Surgery of Heart and Pericardium. — As the result of acute or chronic inflammation of the lining membrane of the fibrous sac which surrounds the heart and the neighbouring parts of the large blood-vessels, a dropsical or a purulent collection may form in it, or the sac may be quietly distended by a thin watery fluid. In. either case, but especially in the latter, the heart may be so embarrassed in its work that death seems imminent. The condition is generally due to the cultivation HEART-BURIAL—HEARTS in the pericardium of the germs of rheumatism, influenza or gonorrhoea, or of those of ordinary suppuration. Respiration as well as circulation is embarrassed, and there is a marked fulness and dulness of the front wall of the chest to the left of the breast-bone. In that region also pain and tenderness are complained of. By using the slender, hollow needle of an aspirator great relief may be afforded, but the tapping may have to be repeated from time to time. If the fluid drawn off is found to be purulent, it may be necessary to make a trap-door opening into the chest by cutting across the 4th and 5th ribs, incising and evacuating the pericardium and providing for drainage. In short, an abscess in the pericardium must be treated like an abscess in the pleura. Wounds of the heart are apt to be quickly fatal. If the probability is that the enfeebled action of the heart is due to pressure from blood which is leaking into, and is locked up in the pericardium, the proper treatment will be to open the pericardium, as described above, and, if possible, to close the opening in the auricle, ventricle or large vessel, by sutures. (E. O.*). HEART-BURIAL, the burial of the heart apart from the body. This is a very ancient practice, the special reverence shown towards the heart being doubtless due to its early association with the soul of man, His affections, courage arid conscience. In medieval Europe heart-burial was fairly common. Some of the more notable cases are those of Richard I., whose heart, preserved in a casket, was placed in Rouen cathedral; Henry III., buried in Normandy; Eleanor, queen of Edward I., at Lincoln; Edward I., at Jerusalem; Louis IX., Philip III., Louis XIII. and Louis XIV., in Paris. Since the lyth century the hearts of deceased members of the house of Habsburg have been buried apart from the body in the Loretto chapel in the Augustiner Kirche, Vienna. The most romantic story of heart-burial is that of Robert Bruce. He wished his heart to rest at Jerusalem in the church of the Holy Sepulchre, and on his deathbed entrusted the fulfilment of his wish to Douglas. The latter broke his journey to join the Spaniards in their war with the Moorish king of Granada, and was killed in battle, the heart of Bruce enclosed in a silver casket hanging round'his neck. Subsequently the heart was buried at Melrose Abbey. The heart of James, marquess of Montrose, executed by the Scottish Covenanters in 1650, was recovered from his body, which had been buried by the roadside outside Edinburgh, and, enclosed in a steel box, was sent to the duke of Montrose, then in exile. It was lost on its journey, and years afterwards was discovered in a curiosity shop in Flanders. Taken by a member of the Montrose family to India, it was stolen as an amulet by a native chief, was once more regained, and finally lost in France during the Revolution. Of notable 17th-century cases there is that of James II., whose heart was buried in the church of the convent of the Visitation at Chaillot near Paris, and that of Sir William Temple, at Moor Park, Farnham. The last ceremonial burial of a heart in England was that of Paul Whitehead, secretary to the Monks of Med- menham club, in 1775, the interment taking place in the Le Despenser mausoleum at High Wycombe, Bucks. Of later cases the most notable are those of Daniel O'Connell, whose heart is at Rome, Shelley at Bournemouth, Louis XVII. at Venice, Kosciusko at the Polish museum at Rapperschwyll, Lake Zurich, and the marquess of Bute, taken by his widow to Jerusalem for burial in 1900. Sometimes other parts of the body, removed in the process of embalming, are given separate and solemn burial. Thus the viscera of the popes from Sixtus V. (1590) onward have been preserved in the parish church of the Quirinal. The custom of heart-burial was forbidden by Pope Boniface VIII. (1294- 1303), but Benedict XI. withdrew the prohibition. See Pettigrew, Chronicles of the Tombs (1857). HEARTH (a word which appears in various forms in several Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch haard, German Herd, in the sense of " floor "), the part of a room where a fire is made, usually constructed of stone, bricks, tiles or earth, beaten hard and having a chimney above; the fire being lighted either on the hearth itself, or in a receptacle placed there for the purpose. Like the Latin focus, especially in the phrase for " hearth and home " answering to pro aris etfocis, the word is used as equiva- lent to the home or household. The word is also applied to the fire and cooking apparatus on board ship; the floor of a smith's forge; the floor of a reverberatory furnace on which the ore is exposed to the flame; the lower part of a blast furnace through which the metal goes down into the crucible; in soldering, a portable brazier or chafing dish, and an iron box sunk in the middle of a flat iron plate or table. An " open-hearth furnace " is a regenerative furnace of the reverberatory type used in making steel, hence "open-hearth steel" (see IRON AND STEEL). Hearth-money, hearth tax or chimney-money, was a tax im- posed in England on all houses except cottages at a rate of two shillings for every hearth. It was first levied in 1662, but owing to its unpopularity, chiefly caused by the domiciliary visits of the collectors, it was repealed in 1689, although it was pro- ducing £170,000 a year. The principle of the tax was not new in the history of taxation, for in Anglo-Saxon times the king derived a part of his revenue from a fumage or tax of smoke farthings levied on all hearths except those of the poor. It appears also in the hearth-penny or tax of a penny on every hearth, which as early as the loth century was paid annually to the pope (see PETER'S PENCE). HEARTS, a game of cards of recent origin, though founded upon the same principle as many old games, such as Slobber- hannes, Four Jacks and Enfle, namely, that of losing instead of winning as many tricks as possible. Hearts is played with a full pack, ace counting highest and deuce lowest. In the fourhanded game, which is usually played, the entire pack is dealt out as at whist (but without turning up the last card, since there are no trumps), and the player at the dealer's left begins by leading any card he chooses, the trick being taken by the highest card of the suit led. Each player must follow suit if he can; if he has no cards of the suit led he is privileged to throw away any card he likes, thus having an opportunity of getting rid of his hearts, which is the object of the game. When all thirteen tricks have been played each player counts the hearts he has taken in and pays into the pool a certain number of counters for them, according to an arrangement made before beginning play. In the four- handed, or sweepstake, game the method of settling called " Howell's," from the name of the inventor, has been generally adopted, according to which each player begins with an equal number of chips, say 100, and, after the hand has been played, pays into the pool as many chips for each heart he had taken as there are players besides himself. Then each player takes out of the pool one chip for every heart he did not win. The pool is thus exhausted with every deal. Hearts may be played by two, three, four or even more players, each playing for himself. Spot Hearts. — In this variation the hearts count according to the number of spots on the cards, excepting that the ace counts 14, the king 13, queen 12 and knave n, the combined score of the thirteen hearts being thus 104. Auction Hearts.- — In this the eldest hand examines his hand and bids a certain number of counters for the privilege of naming the suit to be got rid of, but without naming the suit. The other players in succession have the privilege of outbidding him, and whoever bids most declares the suit and pays the amount of his bid into the pool, the winner taking it. Joker Hearts. — Here the deuce of hearts is discarded, and an extra card, called the joker, takes its place, ranking in value between ten and knave. It cannot be thrown away, excepting when hearts are led and an ace or court card is played, though if an opponent discards the ace or a court card of hearts, then the holder of the joker may discard it. The joker is usually considered worth five chips, which are either paid into the pool or to the player who succeeds in discarding the joker. Heartsette. — In this variation the deuce of spades is deleted and the three cards left after dealing twelve cards to each player are called the widow (or kitty), and are left face downward on the table. The winner of the first trick must take the widow without showing it to his opponents. Slobberhannes. — The object of this older form of Hearts is to avoid taking either the first or last trick or a trick containing the queen of clubs. A euchre pack (thirty two-cards, lacking all below the 7) is used, and each player is given 10 counters, one being forfeited to the pool if a player takes the first or last trick, or that containing the club queen. If he takes all three he forfeits four points. HEAT Four Jacks (Polignac or Quatre -Valets) is usually played with a piquet pack, the cards ranking in France as at ecarte, but in Great Britain and America as at piquet. There is no trump suit. Counters are used, and the object of the game is to avoid taking any trick containing a knave, especially the knave of spades, called Polignac. The player taking such a trick forfeits one counter to the pool. Enfle (or Schwellen) is usually played by four persons with a piquet pack and for a pool. The cards rank as at Hearts, and there is no trump suit. A player must follow suit if he can, but if he cannot he may not discard, but must take up all tricks already won and add them to his hand. Play is continued until one player gets rid of all his cards and thus wins. HEAT (O.E. hatlu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hdt, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.), a general term applied to that branch of physical science which deals with the effects produced by heat on material bodies, with the laws of transference of heat, and with the transformations of heat into other kinds of energy. The object of the present article is to give a brief sketch of the historical development of the science of heat, and to indicate the relation of the different branches of the subject, which are discussed in greater detail with reference to the latest progress in separate articles. 1. Meanings -of the Term Heat. — The term heat is employed in ordinary language in a number of different senses. This makes it a convenient term to employ for the general title of the science, but the different meanings must be carefully distinguished in scientific reasoning. For the present purpose, omitting meta- phorical significations, we may distinguish four principal uses of the term: (a) Sensation of heat; (b) Temperature, or degree of hotness; (c) Quantity of thermal energy; (d) Radiant heat, or energy of radiation. (a) From the sense of heat, aided in the case of very hot bodies by the sense of sight, we obtain our first rough notions of heat as a physical entity, which alters the state of a body and its condition in respect of warmth, and is capable of passing from one body to another. By touching a body we can tell whether it is warmer or colder than the hand, and, by touching two similar bodies in suc- cession, we can form a rough estimate, by the acuteness of the sensation experienced, of their difference in hotness or coldness over a limited range. If a hot iron is placed on a cold iron plate, we may observe that the plate is heated and the iron cooled until both attain appreciably the same degree of warmth; and we infer from similar cases that something which we call " heat " tends to pass from hot to cold bodies, and to attain finally a state of equable diffusion when all the bodies concerned are equally warm or cold. Ideas such as these derived entirely from the sense of heat, are, so to speak, embedded in the language of every nation from the earliest times. (6) From the sense of heat, again, we naturally derive the idea of a continuous scale or order, expressed by such terms as summer heat, blood heat, fever heat, red heat, white heat, in which all bodies may be placed with regard to their degrees of hotness, and we speak of the temperature of a body as denoting its place in the scale, in contradistinction to the quantity of heat it may contain. (c) The quantity of heat contained in a body obviously depends on the size of the body considered. Thus a large kettleful of boiling water will evidently contain more heat than a teacupful, though both may be at the same temperature. The temperature does not depend on the size of the body, but on the degree of concentration of the heat in it, i.e. on the quantity of heat per unit mass, other things being equal. We may regard it as axiomatic that a given body (say a pound of water) in a given state (say boiling under a given pressure) must always contain the same quantity of heat, and conversely that, if it contains a given quantity of heat, and if it is under conditions in other respects, it must be at a definite tempera- ture, which will always be the same for the same given conditions. (d) It is a matter of common observation that rays of the sun or of a fire falling on a body warm it, and it was in the first instance natural to suppose that heat itself somehow travelled across the intervening space from the sun or fire to the body warmed, in much the same way as heat may be carried by a current of hot air or water. But we now know that energy of radiation is not the same thing as heat, though it is converted into heat when the rays strike an absorbing substance. The term " radiant heat," however, is generally retained, because radiation is commonly measured in terms of the heat it produces, and because the transference of energy by radiation and absorption is the most important agency in the diffusion of heat. 2. Evolution of the Thermometer. — The first step in the develop- ment of the science of heat was necessarily the invention of a thermometer, an instrument for indicating temperature and measuring its changes. The first requisite in the case of such an FIG. i. FIG. 2. instrument is that it should always give, at least approximately, the same indication at the same temperature. The air-thermo- scope of Galileo, illustrated in fig. i, which consisted of a glass bulb containing air, connected to a glass tube of small bore dipping into a coloured liquid, though very sensi- tive to variations of temperature, was not satisfactory as a measuring instrument, because it was also affected by varia- tions of atmospheric pressure. The invention of the type of thermometer familiar at the present day, containing a liquid hermetically sealed in a glass bulb with a fine tube attached, is also generally attributed to Galileo at a slightly later date, about 1612. Alcohol was the liquid first employed, and the degrees, intended to represent thousandths of the volume of the bulb, were marked with small beads of enamel fused on the stem, as shown in fig. 2. In order to render the readings of such instruments comparable with each other, it was necessary to select a fixed point or standard temperature as the zero or starting-point of the graduations. In- stead of making each degree a given fraction of the volume of the bulb, which would be difficult in practice, and would give different values for the degree with different liquids, it was soon found to be preferable to take two fixed points, and to divide the interval between them into the same number of degrees. It was natural in the first instance to take the temperature of the human body as one of the fixed points. In 1701 Sir Isaac Newton proposed a scale in which the freezing-point of water was taken as zero, and the temperature of the human body as 12°. About the same date (1714) Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit proposed to take as zero the lowest temperature obtainable with a freezing mixture of ice and salt, and to divide the interval between this temperature and that of the human body into 12°. To obtain finer graduations the number was subsequently increased to 06°. The freezing- point of water was at that time supposed to be somewhat variable, because as a matter of fact it is possible to cool water several degrees below its freezing-point in the absence of ice. Fahrenheit showed, however, that as soon as ice began to form the tempera- ture always rose to the same point, and that a mixture of ice or snow with pure water always gave the same temperature. At a later period he also showed that the temperature of boiling water varied with the barometric pressure, but that it was always the same at the same pressure, and might therefore be used as the second fixed point (as Edmund Halley and others had suggested) provided that a definite pressure, such as the average atmospheric pressure, were specified. The freezing and boiling- points on one of his thermometers, graduated as already ex- plained, with the temperature of the body as 96°, came out in the neighbourhood of 32° and 212° respectively, giving an interval of 1 80° between these points. Shortly after Fahrenheit's death (1736) the freezing and boiling-points of water were generally recognized as the most convenient fixed points to adopt, but different systems of subdivision were employed. Fahrenheit's scale, with its small degrees and its zero below the freezing-point, possesses undoubted advantages for meteorological work, and is still retained in most English-speaking countries. But for general scientific purposes, the centigrade system, in which the freezing-point is marked o° and the boiling-point 100°, is now almost universally employed, on account of its greater simplicity from an arithmetical point of view. For work of precision the fixed points have been more exactly defined (see THERMOMETRY) , but no change has been made in the fundamental principle of graduation. 3. Comparison of Scales based on Expansion. — Thermometers constructed in the manner already described will give strictly comparable readings, provided that the tubes be of uniform bore, and that the same liquid and glass be employed in their 136 HEAT [CALORIMETRY construction. But they possess one obvious defect from a theo- retical point of view, namely, that the subdivision of the tem- perature scale depends on the expansion of the particular liquid selected as the standard. A liquid such as water, which, when con- tinuously heated at a uniform rate from its freezing-pcint, first contracts and then expands, at a rapidly increasing rate, would obviously be unsuitable. But there is no a priori reason why other liquids should not behave to some extent in a similar way. As a matter of fact, it was soon observed that thermometers care- fully constructed with different liquids, such as alcohol, oil and mercury, did not agree precisely in their indications at points of the scale intermediate between the fixed points, and diverged even more widely outside these limits. Another possible method, proposed in 1694 by Carlo Renaldeni (1615-1698), professor of mathematics and philosophy at Pisa, would be to determine the intermediate points of the scale by observing the temperatures of mixtures of ice-cold and boiling water in varying proportions. On this method, the temperature of 50° C. would be defined as that obtained by mixing equal weights of water at o° C. and 100° C.; 20° C., that obtained by mixing 80 parts of water at o° C. with 20 parts of water at 100° C. and so on. Each degree rise of temperature in a mass of water would then represent the addition of the same quantity of heat. The scale thus obtained would, as a matter of fact, agree very closely with that of a mercury thermometer, but the method would be very difficult to put in practice, and would still have the disadvantage of depending on the properties of a particular liquid, namely, water, which is known to behave in an anomalous manner in other respects. At a later date, the researches of Gay-Lussac (1802) and Regnault (1847) showed that the laws of the expansion of gases are much simpler than those of liquids. Whereas the expansion of alcohol between o° C. and 100° C. is nearly seven times as great as that of mercury, all gases (excluding easily condensible vapours) expand equally, or so nearly equally that the differences between them cannot be detected without the most refined observations. This equality of expansion affords a strong a priori argument for selecting the scale given by the expansion of a gas as the standard scale of temperature, but there are still stronger theoretical grounds for this choice, which will be indicated in discussing the absolute scale (§ 21). Among liquids mercury is found to agree most nearly with the gas scale, and is generally employed in thermometers for scientific purposes on account of its high boiling-point and for other reasons. The differences of the mercurial scale from the gas scale having been carefully determined, the mercury thermometer can be used as a secondary standard to replace the gas thermometer within certain limits, as the gas thermometer would be very troublesome to employ directly in ordinary investigations. For certain purposes, and especially at temperatures beyond the range of mercury thermometers, electrical thermometers, also standardized by reference to the gas thermometer, have been very generally employed in recent years, while for still higher temperatures beyond the range of the gas thermometer, thermometers based on the recently established laws ofiradiation are the only instruments available. For a further discussion of the theory and practice of the measurement of temperature, the reader is referred to the article THERMOMETRY. 4. Change of State. — Among the most important effects of heat is that of changing the state of a substance from solid to liquid, or from liquid to vapour. With very few exceptions, all substances, whether simple or compound, are known to be capable of existing in each of the three states under suitable conditions of temperature and pressure. The transition of any substance, from the state of liquid to that of solid or vapour under the ordinary atmospheric pressure, takes place at fixed temperatures, the freezing and boiling-points, which are very sharply defined for pure crystalline substances, and serve in fact as fixed points of the ther mometric scale. A change of state cannot, however, be effected in any case without the addition or subtraction of a certain definite quantity of heat. If a piece of ice below the freezing-point is gradually heated at a uniform rate, its tem- perature may be observed to rise regularly till the freezing-point is reached. At this point it begins to melt, and its temperature ceases to rise. The melting takes a considerable time, during the whole of which heat is being continuously supplied without producing any rise of temperature, although if the same quantity of heat were supplied to an equal mass of water, the temperature of the water would be raised nearly 80° C. Heat thus absorbed in producing a change of state without rise of temperature is called "Latent Heat," a term introduced by Joseph Black, who was one of the first to study the subject of change of state from the point of view of heat absorbed, and who in many cases actually adopted the comparatively rough method described above of estimating quantities of heat by observing the time required to produce a given change when the substance was receiving heat at a steady rate from its surroundings. For every change of state a definite quantity of heat is required, without which the change cannot take place. Heat must be added to melt a solid, or to vaporize a solid or a liquid, and conversely, heat must be subtracted to reverse the change, i.e. to condense a vapour or freeze a liquid. The quantity required for any given change depends on the nature of the substance and the change considered, and varies to some extent with the conditions (as to pressure, &c.) under which the change is made, but is always the same for the same change under the same conditions. A rough measurement of the latent heat of steam was made as early as 1 764 by James Watt, who found that steam at 212° F., when passed from a kettle into a jar of cold water, was capable of raising nearly six times its weight of water to the boiling point. He gives the volume of the steam as about 1800 times that of an equal weight of water. The phenomena which accompany change of state, and the physical laws by which such changes are governed, are discussed in a series of special articles dealing with particular cases. The articles on FUSION and ALLOYS deal with the change from the solid to the liquid state, and the analogous case of solution is dis- cussed in the article on SOLUTION. The articles on CONDENSATION OF GASES, LIQUID GASES and VAPORIZATION deal with the theory of the change of state from liquid to vapour, and with the important applications of liquid gases to other researches. The methods of measuring the latent heat of fusion or vaporization are described in the article CALORIMETRY, and need not be further discussed here except as an introduction to the history of the evolution of knowledge with regard to the nature of heat. 5. Calorimetry by Latent Heat. — In principle, the simplest and most direct method of measuring quantities of heat consists in observing the effects produced in melting a solid or vaporizing a liquid. It was, in fact, by the fusion of ice that quantities of heat were first measured. If a hot body is placed in a cavity in a block of ice at o° C., and is covered by a closely fitting slab of ice, the quantity of ice melted will be directly proportional to the quantity of heat lost by the body in cooling to o° C. None of the heat can possibly escape through the ice, and conversely no heat can possibly get in from outside. The body must cool exactly to o° C., and every fraction of the heat it loses must melt an equivalent quantity of ice. Apart from heat lost in trans- ferring the heated body to the ice block, the method is theoretic- ally perfect. The only difficulty consists in the practical measurement of the quantity of ice melted. Black estimated this quantity by mopping out the cavity with a sponge before and after the operation. But there is a variable film of water adhering to the walls of the cavity, which gives trouble in accurate work. In 1780 Laplace and Lavoisier used a double-walled metallic vessel containing broken ice, which was in many respects more convenient than the block, but aggravated the difficulty of the film of water adhering to the ice. In spite of this practical difficulty, the quantity of heat required to melt unit weight of ice was for a long time taken as the unit of heat. This unit possesses the great advantage that it is independent of the scale of temperature adopted. At a much later date R. Bunsen (Phil. Mag., 1871), adopting a suggestion of Sir John Herschel's, devised an ice-calorimeter suitable for measuring small quan- tities of heat, in which the difficulty of the water film was over- come by measuring the change in volume due to the melting of the ice. The volume of unit mass of ice is approximately 1-0920 times that of unit mass of water, so that the diminution of volume WATT'S INDICATOR DIAGRAM] HEAT 137 is 0-092 of a cubic centimetre for each gramme of ice melted. The method requires careful attention to details of manipulation, which are more fully discussed in the article on CALORIMETRY. For measuring large quantities of heat, such as those produced by the combustion of fuel in a boiler, the most convenient method is the evaporation of water, which is commonly employed by engineers for the purpose. The natural unit in this case is the quantity of heat required to evaporate unit mass of water at the boiling point under atmospheric pressure. In boilers working at a higher pressure, or supplied with water at a lower temperature, appropriate corrections are applied to deduce the quantity evaporated in terms of this unit. For laboratory work on a small scale the converse method of condensation has been successfully applied by John Joly, in whose steam-calorimeter the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body from the atmospheric temperature to that of steam condensing at atmospheric pressure is observed by weighing the mass of steam condensed on it. (See CALORI- METRY.) 6. Thermometric Calorimetry.—FoT the majority of purposes the most convenient and the most readily applicable method of measuring quantities of heat, is to observe the rise of tem- perature produced in a known mass of water contained in a suitable vessel or calorimeter. This method was employed from a very early date by Count Rumford and other investigators, and was brought to a high pitch of perfection by Regnault in his extensive calorimetric researches (M6moires de I'lnstitut de Paris, 1847); but it is only within comparatively recent years that it has really been placed on a satisfactory basis by the accurate definition of the units involved. The theoretical objections to the method, as compared with latent heat calorimetry, are that some heat is necessarily lost by the calorimeter when its tem- perature is raised above that of the surroundings, and that some heat is used in heating the vessel containing the water. These are small corrections, which can be estimated with considerable accuracy in practice. A more serious difficulty, which has impaired the value of much careful work by this method, is that the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a given mass of water i° C. depends on the temperature at which the water is taken, and also on the scale of the thermometer employed. It is for this reason, in many cases, impossible to say, at the present time, what was the precise value, within % or even i % of the heat unit, in terms of which many of the older results, such as those of Regnault, were expressed. For many purposes this would not be a serious matter, but for work of scientific precision such a limitation of accuracy would constitute a very serious bar to progress. The unit generally adopted for scientific purposes is the quantity of heat required to raise i gram (or kilogram) of water i° C., and is called the calorie (or kilo-calorie). English engineers usually state results in terms of the British Thermal Unit (B.Th.U.), which is the quantity of heat required to raise i Ib of water i° F. 7. Watt's Indicator Diagram; Work of Expansion. — The rapid development of the steam-engine (q.v.) in England during the latter part of the i8th century had a marked effect on the progress of the science of heat. In the first steam-engines the working cylinder served both as boiler and condenser, a very wasteful method, as most of the heat was transferred directly from the fire to the condensing water without useful effect. The first improvement (about 1700) was to use a separate boiler, but the greater part of the steam supplied was still wasted in reheating the cylinder, which had been cooled by the injection of cold water to condense the steam after the previous stroke. In 1769 James Watt showed how to avoid this waste by using a separate condenser and keeping the cylinder as hot as possible. In his earlier engines the steam at full boiler pressure was allowed to raise the piston through nearly the whole of its stroke. Connexion with the boiler was then cut off, and the steam at full pressure was discharged into the condenser. Here again there was unnecessary waste, as the steam was still capable of doing useful work. He subsequently introduced " expansive working," which effected still further economy. The connexion with the boiler was cut off when a fraction only, say }, of the stroke had been completed, the remainder of 'the stroke being effected by the expansion of the steam already in the cylinder with continually diminishing pressure. By the end of the stroke, when connexion was made to the condenser, the pressure was so reduced that there was comparatively little waste from this cause. Watt also devised an instrument called an indicator (see STEAM ENGINE), in which a pencil, moved up and down vertically by the steam pressure, recorded the pressure in the cylinder at every point of the stroke on a sheet of paper moving horizontally in time with the stroke of the piston. The diagram thus obtained made it possible to study what was happening inside the cylinder, and to deduce the work done by the steam in each stroke. The method of the indicator diagram has since proved of great utility in physics in studying the properties of gases and vapours. The work done, or the useful effect obtained from an engine or any kind of machine, is measured by the product of the resistance overcome and the distance through which it is overcome. The result is generally expressed in terms of the equivalent weight raised through a certain height against the force of gravity.1 If, for instance, the pressure on a piston 1 Units of Work, Energy and Power. — In English-speaking countries work is generally measured in foot-pounds. Elsewhere it is generally measured in kilogrammetres, or in terms of the work done in raising I kilogramme weight through the height of I metre. In the middle of the i gth century the terms " force " and " motive power " were commonly employed in the sense of " power of doing work." The term " energy " is now employed in this sense. A quantity of energy is measured by the work it is capable of performing. A body may possess energy in virtue of its state (gas or steam under pressure), or in virtue of its position (a raised weight), or in various other ways, when at rest. In these cases it is said to possess potential energy. It may also possess energy in virtue of its motion or rotation (as a fly-wheel or a cannon-ball). In this case it is said to possess kinetic energy, or energy of motion. In many cases the energy (as in the case of a vibrating body, like a pendulum) is partly kinetic and partly potential, and changes continually from one to the other throughout the motion. For instance, the energy of a pendulum is wholly potential when it is momentarily at rest at the top of its swing, but is wholly kinetic when the pendulum is moving with its maximum velocity at the lowest point of its swing. The whole energy at any moment is the sum of the potential and kinetic energy, and this sum remains constant so long as the amplitude of the vibration remains the same. The potential energy of a weight W Ib raised to a height h ft. above the earth, is ~Wh foot-pounds. If allowed to fall freely, without doing work, its kinetic energy on reaching the earth would be W/f foot-pounds, and its velocity of motion would be such that if projected upwards with the same velocity it would rise to the height h from which it fell. We have here a simple and familiar case of the conversion of one kind of energy into a different kind. But the two kinds of energy are mechanically equivalent, and they can both be measured in terms of the same units. The units already considered, namely foot-pounds or kilo- grammetres, are gravitational units, depending on the force of gravity. This is the most obvious and natural method of measuring the potential energy of a raised weight, but it has the disadvantage of varying with the force of gravity at different places. The natural measure of the kinetic energy of a moving body is the product of its mass by half the square of its velocity, which gives a measure in kinetic or absolute units independent of the force of gravity. Kinetic and gravitational units are merely different ways of measur- ing the same thing. Just as foot-pounds may be reduced to kilo- grammetres by dividing by the number of foot-pounds in one kilo- grammetre, so kinetic may be reduced to gravitational units by dividing by the kinetic measure of the intensity of gravity, namely, the work in kinetic units done by the weight of unit mass acting through unit distance. For scientific purposes, it is necessary to take account of the variation of gravity. The scientific unit of energy is called the erg. The erg is the kinetic energy of a mass of 2 gm. moving with a velocity of I cm. per sec. The work in ergs done by a force acting through a distance of I cm. is the absolute measure of the force. A force equal to the weight of I gm. (in England) acting through a distance of I cm. does 981 ergs of work. A force equal to the weight of 1000 gm. (i kilogramme) acting through a distance of I metre (too cm.) does 98' I million ergs of work. As the erg is a very small unit, for many purposes, a unit equal to 10 million ergs, called a joule, is employed. In England, where the weight of I gm. is 981 ergs per cm., a foot-pound is equal to 1-356 joules, and a kilogrammetre is equal to 9-81 joules. The term power is now generally restricted to mean " rate of work- ing." Watt estimated that an average horse was capable of raising 550 Ib I ft. in each second, or doing work at the rate of 550 foot- pounds per second, or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. This con- ventional horse-power is the unit commonly employed for estimating i38 HEAT [NATURE OF HEAT is 50 ft per sq. in., and the area of the piston is 100 sq. in., the force on the piston is 5000 Ib weight. If the stroke of the piston is i ft., the work done per stroke is capable of raising a weight of 5000 Ib through a height of i ft., or 50 Ib through a height of 100 ft. and so on. Fig. 3 represents an imaginary indicator diagram for a steam- engine, taken from one of Watt s patents. Steam is admitted to the cylinder when the piston is at the beginning of its stroke, at S. ST represents the length of the stroke or the limit of horizontal movement of the paper on which the diagram is drawn. The indicat- ing pencil rises to the point A, representing the absolute pressure of 60 ft per sq. in. As the piston moves outwards the pencil traces Ul i (0 V) 70 fl60 .50 ~40 in 30 £20 o. Line 3 "SI 2 F 3 4 5 6 7 8 T FIG. 3. — Watt's Indicator Diagram. Patent of 1782. the horizontal line AB, the pressure remaining constant till the point B is reached, at which connexion to the boiler is cut off. The work done so far is represented by the area of the rectangle ABSF, namely AS X SF, multiplied by the area of the piston in sq. in. The result is in foot-pounds if the fraction of the stroke SF is taken in feet. After cut-off at B the steam expands under diminishing pressure, and the pencil falls gradually from B to C, following the steam pressure until the exhaust valve opens at the end of the stroke. The pressure then falls rapidly to that of the condenser, which for an ideal case may be taken as zero, following Watt. The work done during expansion is found by dividing the remainder of the stroke FT into a number of equal parts (say 8, Watt takes 20) and measuring the pressure at the points i, 2, 3, 4, &c., corresponding to the middle of each. We thus obtain a number of small rectangles, the sum of which is evidently very nearly equal to the whole area BCTF under the expansion curve, or to the remainder of the stroke FT multiplied by the average or mean value of the pressure. The whole work done in the forward stroke is represented by the area ABCTSA, or by the average value of the pressure P over the whole stroke multiplied by the stroke L. This area must be multiplied by the area of the piston A in sq. in. as before, to get the work done per stroke in foot-pounds, which is PLA. If the engine repeats this cycle N times per minute, the work done per minute is PLAN foot-pounds, which is reduced to horse-power by dividing by 33,000. If the steam is ejected by the piston at atmospheric pressure (15 ft per sq. in.) instead of being condensed at zero pressure, the area COST under the atmospheric line CD, representing work done against back-pressure on the return stroke must be subtracted. If the engine repeats the same cycle or series of operations continu- ously, the indicator diagram will be a closed curve, and the nett work done per cycle will be represented by the included area, what- ever the form of the curve. 8. Thermal Efficiency. — The thermal efficiency of an engine is the ratio of the work done by the engine to the heat supplied to it. According to Watt's observations, confirmed later by Clement and Desormes, the total heat required to produce i Ib of saturated steam at any temperature from water at o° C. was approximately 650 times the quantity of heat required to raise i Ib of water i° C. Since i Ib of steam represented on this assumption a certain quantity of heat, the efficiency could be measured naturally in foot-pounds of work obtainable per Ib of steam, or conversely in pounds of steam consumed per horse-power-hour. In his patent of 1782 Watt gives the following example of the improvement in thermal efficiency obtained by expansive work- the power of engines. The horse-power-hour, or the work done by one horse-power in one hour, is nearly 2 million foot-pounds. For electrical and scientific purposes the unit of power employed is called the watt. The watt is the work per second done by an electromotive force of i volt in driving a current of I ampere, and is equal to 10 million ergs or I joule per second. One horse-power is 746 watts or nearly f of a kilowatt. The kilowatt-hour, which is the unit by which electrical energy is sold, is 3-6 million joules or 2-65 million foot- pounds, or 366,000 kilogrammetres, and is capable of raising nearly 19 ft of water from the freezing to the boiling point. ing. Taking the diagram already given, if the quantity of steam represented by AB, or 300 cub. in. at 60 Ib pressure, were em- ployed without expansion, the work realized, represented by the area ABSF, would be 6000/4 = 1 500 foot-pounds. With expansion to 4 times its original volume, as shown in the diagram by the whole area ABCTSA, the mean pressure (as calculated by Watt, assuming Boyle's law) would be 0-58 of the original pressure, and the work done would be 6000X0-58 = 3480 foot-pounds for the same quantity of steam, or the thermal efficiency would be 2-32 times greater. The advantage actually obtained would not be so great as this, on account of losses by condensation, back- pressure, &c., which are neglected in Watt's calculation, but the margin would still be very considerable. Three hundred cub. in. of steam at 60 Ib pressure would represent about -0245 of i Ib of steam, or 28-7 B.Th.U., so that, neglecting all losses, the possible thermal efficiency attainable with steam at this pressure and four expansions ( j cut-off) would be 3480/28 • 7 , or 121 foot-pounds per B.Th.U. At a later date, about i82o,it was usual to include the efficiency of the boiler with that of the engine, and to reckon the efficiency or " duty " in foot-pounds per bushel or cwt. of coal. The best Cornish pumping-engines of that date achieved about 70 million foot-pounds per cwt., or consumed about 3-2 Ib per horse-power-hour, which is roughly equivalent to 43 foot-pounds per B.Th.U. The efficiency gradually increased as higher pressures were used, with more complete expansion, but the conditions upon which the efficiency depended were not fully worked out till a much later date. Much additional knowledge with regard to the nature of heat, and the properties of gases and vapours, was required before the problem could be attacked theoretically. 9. Of the Nature of Heat. — In the early days of the science it was natural to ascribe the manifestations of heat to the action of a subtle imponderable fluid called " caloric," with the power of penetrating, expanding and dissolving bodies, or dissipating them in vapour. The fluid was imponderable, because the most careful experiments failed to show that heat produced any in- crease in weight. The opposite property of levitation was often ascribed to heat, but it was shown by more cautious investigators that the apparent loss of weight due to heating was to be attri- buted to evaporation or to upward air currents. The funda- mental idea of an imaginary fluid to represent heat was useful as helping the mind to a conception of something remaining invariable in quantity through many transformations, but in some respects the analogy was misleading, and tended greatly to retard the progress of science. The caloric theory was very simple in its application to the majority of calorimetric ex- periments, and gave a fair account of the elementary phenomena of change of state, but it encountered serious difficulties in explaining the production of heat by friction, or the changes of temperature accompanying the compression or expansion of a gas. The explanation which the calorists offered of the production of heat by friction or compression was that some of the latent caloric was squeezed or ground out of the bodies concerned and became " sensible." In the case of heat developed by friction, they supposed that the abraded portions of the material were capable of holding a smaller quantity of heat, or had less " capacity for heat," than the original material. From a logical point of view, this was a perfectly tenable hypothesis, and one difficult to refute. It was easy to account in this way for the heat produced in boring cannon and similar operations, where the amount of abraded material was large. To refute this explanation, Rumford (Phil. Trans., 1798) made his celebrated experiments with a blunt borer, in one of which he succeeded in boiling by friction 26-5 ft of cold water in 2\ hours, with the production of only 4145 grains of metallic powder. He then showed by experiment that the metallic powder required the same amount of heat to raise its temperature i°, as an equal weight of the original metal, or that its " capacity for heat " (in this sense) was unaltered by reducing it to powder; and he argued that " in any case so small a quantity of powder could not possibly account for all the heat generated, that the supply of heat appeared to be inexhaustible. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF GASES] HEAT and that heat could not be a material substance, but must be something of the nature of motion." Unfortunately Rumford's argument was not quite conclusive. The supporters of the caloric theory appear, whether consciously or unconsciously, to have used the phrase " capacity for heat" in two entirely distinct senses without any clear definition of the difference. The phrase " capacity for heat " might very naturally denote the total quantity of heat contained in a body, which we have no means of measuring, but it was generally used to signify the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body one degree, which is quite a different thing, and has no necessary relation to the total heat. In proving that the powder and the solid metal required the same quantity of heat to raise the temperature of equal masses of either one degree, Rumford did not prove that they contained equal quantities of heat, which was the real point at issue in this instance. The metal tin actually changes into powder below a certain temperature, and in so doing evolves a measurable quantity of heat. A mixture of the gases oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportions in which they combine to form water, evolves when burnt sufficient heat to raise more than thirty times its weight of water from the freezing to the boiling point; and the mixture of gases may, in this sense, be said to contain so much more heat than the water, although its capacity for heat in the ordinary sense is only about half that of the water produced. To complete the refutation of the calorists' explanation of the heat produced by friction, it would have been necessary for Rumford to show that the powder when reconverted into ths same state as the solid metal did not absorb a quantity of heat equivalent to that evolved in the grinding; in other words that the heat produced by friction was not simply that due to the change of state of the metal from solid to powder. Shortly afterwards, in 1799, Davy1 described an experiment in which he melted ice by rubbing two blocks together. This experiment afforded a very direct refutation of the calorists' view, because it was a well-known fact that ice required to have a quantity of heat added to it to convert it into water, so that the water produced by the friction contained more heat than the ice. In stating as the conclusion to be drawn from this experi- ment that " friction consequently does not diminish the capacity of bodies for heat," Davy apparently uses the phrase capacity for heat in the sense of total heat contained in a body, because in a later section of the same essay he definitely gives the phrase this meaning, and uses the term " capability of temperature " to denote what we now term capacity for heat. The delay in the overthrow of the caloric theory, and in the acceptance of the view that heat is a mode of motion, was no doubt partly due to some fundamental confusion of ideas in the use of the term " capacity for heat " and similar phrases. A still greater obstacle lay in the comparative vagueness of the motion or vibration theory. Davy speaks of heat as being " repulsive motion," and distinguishes it from light, which is " projective motion "; though heat is certainly not a substance — according to Davy in the essay under discussion — and may not even be treated as an imponderable fluid, light as certainly-w a material substance, and is capable of forming chemical com- pounds with ordinary matter, such as oxygen gas, which is not a simple substance, but a compound, termed phosoxygen, of light and oxygen. Accepting the conclusions of Davy and Rumford that heat is not a material substance but a mode of motion, there still remains the question, what definite conception is to be attached to a quantity of heat? What do we mean by a quantity of vibratory motion, how is the quantity of motion to be esti- mated, and why should it remain invariable in many trans- formations? The idea that heat was a " mode of motion " was applicable as a qualitative explanation of many of the effects of heat, but it lacked the quantitative precision of a scientific statement, and could not be applied to the calculation and prediction of definite results. The state of science at the time of Rumford's and Davy's experiments did not admit of a 1 In an essay on " Heat, Light, and Combinations of Light," republished in Sir H. Davy's Collected Works, ii. (London, 1836). more exact generalization. The way was paved in the first instance by a more complete study of the laws of gases, to which Laplace, Dalton, Gay-Lussac, Dulong and many others contri- buted both on the experimental and theoretical side. Although the development proceeded simultaneously along many parallel lines, it is interesting and instructive to take the investigation of the properties of gases, and to endeavour to trace the steps by which the true theory was finally attained. 10. Thermal Properties of Cases. — The most characteristic property of a gaseous or elastic fluid, namely, the elasticity, or resistance to compression, was first investigated scientifically by Robert Boyle (1662), who showed that the pressure p of a given mass of gas varied inversely as the volume v, provided that the temperature remained constant. This is generally expressed by the formula pv=C, where C is a constant for any given temperature, and v is taken to represent the specific volume, or the volume of unit mass, of the gas at the given pressure and temperature. Boyle was well aware of the effect of heat in expanding a gas, but he was unable to investigate this properly as no thermometric scale had been defined at that date. Accord- ing to Boyle's law, when a mass of gas is compressed by a small amount at constant temperature, the percentage increase of pressure is equal to the percentage diminution of volume (if the compression is v/ioo, the increase of pressure is very nearly />/ioo). Adopting this law, Newton showed, by a most ingenious piece of reasoning (Principia, ii., sect. 8), that the velocity of sound in air should be equal to the velocity acquired by a body falling under gravity through a distance equal to half the height of the atmosphere, considered as being of uniform density equal to that at the surface of the earth. This gave the result 918 ft. per sec. (280 metres per sec.) for the velocity at the freezing point. Newton was aware that the actual velocity of sound was somewhat greater than this, but supposed that the difference might be due in some way to the size of the air particles, of which no account could be taken in the calculation. The first accurate measurement of the velocity of sound by the French Academic des Sciences in 1738 gave the value 332 metres per sec. as the velocity at o° C. The true explanation of the discrepancy was not discovered till nearly 100 years later. The law of expansion of gases with change of temperature was investigated by Dalton and Gay-Lussac (1802), who found that the volume of a gas under constant pressure increased by 1/2671!! part of its volume at o° C. for each i° C. rise in temperature. This value was generally assumed in all calculations for nearly 50 years. More exact researches, especially those of Regnault, at a later date, showed that the law was very nearly correct for all permanent gases, but that the value of the coefficient should be T7~srd- According to this law the volume of a gas at any temperature f C. should be proportional to 273+^, i.e. to the temperature reckoned from a zero 273° below that of the Centigrade scale, which was called the absolute zero of the gas thermometer. If T= 273+^, denotes the temperature measured from this zero, the law of expansion of a gas may be combined with Boyle's law in the simple formula which is generally taken as the expression of the gaseous laws. If equal volumes of different gases are taken at the same tempera- ture and pressure, it follows that the constant R is the same for all gases. If equal masses are taken, the value of the constant R for different gases varies inversely as the molecular weight or as the density relative to hydrogen. Dalton also investigated the laws of vapours, and of mixtures of gases and vapours. He found that condensible vapours approximately followed Boyle's law when compressed, until the condensation pressure was reached, at which the vapour lique- fied without further increase of pressure. He found that when a liquid was introduced into a closed space, and allowed to evaporate until the space was saturated with the vapour and evaporation ceased, the increase of pressure in the space was equal to the condensation pressure of the vapour, and did not depend on the volume of the space or the presence of any other gas or vapour 140 HEAT [SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASES provided that there was no solution or chemical action. He showed that the condensation or saturation-pressure of a vapour depended only on the temperature, and increased by nearly the same fraction of itself per degree rise of temperature, and that the pressures of different vapours were nearly the same at equal distances from their boiling points. The increase of pressure per degree C. at the boiling point was about -j^th of 760 mm. or 27-2 mm., but increased in geometrical progression with rise of temperature. These results of Dalton's were confirmed, and in part corrected, as regards increase of vapour-pressure, by Gay- Lussac, Dulong, Regnault and other investigators, but were found to be as close an approximation to the truth as could be obtained with such simple expressions. More accurate empirical ex- pressions for the increase of vapour-pressure of a liquid with temperature were soon obtained by Thomas Young, J. P. L. A. Roche and others, but the explanation of the relation was not arrived at until a much later date (see VAPORIZATION). 1 1 . Specific Heats of Gases. — In order to estimate the quantities of heat concerned in experiments with gases, it was necessary in the first instance to measure their specific heats, which pre- sented formidable difficulties. The earlier attempts by Lavoisier and others, employing the ordinary methods of calorimetry, gave very uncertain and discordant results, which were not regarded with any confidence even by the experimentalists themselves. Gay-Lussac (Memoires d'Arcueil, 1807) devised an ingenious experiment, which, though misinterpreted at the time, is very interesting and instructive. With the object of comparing the specific heats of different gases, he took two equal globes A and B connected by a tube with a stop-cock. The globe B was exhausted, the other A being filled with gas. On opening the tap between the vessels, the gas flowed from A to B and the pressure was rapidly equalized. He observed that the fall of temperature in A was nearly equal to the rise of temperature in B, and that for the same initial pressure the change of tempera- ture was very nearly the same for all the gases he tried, except hydrogen, which showed greater changes of temperature than other gases. He concluded from this experiment that equal volumes of gases had the same capacity for heat, except hydrogen, which he supposed to have a Jarger capacity, because it showed a greater effect. The method does not in reality afford any direct information with regard to the specific heats, and the conclusion with regard to hydrogen is evidently wrong. At a later date (Ann. de Chim., 1812, 81, p. 98) Gay-Lussac adopted A. Crawford's method of mixture, allowing two equal streams of different gases, one heated and the other cooled about 20° C., to mix in a tube containing a thermometer. The resulting temperature was in all cases nearly the mean of the two, from which he concluded that equal volumes of all the gases tried, namely, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, air, oxygen and nitrogen, had the same thermal capacity. This was correct, except as regards carbon dioxide, but did not give any information as to the actual specific heats referred to water or any known substance. About the same time, F. Delaroche and J. E. Berard (Ann. de chim., 1813, 85, p. 72) made direct determinations of the specific heats of air, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and ethylene, by passing a stream of gas heated to nearly 100° C. through a spiral tube in a calorimeter containing water. Their work was a great advance on previous attempts, and gave the first trustworthy results. With the exception of hydrogen, which presents peculiar difficulties, they found that equal volumes of the permanent gases, air, oxygen and carbon monoxide, had nearly the same thermal capacity, but that the compound condensible gases, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and ethylene, had larger thermal capacities in the order given. They were unable to state whether the specific heats of the gases increased or diminished with temperature, but from experiments on air at pressures of 740 mm. and 1000 mm., they found the specific heats to be -269 and -245 respectively, and concluded that the specific heat diminished with increase of pressure. The difference they observed was really due to errors of experi- ment, but they regarded it as proving beyond doubt the truth of the calorists' contention that the heat disengaged on the compression of a gas was due to the diminution of its thermal capacity. Dalton and others had endeavoured to measure directly the rise of temperature produced by the compression of a gas. Dalton had observed a rise of 50° F. in a gas when suddenly com- pressed to half its volume, but no thermometers at that time were sufficiently sensitive to indicate more than a fraction of the change of temperature. Laplace was the first to see in this phenomenon the probable explanation of the discrepancy between Newton's calculation of the velocity of sound and the observed value. The increase of pressure due to a sudden compression, in which no heat was allowed to escape, or as we now call it an " adiabatic " compression, would necessarily be greater than the increase of pressure in a slow isothermal compression, on account of the rise of temperature. As the rapid compressions and rarefactions occurring in the propagation of a sound wave were perfectly adiabatic, it was necessary to take account of the rise of temperature due to compression in calculating the velocity. To reconcile the observed and calculated values of the velocity, the increase of pressure in adiabatic compression must be 1-410 times greater than in isothermal compression. This is the ratio of the adiabatic elasticity of air to the isothermal elasticity. It was a long time, however, before Laplace saw his way to any direct experimental verification of the value of this ratio. At a later date (Ann. de chim., 1816, 3, p. 238) he stated that he had succeeded in proving that the ratio in question must be the same as the ratio of the specific heat of air at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume. In the method of measuring the specific heat adopted by Delaroche and Berard, the gas under experiment,, while passing through a tube at practically constant pressure, contracts in cooling, as it gives up its heat to the calorimeter. Part of the heat surrendered to the calorimeter is due to the contraction of volume. If a gramme of gas at pressure p, volume v and temperature T abs. is heated I ° C. at constant pressure p, it absorbs a quantity of heat S = -238 calorie (according to Regnault) the specific heat at constant pressure. At the same time the gas expands by a fraction I/T of v, which is the same as 1/273 °f its volume at o° C. If now the air is suddenly compressed by an amount ti/T, it will be restored to its original volume, and its temperature will be raised by the liberation of a quantity of heat R', the latent heat of expansion for an increase of volume zi/T. If no heat has been allowed to escape, the air will now be in the same state as if a quantity of heat S had been communicated to it at its original volume v without expansion. The rise of tempera- ture above the original temperature T will be S/j degrees, where s is the specific heat at constant volume, which is obviously equal to S-R'. Since p/T is the increase of pressure for i°C. rise of tempera- ture at constant volume, the increase of pressure for a rise of S/j degrees will be •yp/T, where 7 is the ratio S/s. But this is the rise of pressure produced by a sudden compression ti/T, and is seen to be y times the rise of pressure p/T produced by the same compression at constant temperature. The ratio of the adiabatic to the iso- thermal elasticity, required for calculating the velocity of sound, is therefore the same as the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to that at constant volume. 12. Experimental Verification of the Ratio of Specific Heats. — This was a most interesting and- important theoretical relation to dis- cover, but unfortunately it did not help much in the determination of the ratio required, because it was not practically possible at that time to measure the specific heat of air at constant volume in a closed vessel. Attempts had been made to do this, but they had signally failed, on account of the small heat capacity of the gas as compared with the containing vessel. Laplace endeavoured to extract some confirmation of his views from the values given by Delaroche and Beiard for the specific heat of air at 1000 and 740 mm. pressure. On the assumption that the quantities of heat con- tained in a given mass of air increased in direct proportion to its volume when heated at constant pressure, he deduced, by some rather obscure reasoning, that the ratio of the specific heats S and J should be about 1-5 to I, which he regarded as a fairly satisfactory agree- ment with the value 7 = 1-41 deduced from the velocity of sound. The ratio of the specific heats could not be directly measured, but a few years later, Clement and DSsormes (Journ. de Phys., Nov. 1819) succeeded in making a direct measurement of the ratio of the elasticities in a very simple manner. They took a large globe containing air at atmospheric pressure and temperature, and re- moved a small quantity of air. They then observed the defect of pressure pt> when the air had regained its original temperature. By suddenly opening the globe, and immediately closing it, the pressure was restored almost instantaneously to the atmospheric, the rise of pressure pa corresponding to the sudden compression produced. The air, having been heated by the compression, was CARNOT'S AXIOM] HEAT 141 allowed to regain its original temperature, the tap remaining closed, and the final defect of pressure pl was noted. The change of pressure for the same compression performed isothermally is then p<,—pl. The ratio poKpo — p1) is the ratio of the adiabatic and isothermal elasticities, provided that p, is small compared with the whole atmo- spheric pressure. In this way they found the ratio 1-354, which is not much smaller than the value 1-410 required to reconcile the observed and calculated values of the velocity of sound. Gay- Lussac and J. J. Welter (Ann. de Mm., 1822) repeated the experi- ment with slight improvements, using expansion instead of com- pression, and found the ratio 1-375. The experiment has often been repeated since that time, and there is no doubt that the value of the ratio deduced from the velocity of sound is correct, the defect of the value obtained by direct experiment being due to the fact that the compression or expansion is not perfectly adiabatic. Gay-Lussac and Welter found the ratio practically constant for a range of pressure 144 to 1460 mm., and for a range of temperature from —20° to +40° C. The velocity of sound at Quito, at a pressure of 544 mm. was found to be the same as at Paris at 760 mm. at the same tempera- ture. Assuming on this evidence the constancy of the ratio of the specific heats of. air, Laplace (Mecanigue celeste, v. 143) showed that, if the specific heat at constant pressure was independent of the temperature, the specific heat per unit volume at a pressure p must vary as pi, according to the caloric theory. The specific i heat per unit mass must then vary as pi IF which he found agreed precisely with the experiment of Delaroche and Berard already cited. This was undoubtedly a strong confirmation of the caloric theory. Poisson by the same assumptions (Ann. de Mm., 1823, 23, p. 337) obtained the same results, and also showed that the relation between the pressure and the volume of a gas in adiabatic compression or expansion must be of the form pa1 = constant. P. L. Dulong (Ann. de Mm., 1829, 41, p. 156), adopting a method due to E. F. F. Chladni, compared the velocities of sound in different gases by observing the pitch of the note given by the same tube when filled with the gases in question. He thus obtained the values of the ratios of the elasticities or of the specific heats for the gases employed. For oxygen, hydrogen and carbonic oxide, these ratios were the same as for air. But for carbonic acid, nitrous oxide and olefiant gas, the values were much smaller, showing that these gases experienced a smaller change of temperature in compression. On comparing his results with the values of the specific heats for the same gases found by Delaroche and Berard, Dulong observed that the changes of temperature for the same compression were in the inverse ratio of the specific heats at constant volume, and deduced the important conclusion that " Equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions evolve on compression the same quantity of heat." This is equivalent to the statement that the difference of the specific heats, or the latent heat of expansion R' per I °, is the same for all gases if equal volumes are taken. Assuming the ratio y = 1-410, and taking Delaroche and BeVard's value for the specific heat of air at constant pressure S = -267, we have $ = 8/1-41 =-189, and the difference of the specific heats per unit mass of air S— i = R' = -O78. Adopting Regnauit's value of the specific heat of air, namely, S = -238, we should have S— ^ = -069. This quantity represents the heat absorbed by unit mass of air in expanding at constant temperature T b y a fraction i/T of its volume v, or by ^srd of its volume o° C. If, instead of taking unit mass, we take a volume »„ = 22-30 litres at o° C. and 760 mm. being the volume of the molecular weight of the gas in grammes, the quantity of heat evolved by a compression equal to v/T will be approximately 2 calories, and is the same for all gases. The work done in this compression is pv/T = R, and is also the same for all gases, namely, 8-3 joules. Dulong's experimental result, therefore, shows that the heat evolved in the compression of a gas is proportional to the work done. This result had previously been deduced theoretically by Carnot (1824). At a later date it was assumed by Mayer, Clausius and others, on the evidence of these experiments, that the heat evolved was not merely proportional to the work done, but was equivalent to it. The further experimental evidence required to justify this assumption was first supplied by Joule. Latent heat of expansion R' = -069 calorie per gramme of air, peri'C. = 2-0 calories per gramme-molecule of any gas. Work done in expansion R = -287 joule per gramme of air per i°C. = 8-3 joules per gramme-molecule of any gas. 13. Carnal: On the Motive Power of Heat— A. practical and theoretical question of the greatest importance was first answered by Sadi Carnot about this time in his Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat (1824). How much motive power (defined by Carnot as weight lifted through a certain height) can be obtained from heat alone by means of an engine repeating a regular succes- sion or " cycle " of operations continuously ? Is the efficiency limited, and, if so, how is it limited ? Are other agents preferable to steam for developing motive power from heat ? In discussing this problem, we cannot do better than follow Carnot's reasoning which, in its main features, could hardly be improved at the present day. Carnot points out that in order to obtain an answer to this question, it is necessary to consider the essential conditions of the process, apart from the mechanism of the engine and the working substance or agent employed. Work cannot be said to be produced from heat alone unless nothing but heat is supplied, and the working substance and all parts of the engine are at the end of the process in precisely the same state as at the beginning.1 Carnot's Axiom. — Carnot here, and throughout his reasoning, makes a fundamental assumption, which he states as follows: " When a body has undergone any changes and after a certain number of transformations is brought back identically to its original state, considered relatively to density, temperature and mode of aggregation, it must contain the same quantity of heat as it contained originally."2 Heat, according to Carnot, in the type of engine we are con- sidering, can evidently be a cause of motive power only by virtue of changes of volume or form produced by alternate heating and cooling. This involves the existence of cold and hot bodies to act as boiler and condenser, or source and sink of heat, respec- tively. Wherever there exists a difference of temperature, it is possible to have the production of motive power from heat; and conversely, production of motive power, from heat alone, is impossible without difference of temperature. In other words the production of motive power from heat is not merely a question of the consumption of heat, but always requires transference of heat from hot to cold. What then are the conditions which enable the difference of temperature to be most advantageously employed in the production of motive power, and how much motive power can be obtained with a given difference of tempera- ture from a given quantity of heat? Carnot's Rule for Maximum Effect. — In order to realize the .maximum effect, it is necessary that, in the process employed, there should not be any direct interchange of heat between bodies at different temperatures. Direct transference of heat by conduction or radiation between bodies at different tempera- tures is equivalent to wasting a difference of temperature which might have been utilized to produce motive power. The working substance must throughout every stage of the process be in equilibrium with itself (i.e. at uniform temperature and pressure) and also with external bodies, such as the boiler and condenser, at such times as it is put in communication with them. In the actual engine there is always some interchange of heat between the steam and the cylinder, and some loss of heat to external bodies. There may also be some difference of temperature between the boiler steam and the cylinder on admission, or between the waste steam and the condenser at release. These differences represent losses of efficiency which may be reduced indefinitely, at least in imagination, by suitable means, and designers had even at that date been very successful in reducing 1 For instance a mass of compressed air, if allowed to expand in a cylinder at the ordinary temperature, will do work, and will at the same time absorb a quantity of heat which, as we now know, is the thermal equivalent of the work done. But this work cannot be said to have been produced solely from the heat absorbed in the process, because the air at the end of the process is in a changed condition, and could not be restored to its original state at the same temperature without having work done upon it precisely equal to that obtained by its expansion. The process could not be repeated indefinitely without a continual supply of compressed air. The source of the work in this case is work previously done in compressing the air, and no part of the work is really generated at the expense of heat alone, unless the compression is effected at a lower temperature than the expansion. 1 Clausius (Pogg. Ann. 79, p. 369) and others have misinterpreted this assumption, and have taken it to mean that the quantity of heat required to produce any given change of state is independent of the manner in which the change is effected, which Carnot does not here assume. 142 HEAT ICARNOT'S PRINCIPLE them. All such losses are supposed to be absent in deducing the ideal limit of efficiency, beyond which it would be impossible to go. 14. Garnet's Description of his Ideal Cycle. — Carnot first gives a rough illustration of an incomplete cycle, using steam much in the same way as it is employed in an ordinary steam-engine. After expansion down to condenser pressure the steam is completely condensed to water, and is then returned as cold water to the hot boiler. He points out that the last step does not conform exactly to the condition he laid down, because although the water is restored to its initial state, there is direct passage of heat from a hot body to a cold body in the last process. He points out that this difficulty might be overcome by supposing the difference of temperature small, and by employing a series of engines, each working through a small range, to cover a finite interval of temperature. Having established the general notions of a perfect cycle, he proceeds to give a more exact illustration, employing a gas as the working substance. He takes as the basis of his demonstration the well-established experimental fact that a gas is heated by rapid compression and cooled by rapid expansion, and that if compressed or expanded slowly in contact with conducting bodies, the gas will give out heat in compression or absorb heat in expansion while its temperature remains constant. He then goes on to say: — " This preliminary notion being settled, let us imagine an elastic fluid, atmospheric air for example, enclosed in a cylinder abed, fig. 4, fitted with a movaWe diaphragm or piston cd. Let there also be two bodies A, B, each maintained at a constant temperature, that of A being more elevated than that of B. Let us now suppose the following series of operations to be performed: " I. Contact of the body A with the air contained in the space abed, or with the bottom of the cylinder, which we will suppose to transmit heat easily. The air is now at the temperature of the body A, and cd is the actual position of the piston. " 2. The piston is gradually raised, and takes the position ef. The air remains in contact with the body A, and is thereby maintained at a constant temperature during the expansion. The body A furnishes the heat necessary to maintain the constancy of temperature. " 3. The body A is removed, and the air no longer being in contact with any body capable of giving it heat, the piston con- tinues nevertheless to rise, and passes from the position ef to gh. The air expands without receiving heat and its temperature falls. Let us imagine that it falls until it is just equal to that of the body B. At this moment the piston is stopped and occupies the position gh. " 4. The air is placed in contact with the body B; it is compressed by the return of e FIG. 4. Carnot's Cylinder. the piston, which is brought from the position gh to the position cd. The air remains meanwhile at a constant temperature, because of its contact with the body B to which it gives up its heat. " 5. The body B is removed, and the compression of the air is continued. The air being now isolated, rises in temperature. The compression is continued until the air has acquired the temperature of the body A. The piston passes meanwhile from the position cd to the position ik. " 6. The air is replaced in contact with the body A, and the piston returns from the position ik to the position ef, the temperature remaining invariable. " 7. The period described under (3) is repeated, then successively the periods (4), (5), (6) ; (3), (4), (5), (6) ; (3), (4), (5), (6) ; and so on. " During these operations the air enclosed in the cylinder exerts an effort more or less great on the piston. The pressure of the air varies both on account of changes of volume and on account of changes of temperature; but it should be observed that for equal volumes, that is to say, for like positions of the piston, the temperature is higher during the dilatation than during the compression.. Since the pressure is greater during the expansion, the quantity of motive power produced by the dilatation is greater than that consumed by the compression. We shall thus obtain a balance of motive power, which may be employed for any purpose. The air has served as working substance in a heat-engine; it has also been employed in the most advantageous manner possible, since no useless re-establish- ment of the equilibrium of heat has been allowed to occur. " All the operations above described may be executed in the reverse order and direction. Let us imagine that after the sixth period, that is to say, when the piston has reached the position ef, we make it return to the position ik, and that at the same time we keep the air in contact with the hot body A; the heat furnished by this body during the sixth period will return to its source, that is, to the body A, and everything will be as it was at the end of the fifth period. If now we remove the body A, and if we make the piston move from ik to cd, the temperature of the air will decrease by just as many degrees as it increased during the fifth period, and will become that of the body B. We can evidently continue in this way a series of operations the exact reverse of those which were previously described ; it suffices to place oneself in the same circumstances and to execute for each period a movement of expansion in place of a movement of compression, and vice versa. " The result of the first series of operations was the production of a certain quantity of motive power, and the transport of heat from the body A to the body B ; the result of the reverse operations is the consumption of the motive power produced in the first case, and the return of heat from the body B to the body A, in such sort that these two series of operations annul and neutralize each other. " The impossibility of producing by the agency of heat alone a quantity of motive power greater than that which we have obtained in our first series of operations is now easy to prove. It is demon- strated by reasoning exactly similar to that which we have already given. The reasoning will have in this case a greater degree of exactitude; the air of which we made use to develop the motive power is brought back at the end of each cycle of operations precisely to its initial state, whereas this was not quite exactly the case for the vapour of water, as we have already remarked." 15. Proof of Carnot's /Vzn«'/>/e.— Carnot considered the proof too obvious to be worth repeating, but, unfortunately, his previous demonstration, referring to an incomplete cycle, is not so exactly worded that exception cannot be taken to it. We will therefore repeat his proof in a slightly more definite and exact form. Suppose that a reversible engine R, working in the cycle above described, takes a quantity of heat H from the source in each cycle, and performs a quantity of useful work Wr. If it were possible for any other engine S, working with the same two bodies A and B as source and refrigerator, to perform a greater amount of useful work W, per cycle for the same quantity of heat H taken from the source, it would suffice to take a portion Wr of this motive power (since W, is by hypothesis greater than Wr) to drive the engine R backwards, and return a quantity of heat H to the source in each cycle. The process might be re- peated indefinitely, and we should obtain at each repetition a balance of useful work W,-Wr, without taking any heal from the source, which is contrary to experience. Whether the quantity of heat taken from the condenser by R is equal to that given to the condenser by S is immaterial. The hot body A might be a comparatively small boiler, since no heat is taken from it. The cold body B might be the ocean, or the whole earth. We might thus obtain without any consumption of fuel a practically unlimited supply of motive power. Which is absurd. Carnot's Statement of his Principle.1 — If the above reasoning be admitted, we must conclude with Carnot that the motive power obtainable from heat is independent of the agents employed to realize it. The efficiency is fixed solely by the temperatures of the bodies between -which, in the last resort, the transfer oj heat is effected. " We must understand here that each of the methods of developing motive power attains the perfection of which it is susceptible. This condition is fulfilled if, according to our rule, there is produced in the body no change of temperature that is not due to change of volume, or in other words, if there is no direct interchange of heat between bodies of sensibly different temperatures." It is characteristic of a state of frictionless mechanical equili- brium that an indefinitely small difference of pressure suffices to upset the equilibrium and reverse the motion. Similarly in thermal equilibrium between bodies at the same temperature, an indefinitely small difference of temperature suffices to reverse the transfer of heat. Carnot's rule is therefore the criterion of the reversibility of a cycle of operations as regards transfer of heat. It is assumed that the ideal engine is mechanically 1 Carnot's description of his cycle and statement of his principle have been given as nearly as possible in his own words, because some injustice has been done him by erroneous descriptions and statements. CARNOT'S FUNCTION] HEAT reversible, thdt there is not, for instance, any communication between reservoirs of gas or vapour at sensibly different pressures, and that there is no waste of power in friction. If there is equilibrium both mechanical and thermal at every stage of the cycle, the ideal engine will be perfectly reversible. That is to say, all its operations will be exactly reversed as regards transfer of heat and work, when the operations are performed in the reverse order and direction. On this understanding Carnot's principle may be put in a different way, which is often adopted, but is really only the same thing put in different words: The efficiency of, a perfectly reversible engine is the maximum possible, and is a function solely of the limits of temperature between which it works. This result depends essentially on the existence of a state of thermal equilibrium denned by equality of temperature, and independent, in the majority of cases, of the state of a body in other respects. In order to apply the principle to the calculation and prediction of results, it is sufficient to determine the manner in which the efficiency depends on the temperature for one particular case, since the efficiency must be the same for all reversible engines. 16. Experimental Verification of Carnot's Principle. — Carnot en- deavoured to test his result by the following simple calculations. Suppose that we have a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston, containing I gram of water at 100° C., and that the pressure of the steam, namely 760 mm., is in equilibrium with the external pressure on the piston at this temperature. Place the cylinder in connexion with a boiler or hot body at 101° C. The water will then acquire the temperature of 101° C., and will absorb I gram-calorie of heat. Some waste of motive power occurs here because heat is allowed to pass from one body to another at a different temperature, but the waste in this case is so small as to be immaterial. Keep the cylinder in contact with the hot body at 101° C. and allow the piston to rise. It may be made to perform useful work as the pressure is now 27-7 mm. (or 37-7 grams per sq. cm.) in excess of the external pressure. Continue the process till all the water is converted into steam. The heat absorbed from the hot body will be nearly 540 gram- calories, the latent heat of steam at this temperature. The increase of volume will be approximately 1620 c.c., the volume of I gram of steam at this pressure and temperature. The work done by the excess pressure will be 37-7X1620 = 61,000 gram-centimetres or 0-61 of a kilogrammetre. Remove the hot body, and allow the steam to expand further till its pressure is 760 mm. and its tempera- ture has fallen to 100° C. The work which might be done in this expansion is less than jVooth part of a kilogrammetre, and may be neglected for the present purpose. Place the cylinder in contact with the cold body at 100 C., and allow the steam to condense at this temperature. No work is done on the piston, because there is equilibrium of pressure, but a quantity of heat equal to the latent heat of steam at 100° C. is given to the cold body. The water is now in its initial condition, and the result of the process has been to gain 0-61 of a kilogrammetre of work by allowing 540 gram-calories of heat to pass from a body at 101° C. to a body at 100° C. by means of an ideally simple steam-engine. The work obtainable in this way from 1000 gram-calories of heat, or I kilo-calorie, would evidently be 1-13 kilogrammetre (=0-61 XV&°)- Taking the same range of temperature, namely 101 to lop C., we may perform a similar series of operations with air in the cylinder, instead of water and steam. Suppose the cylinder to contain I gramme of air at 100° C. and 760 mm. pressure instead of water. Compress it without loss of heat (adiabatically), so as to raise its temperature to 101° C. Place it in contact with the hot body at ioi°C., and allow it to expand at this temperature, absorbing heat from the hot body, until its volume is increased by f^fth part (the expansion per degree at constant pressure). The quantity of heat absorbed in this expansion, as explained in § 14, will be the difference of the specific heats or the latent heat of expansion R' = -069 calorie. Remove the hot body, and allow the gas to expand further without gain of heat till its temperature falls to 100° C. Compress it at 100° C. to its original volume, abstracting the heat of compression by contact with the cold body at 1 00° C. The air is now in its original state, and the process has been carried out in strict accordance with Carnot's rule. The quantity of external work done in the cycle is easily obtained by the aid of the indicator diagram ABCD (fig. 5), which is approximately a parallelogram in this instance. The area of the diagram is equal to that of the rectangle BEHG, being the product of the vertical height BE, namely, the increase of pressure per i° at constant volume, by the increase of volume BG, which is 5 JBrd of the volume at o° C. and 760 mm., or 2-83 c.c. The increase of pressure BE is £?!J, or 2-03 mm., which is equivalent to 2-76 gm. per sq. cm. The work done in the cycle is 2-76X2-83 = 7-82 gm. cm., or -0782 gram-metre. The heat absorbed at 101° C. was •069 gram-calorie, so that the work obtained is -O782/-O69 or 1-13 gram-metre per gram-calorie, or 1-13 kilogrammetre per kilogram- calorie. This result is precisely the same as that obtained by using steam with the same range of temperature, but a very different kind of cycle. Carnot in making the same calculation did not obtain quite so good an agreement, because the experimental data at that time available were not so accurate. He used the value ffa for the coefficient of expansion, and -267 for the specific heat of air. More- over, he did not feel justified in assuming, as above, that the difference of the specific heats was the same at 100° C. as at the ordinary temperature of I5°to 20°C., at which ithad been experimentally deter- mined. He made similar calculations for the vapour of alcohol which differed slightly from the vapour of water. But the agreement he found was close enough to satisfy him that his theor- etical deductions were cor- rect, and that the resulting ratio of work to heat should be the same for all substances at the same temperature. 17. Carnot's Function. Variation of Efficiency with Temperature. — By means of those given above, Carnot endeavoured AXIS OF VOLUME F IG. 5. — Elementary Carnot Cycle for Gas. calculations, similar to 0 _._„ to find the amount of motive power obtainable from one unit of heat per degree fall at various temperatures with various sub- stances. The value found above, namely 1-13 kilogrammetre per kilo-calorie per I ° fall, is the value of the efficiency per I fall at 100° C. He was able to show that the efficiency per degree fall probably diminished with rise of temperature, but the experimental data at that time were too inconsistent to suggest the true relation. He took as the analytical expression of his principle that the efficiency W/H of a perfect engine taking in heat H at a temperature t C., and rejecting heat at the temperature o° C., must be some function Ft of the temperature t, which would be the same for all substances. The efficiency per degree fall at a temperature / he represented by F't, the derived function of Ft. The function F't would be the same for all substances at the same temperature, but would have different values at different temperatures. In terms of this function, which is generally known as Carnot's function, the results obtained in the previous section might be expressed as follows : — " The increase of volume of a mixture of liquid and vapour per unit-mass vaporized at any temperature, multiplied by the increase of vapour-pressure per degree, is equal to the product of the function F't by the latent heat of vaporization. " The difference of the specific heats, or the latent heat of ex- pansion for any substance multiplied by the function F /, is equal to the product of the expansion per degree at constant pressure by the increase of pressure per degree at constant volume." Since the last two coefficients are the same for all gases it equal volumes are taken, Carnot concluded that: " The difference of the specific heats at constant pressure and volume is the same for equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure. Taking the expression W = RT log «r for the whole work done by a ¥is obeying the gaseous laws pv = RT in expanding at a temperature from a volume I (unity) to a volume r, or for a ratio of expansion r, and putting W = R log ,r for the work done in a cycle of range I , Carnot obtained the expression for the heat absorbed by a gas in isothermal expansion H = Rlog«r/F'/ . . (2) He gives several important deductions which follow from this formula, which is the analytical expression of the experimental result already quoted as having been discovered subsequently by Dulong. Employ- ing the above expression for the latent heat of expansion, Carnot deduced a general expression for the specific heat of a gas at constant volume on the basis of the caloric theory. He showed that if the specific heat was independent of the temperature (the hypothesis already adopted by Laplace and Poisson) the function F t must be of the form F'/ = R/C(/+fc) - • (3) where C and fc are unknown constants. A similar result follows from his expression for the difference of the specific heats. If this is assumed to be constant and equal to C, the expression for F't becomes R/CT, which is the same as the above if fc = 273. Assuming the specific heat to be also independent of the volume, he shows that the function F't should be constant. But this assumption is inconsistent with the caloric theory of latent heat of expansion, which requires the specific heat to be a function of the volume. It appears in fact impossible to reconcile Carnot's principle with the caloric theory on any simple assumptions. As Carnot remarks: The mam prin- ciples on which the theory of heat rests require most careful examina- tion. Many experimental facts appear almost inexplicable in the present state of this theory." Carnot's work was subsequently put in a more complete analytical form by B. P. E. Clapeyron (Journ. del'ec. polytechn., 144 HEAT [MECHANICAL THEORY OF HEAT Paris, 1832, 14, p. 153), who also made use of Watt's indicator diagram for the first time in discussing physical problems. Clapeyron gave the general expressions for the latent heat of a vapour, and for the latent heat of isothermal expansion of any substance, in terms of Carnot's function, employing the notation of the calculus. The expressions he gave are the same in form as those in use at the present day. He also gave the general expression for Carnot's function, and endeavoured to find its variation with temperature; but having no better data, he succeeded no better than Carnot. Unfortunately, in describing Carnot's cycle, he assumed the caloric theory of heat, and made some unnecessary mistakes, which Carnot (who, we now know, was a believer in the mechanical theory) had been very careful to avoid. Clapeyron directs one to compress the gas at the lower temperature in contact with the body B until the heat disengaged is equal to that which has been absorbed at the higher temperature.1 He assumes that the gas at this point contains the same quantity of heat as it contained in its original state at the higher tempera- ture, and that, when the body B is removed, the gas will be restored to its original temperature, when compressed to its initial volume. This mistake is still attributed to Carnot, and regarded as a fatal objection to his reasoning by nearly all writers at the present day. 18. Mechanical Theory of Heat. — Accordingto the caloric theory, the heat absorbed in the expansion of a gas became latent, like the latent heat of vaporization of a liquid, but remained in the gas and was again evolved on compressing the gas. This theory gave no explanation of the source of the motive power produced by expansion. The mechanical theory had explained the production of heat by friction as being due to transformation of visible motion into a brisk agitation of the ultimate molecules, but it had not so far given any definite explanation of the con- verse production of motive power at the expense of heat. The theory could not be regarded as complete until it had been shown that in the production of work from heat, a certain quantity of heat disappeared, and ceased to exist as heat; and that this quantity was the same as that which could be generated by the expenditure of the work produced. The earliest complete statement of the mechanical theory from this point of view is contained in some notes written by Carnot, about 1830, but published by his brother (Life of Sadi Carnot, Paris, 1878). Taking the difference of the specific heats to be -078, he estimated the mechanical equivalent at 370 kilogrammetres. But he fully recognized that there were no experimental data at that time available for a quantitative test of the theory, although it appeared to afford a good qualitative explanation of the phenomena. He therefore planned a number of crucial experi- ments such as the " porous plug " experiment, to test the equivalence of heat and motive power. His early death in 1836 put a stop to these experiments, but many of them have since been independently carried out by other observers. The most obvious case of the production of work from heat is in the expansion of a gas or vapour, which served in the first instance as a means of calculating the ratio of equivalence, on the assumption that all the heat which disappeared had been transformed into work and had not merely become latent. Marc Seguin, in his De I 'influence des chemins de fer (Paris, 1839), made a rough estimate in this manner of the mechanical equivalent of heat, assuming that the loss of heat represented by the fall of temperature of steam on expanding was equivalent to the mechanical effect produced by the expansion. He also remarks (loc. cit. p. 382) that it was absurd to suppose that " a finite quantity of heat could produce an indefinite quantity of mechanical action, and that it was more natural to assume that a certain quantity of heat disappeared in the very act of producing motive power." J. R. Mayer (Liebig's Annalen, 1842, 42, p. 233) stated the equivalence of heat and work more 1 It was for this reason that Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) stated (Phil. Mag., 1852, 4) that " Carnot's original demonstration utterly fails," and that he introduced the " corrections " attributed to James Thomson and Clerk Maxwell respectively. In reality Carnot's original demonstration requires no correction. definitely, deducing it from the old principle, causa aequat efectum. Assuming that the sinking of a mercury column by which a gas was compressed was equivalent to the heat set free by the compression, he deduced that the warming of a kilo- gramme of water i° C. would correspond to the fall of a weight of one kilogramme from a height of about 365 metres. But Mayer did not adduce any fresh experimental evidence, and made no attempt to apply his theory to the fundamental equations of thermodynamics. It has since been urged that the experiment of Gay-Lussac (1807), on the expansion of gas from one globe to another (see above, § n), was sufficient justification for the assumption tacitly involved in Mayer's calculation. But Joule was the first to supply the correct interpretation of this experiment, and to repeat it on an adequate scale with suit- able precautions. Joule was also the first to measure directly the amount of heat liberated by the compression of a gas, and to prove that heat was not merely rendered latent, but disappeared altogether as heat, when a gas did work in expansion. 19. Joule's Determinations of the Mechanical Equivalent. — The honour of placing the mechanical theory of heat on a sound experimental basis belongs almost exclusively to J. P. Joule, who showed by direct experiment that in all the most important cases in which heat was generated by the expenditure of mechanical work, or mechanical work was produced at the expense of heat, there was a constant ratio of equivalence between the heat generated and the work expended and vice versa. His first experiments were on the relation of the chemical and electric energy expended to the heat produced in metallic conductors and voltaic and electrolytic cells; these experiments were described in a series of papers published in the Phil. Mag., 1840-1843. He first proved the relation, known as Joule's law, that the heat produced in a conductor of resistance R by a current C is proportional to C2R per second. He went on to show that the total heat produced in any voltaic circuit was proportional to the electromotive force E of the battery and to the number of equivalents electrolysed in it. Faraday had shown that electromotive force depends on chemical affinity. Joule measured the corresponding heats of combustion, and showed that the electromotive force corresponding to a chemical reaction is proportional to the heat of combustion of the electro- chemical equivalent. He also measured the E.M.F. required to decompose water, and showed that when part of the electric energy EC is thus expended in a voltameter, the heat generated is less than the heat of combustion corresponding to EC by a quantity representing the heat of combustion of the decomposed gases. His papers so far had been concerned with the relations between electrical energy, chemical energy and heat which he showed to be mutually equivalent. The first paper in which he discussed the relation of heat to mechanical power was entitled " On the Calorific Effects of Magneto-Electricity, and on the Mechanical Value of Heat " (Brit. Assoc., 1843; Phil. Mag., 23, p. 263). In this paper he showed that the heat produced by currents generated by magneto-electric induction followed the same law as voltaic currents. By a simple and ingenious arrangement he succeeded in measuring the mechanical power expended in producing the currents, and deduced the mechanical equivalent of heat and of electrical energy. The amount of mechanical work required to raise i ft of water i° F. (i B.Th.U.), as found by this method, was 838 foot-pounds. In a note added to the paper he states that he found the value 770 foot-pounds by the more direct method of forcing water through fine tubes. In a paper " On the Changes of Tempera- ture produced by the Rarefaction and Condensation of Air " (Phil. Mag., May 1845), he made the first direct measurements of the quantity of heat disengaged by compressing air, and also of the heat absorbed when the air was allowed to expand against atmospheric pressure; as the result he deduced the value 798 foot-pounds for the mechanical equivalent of i B.Th.U. He also showed that there was no appreciable absorption of heat when air was allowed to expand in such a manner as not to develop mechanical power, and he pointed out that the mechanical equivalent of heat could not be satisfactorily deduced from JOULE'S DETERMINATIONS] HEAT the relations of the specific heats, because the knowledge of the specific heats of gases at that time was of so uncertain a character. He attributed most weight to his later determina- tions of the mechanical equivalent made by the direct method of friction of liquids. He showed that the results obtained with different liquids, water, mercury and sperm oil, were the same, namely, 782 foot-pounds; and finally repeating the method with water, using all the precautions and improvements which his ex- perience had suggested, he obtained the value 772 foot-pounds, which was accepted universally for many years, and has only recently required alteration on account of the more exact defini- tion of the heat unit, and the standard scale of temperature (see CALORIMETRY). The great value of Joule's work for the general establishment of the principle of the conservation of energy lay in the variety and completeness of the experimental evidence he adduced. It was not sufficient to find the relation between heat and mechanical work or other forms of energy in one particular case. It was necessary to show that the same relation held in all cases which could be examined experimentally, and that the ratio of equivalence of the different forms of energy, measured in different ways, was independent of the manner in which the conversion was effected and of the material or working substance employed. As the result of Joule's experiments, we are justified in con- cluding that heat is a form of energy, and that all its transforma- tions are subject to the general principle of the conservation of energy. As applied to heat, the principle is called the first law of thermo-dynamics, and may be stated as follows: When heat is transformed into any other kind of energy, or vice versa, the total quantity of energy remains invariable; that is to say, the quantity of heat which disappears is equivalent to the quantity of the other kind of energy produced and vice versa. The number of units of mechanical work equivalent to one unit of heat is generally called the mechanical equivalent of heat, or Joule's equivalent, and is denoted by the letter J. Its numerical value depends on the units employed for heat and mechanical energy respectively. The values of the equivalent in terms of the units most commonly employed at the present time are as follows: — 777 foot-pounds (Lat.45°)are equivalent to i B.Th. U.(ftdeg.Fahr.) 1399 foot-pounds ,, „ „ I ft deg. C. 426-3 kilogrammetres „ „ I kilogram-deg.C. or kilo- calorie. 426-3 grammetres ,, „ I gram-deg. C. or calorie. 4-180 joules „ „ I gram-deg. C. or calorie. The water for the heat units is supposed to be taken at 20° C. or 68° F., and the degree of temperature is supposed to be measured by the hydrogen thermometer. The acceleration of gravity in latitude 45° is taken as 980-7 C.G.S. For details of more recent and accurate methods of determination, the reader should refer to the article CALORIMETRY, where tables of the variation of the specific heat of water with temperature are also given. The second law of thermodynamics is a title often used to denote Carnot's principle or some equivalent mathematical expression. In some cases this title is not conferred on Carnot's principle itself, but on some axiom from which the principle may be indirectly deduced. These axioms, however, cannot as a rule be directly applied, so that it would appear preferable to take Carnot's principle itself as the second law. It may be observed that, as a matter of history, Carnot's principle was established and generally admitted before the principle of the conservation of energy as applied to heat, and that from this point of view the titles, first and second laws, are not particularly appropriate. 20. Combination of Carnot's Principle with the Mechanical Theory. — A very instructive paper, as showing the state of the science of heat about this time, is that of C. H. A. Holtzmann, " On the Heat and Elasticity of Gases and Vapours " (Mannheim, 1845; Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, iv. 189). He points out that the theory of Laplace and Poisson does not agree with facts when applied to vapours, and that Clapeyron's formulae, though probably correct, contain an undetermined function (Carnot's F'/, Clapeyron's i/C) of the temperature. He deter- mines the value of this function to be J/T by assuming, with Seguin and Mayer, that the work done in the isothermal expan- sion of a gas is a measure of the heat absorbed. From the then accepted value -078 of the difference of the specific heats of air, he finds the numerical value of J to be 374 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie. Assuming the heat equivalent of the work to remain in the gas, he obtains expressions similar to Clapeyron's for the total heat and the specific heats. In consequence of this assump- tion, the formulae he obtained for adiabatic expansion were necessarily wrong, but no data existed at that time for testing them. In applying his formulae to vapours, he obtained an expression for the saturation-pressure of steam, which agreed with the empirical formula of Roche, and satisfied other experimental data on the supposition that the co-efficient of expansion of steam was -00423, and its specific heat 1-69 — values which are now known to be impossible, but which appeared at the time to give a very satisfactory explanation of the phenomena. The essay of Hermann Helmholtz, On the Conservation of Force (Berlin, 1847), discusses all the known cases of the trans- formation of energy, and is justly regarded as one of the chief landmarks in the establishment of the energy-principle. Helm- holtz gives an admirable statement of the fundamental principle as applied to heat, but makes no attempt to formulate the correct equations of thermodynamics on the mechanical theory. He points out the fallacy of Holtzmann's (and Mayer's) calculation of the equivalent, but admits that it is supported by Joule's experiments, though he does not seem to appreciate the true value of Joule's work. He considers that Holtzmann's formulae are well supported by experiment, and are much preferable to Clapeyron's, because the value of the undetermined function F't is found. But he fails to notice that Holtzmann's equations are fundamentally inconsistent with the conservation of energy, because the heat equivalent of the external work done is supposed to remain in the gas. That a quantity of heat equivalent to the work performed actually disappears when a gas does work in expansion, was first shown by Joule in the paper on condensation and rarefaction of air (1845) already referred to. At the conclusion of this paper he felt justified by direct experimental evidence in reasserting definitely the hypothesis of Seguin (loc. cit. p. 383) that " the steam while expanding in the cylinder loses heat in quantity exactly proportional to the mechanical force developed, and that on the condensation of the steam the heat thus converted into power is not given back." He did not see his way to reconcile this conclusion with Clapeyron's description of Carnot's cycle. At a later date, in a letter to Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1848), he pointed out that, since, according to his own experi- ments, the work done in the expansion of a gas at constant temperature is equivalent to the heat absorbed, by equating Carnot's expressions (given in § 17) for the work done and the heat absorbed, the value of Carnot's function F't must be equal to J/T, in order to reconcile his principle with the mechanical theory. Professor W. Thomson gave an account of Carnot's theory (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., Jan. 1849), in which he recognized the discrepancy between Clapeyron's statement and Joule's experi- ments, but did not see his way out of the difficulty. He there- fore adopted Carnot's principle provisionally, and proceeded to calculate a table of values of Carnot's function F'/, from the values of the total-heat and vapour-pressure of steam then recently determined by Regnault (Memoires de I'lnstitut de Paris, 1847). In making the calculation, he assumed that the specific volume v of saturated steam at any temperature T and pressure p is that given by the gaseous laws, />»=RT. The results are otherwise correct so far as Regnault's data are accurate, because the values of the efficiency per degree F't are not affected by any assumption with regard to the nature of heat. He obtained the values of the efficiency F'/ over a finite range from I to o° C., by adding up the values of F't for the separate degrees. This latter proceeding is inconsistent with the mechanical theory, but is the 146 HEAT [ABSOLUTE SCALE OF TEMPERATURE correct method on the assumption that the heat given up to the condenser is equal to that taken from the source. The values he obtained for F't agreed very well with those previously given by Carnot and Clapeyron, and showed that this function diminishes with rise of temperature roughly in the inverse ratio of T, as suggested by Joule. R. J. E. Clausius (Pogg. Ann., 1850, 79, p. 369) and W. J. M. Rankine (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1850) were the first to develop the correct equations of thermodynamics on the mechanical theory. When heat was supplied to a body to change its tempera- ture or state, part remained in the body as intrinsic heat energy E, but part was converted into external work of expansion W and ceased to exist as heat. The part remaining in the body was always the same for the same change of state, however performed, as required by Carnot's fundamental axiom, but the part corre- sponding to the external work was necessarily different for different values of the work done. Thus in any cycle in which the body was exactly restored to its initial state, the heat remaining in the body would always be the same, or as Carnot puts it, the quantities of heat absorbed and given out in its diverse transformations are exactly " compensated," so far as the body is concerned. But the quantities of heat absorbed and given out are not necessarily equal. On the contrary, they differ by the equivalent of the external work done in the cycle. Apply- ing this principle to the case of steam, Clausius deduced a fact previously unknown, that the specific heat of steam maintained in a state of saturation is negative, which was also deduced by Rankine (loc. cit.) about the same time. In applying the principle to gases Clausius assumes (with Mayer and Holtzmann) that the heat absorbed by a gas in isothermal expansion is equivalent to the work done, but he does not appear to be acquainted with Joule's experiment, and the reasons he adduces in support of this assumption are not conclusive. This being admitted, he deduces from the energy principle alone the propositions already given by Carnot with reference to gases, and shows in addition that the specific heat of a perfect gas must be independent of the density. In the second part of his paper he introduces Carnot's principle, which he quotes as follows: " The perform- ance of work is equivalent to a transference of heat from a hot to a cold body without the quantity of heat being thereby diminished." This is not Carnot's way of stating his principle (see § 15), but has the effect of exaggerating the importance of Clapeyron's unnecessary assumption. By equating the expres- sions given by Carnot for the work done and the heat absorbed in the expansion of a gas, he deduces (following Holtzmann) the value J/T for Carnot's function F't (which Clapeyron denotes by i/C). He shows that this assumption gives values of Carnot's function which agree fairly well with those calculated by Clapeyron and Thomson, and that it leads to values of the mechanical equivalent not differing greatly from those of Joule. Substituting the value J/T for C in the analytical expressions given by Clapeyron for the latent heat of expansion and vaporiza- tion, these relations are immediately reduced to their modern form (see THERMODYNAMICS, § 4). Being unacquainted with Carnot's original work, but recognizing the invalidity of Clapeyron's description of Carnot's cycle, Clausius substituted a proof consistent with the mechanical theory, which he based on the axiom that " heat cannot of itself pass from cold to hot." The proof on this basis involves the application of the energy principle, which does not appear to be necessary, and the axiom to which final appeal is made does not appear more convincing than Carnot's. Strange to say, Clausius did not in this paper give the expression for the efficiency in a Carnot cycle of finite range (Carnot's Ft) which follows immediately from the value J/T assumed for the efficiency F'/ of a cycle of infinitesimal range at the temperature / C or T Abs. Rankine did not make the same assumption as Clausius explicitly, but applied the mechanical theory of heat to the development of his hypothesis of molecular vortices, and deduced from it a number of results similar to those obtained by Clausius. Unfortunately the paper (loc. cit.) was not published till some time later, but in a summary given in the Phil. Mag. (July 1851) the principal results were detailed. Assuming the value of Joule's equivalent, Rankine deduced the value 0-2404 for the specific heat of air at constant pressure, in place of 0-267 as found by Delaroche and Berard. The subsequent verification of this value by Regnault (Comptes rendus, 1853) afforded strong confirmation of the accuracy of Joule's work. In a note appended to the abstract in the Phil. Mag. Rankine states that he has succeeded in proving that the maximum efficiency of an engine working in a Carnot cycle of finite range t\ to to is of the form (t\-to)l(t\-k), where k is a constant, the same for all substances. This is correct if t represents temperature Centigrade, and £ =—273. Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in a paper " On the Dynamical Theory of Heat " (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1851, first published in the Phil. Mag., 1852) gave a very clear state- ment of the position of the theory at that time. He showed that the value F'< = J/T, assumed for Carnot's function by Clausius without any experimental justification, rested solely on the evidence of Joule's experiment, and might possibly not be true at all temperatures. Assuming the value J/T with this reservation, he gave as the expression for the efficiency over a finite range ti to ta C., or TI to To Abs., the result, W/H = (h -M/Ci+273) = (Tt -T0)/T, . (4) which, he observed, agrees in form with that found by Rankine. 21. The Absolute Scale of Temperature. — Since Carnot's function is the same for all substances at the same temperature, and is a function of the temperature only, it supplies a means of measuring temperature independently of the properties of any particular substance. This proposal was first made by Lord Kelvin (Phil. Mag., 1848), who suggested that the degree of temperature should be chosen so that the efficiency of a perfect engine at any point of the scale should be the same, or that Carnot's function F't should be constant. This would give the simplest expression for the efficiency on the caloric theory, but the scale so obtained, when the values of Carnot's function were calculated from Regnault's observations on steam, was found to differ considerably from the scale of the mercury or air-thermo- meter. At a later date, when it became clear that the value of Carnot's function was very nearly proportional to the re- ciprocal of the temperature T measured from the absolute zero of the gas thermometer, he proposed a simpler method (Phil. Trans., 1854), namely, to define absolute temperature 6 as proportional to the reciprocal of Carnot's function. On this definition of absolute temperature, the expression (0i-0o)/0i for the efficiency of a Carnot cycle with limits 61 and 0<> would be exact, and it became a most important problem to determine how far the temperature T by gas thermometer differed from the absolute temperature 6. With this object he devised a very delicate method, known as the " porous plug experiment " (see THERMODYNAMICS) of testing the deviation of the gas thermometer from the absolute scale. The experiments were carried out in conjunction with Joule, and finally resulted in showing (Phil. Trans., 1862, "On the Thermal Effects of Fluids in Motion ") that the deviations of the air thermometer from the absolute scale as above defined' are almost negligible, and that in the case of the gas hydrogen the deviations are so small that -a thermometer containing this gas may be taken for all practical purposes as agreeing exactly with the absolute scale at all ordinary temperatures. For this reason the hydrogen thermometer has since been generally adopted as the standard. 22. Availability of Heat of Combustion. — Taking the value 1-13 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie for i° C. fall of temperature at 100° C., Carnot attempted to estimate the possible perform- ance of a steam-engine receiving heat at 160° C. and rejecting it at 40° C. Assuming the performance to be simply proportional to the temperature fall, the work done for 120° fall would be 134 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie. To make an accurate calculation required a knowledge of the variation of the function F't with temperature. Taking the accurate formula of § 20, the work obtainable is 118 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie, which is INTERNAL COMBUSTION] HEAT H7 28% of 426, the mechanical equivalent of the kilo-calorie in kilogrammetres. Carnot pointed out that the fall of 120° C. utilized in the steam-engine was only a small fraction of the whole temperature fall obtainable by combustion, and made an estimate of the total power available if the whole fall could be utilized, allowing for the probable diminution of the function F't with rise of temperature. His estimate was 3-9 million kilogrammetres per kilogramme of coal. This was certainly an over-estimate, but was surprisingly close, considering the scanty data at his disposal. In reality the fraction of the heat of combustion available, even in an ideal engine and apart from practical limitations, is much less than might be inferred from the efficiency formula of the Carnot cycle. In applying this formula to estimate the availability of the heat it is usual to take the temperature obtainable by the combustion of the fuel as the upper limit of temperature in the formula. For carbon burnt in air at constant pressure without any loss of heat, the products of combustion might be raised 2300° C. in temperature, assuming that the specific heats of the products were constant and that there was no dissociation. If all the heat could be supplied to the working fluid at this temperature, that of the condenser being 40° C., the possible efficiency by the formula of § 20 would be 89%. But the combustion obviously cannot maintain so high a tem- perature if heat is being continuously abstracted by a boiler. Suppose that 6' is the maximum temperature of combustion as. above estimated, 6" the temperature of the boiler, and 0° that of the condenser. Of the whole heat supplied by combustion represented by the rise of temperature 6'— 60, the fraction (0'-0")/(0'-0°) is the maximum that could be supplied to the boiler, the fraction (0"-0°)/(0'-0°) being carried away with the waste gases. Of the heat supplied to the boiler, the fraction (0*-0°)/0* might theoretically be converted into work. The problem in the case of an engine using a separate working fluid, like a steam-engine, is to find what must be the temperature 0" of the boiler in order to obtain the largest possible fraction of the heat of combustion in the form of work. It is easy to show that 0" must be the geometric mean of 0' and 0°, or 0"= V0'0o- Taking 0'-0° = 23oo° C., and 0° = 3i3° Abs. as before, we find 0" = 903° Abs. or 630° C. The heat supplied to the boiler is then 74-4% of the heat of combustion, and of this 65-3 % is converted into work, giving a maximum possible efficiency of 49% in place of 89%. With the boiler at 160° C., the possible efficiency, calculated in a similar manner, would be 26-3%, which shows that the possible increase of efficiency by increasing the tem- perature range is not so great as is usually supposed. If the temperature of the boiler were raised to 300° C., corresponding to a pressure of 1 260 Ib per sq. in., which is occasionally surpassed in modern flash-boilers, the possible efficiency would be 40%. The waste heat from the boiler, supposed perfectly efficient, would be in this case 1 1 %, of which less than a quarter could be utilized in the form of work. Carnot foresaw that in order to utilize a larger percentage of the heat of combustion it would be necessary to employ a series of working fluids, the waste heat from one boiler and condenser serving to supply the next in the series. This has actually been effected in a few cases, e.g. steam and SO2, when special circumstances exist to compensate for the extra complication. Improvements in the steam-engine since Carnot's time have been mainly in the direction of reducing waste due to condensation and leakage by multiple expansion, superheating, &c. The gain by increased temperature range has been comparatively small owing to limitations of pressure, and the best modern steam-engines do not utilize more than 20% of the heat of combustion. This is in reality a very respectable fraction of the ideal limit of 40% above calculated on the assumption of i26olb initial pressure, with a perfectly efficient boiler and complete expansion, and with an ideal engine which does not waste available motive power by complete condensation of the steam before it is returned to the boiler. 23. Advantages of Internal Combustion. — As Carnot pointed out, the chief advantage of using atmospheric air as a working fluid in a heat-engine lies in the possibility of imparting heat to it directly by internal combustion. This avoids the limitation imposed by the use of a separate boiler, which as we have seen reduces the possible efficiency at least 50%. Even with internal combustion, however, the full range of temperature is not available, because the heat cannot conveniently in practice be communicated to the working fluid at constant temperature, owing to the large range of expansion at constant temperature required for the absorption of a sufficient quantity of heat. Air-engines of this type, such as Stirling's or Ericsson's, taking in heat at constant temperature, though theoretically the most perfect, are bulky and mechanically inefficient. In practical engines the heat is generated by the combustion of an explosive mixture at constant volume or at constant pressure. The heat is not all communicated at the highest temperature, but over a range of temperature from that of the mixture at the beginning of combustion to the maximum temperature. The earliest instance of this type of engine is the lycopodium engine of M.M. Niepce, discussed by Carnot, in which a combustible mixture of air and lycopodium powder at atmospheric pressure was ignited in a cylinder, and did work on a piston. The early gas-engines of E. Lenoir (1860) and N. Otto and E. Langen (1866), operated in a similar manner with illuminating gas in place of lycopodium. Combustion in this case is effected practically at constant volume, and the maximum efficiency theoretically obtainable is i-loger/(r-i), where r is the ratio of the maximum temperature 0' to the initial temperature 0°. In order to obtain this efficiency it would be necessary to follow Carnot's rule, and expand the gas after ignition without loss or gain of heat from 0' down to 0°, and then to compress it at 0° to its initial volume. If the rise of temperature in com- bustion were 2300° C., and the initial temperature were o° C. or 273° Abs., the theoretical efficiency would be 73-3%, which is much greater than that obtainable with a boiler. But in order to reach this value, it would be necessary to expand the mixture to about 270 times its initial volume, which is obviously impracticable. Owing to incomplete expansion and rapid cooling of the heated gases by the large surface exposed, the actual efficiency of the Lenoir engine was less than 5 %, and of the Otto and Langen, with more rapid expansion, about 10%. Carnot foresaw that in order to render an engine of this type practically efficient, it would be necessary to compress the mixture before ignition. Compression is beneficial in three ways: (i) it permits a greater range of expansion after ignition; (2) it raises the mean effective pressure, and thus improves the mechanical efficiency and the power in proportion to size and weight; (3) it reduces the loss of heat during ignition by reducing the surface exposed to the hot gases. In the modern gas or petrol motor, compression is employed as in Carnot's cycle, but the efficiency attainable is limited not so much by considera- tions of temperature as by limitations of volume. It is impractic- able before combustion at constant volume to compress a rich mixture to much less than -Jth of its initial volume, and, for mechanical simplicity, the range of expansion is made equal to that of compression. The cycle employed was patented in 1862 by Beau de Rochas (d. 1892), but was first successfully carried out by Otto (1876). It differs from the Carnot cycle in employing reception and rejection of heat at constant volume instead of at constant temperature. This cycle is not so efficient as the Carnot cycle for given limits of temperature, but, for the given limits of volume imposed, it gives a much higher efficiency than the Carnot cycle. The efficiency depends only on the range of temperature in expansion and compression, and is given by the formula (0'-0")/0', where 0' is the maximum temperature, and 0" the temperature at the end of expansion. The formula is the same as that for the Carnot cycle with the same range of temperature in expansion. The ratio 6' 16" is 1, where r is the given ratio of expansion or compression, and -y is the ratio of the specific heats of the working fluid. Assuming the working fluid to be a perfect gas with the same properties as air, we should have 7 = 1-41. Taking r=s, the formula gives 48% for the maximum possible efficiency. The actual products of combustion vary with the nature of the fuel 148 HEAT [TRANSFERENCE OF HEAT employed, and have different properties from air, but the efficiency is found to vary with compression in the same manner as for air. For this reason a committee of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1905 recommended the adoption of the air-standard for estimating the effects of varying the compression ratio, and defined the relative efficiency of an internal combustion engine as the ratio of its observed efficiency to that of a perfect air-engine with the same compression. 24. Effect of Dissociation, and Increase of Specific Heat. — One of the most important effects of heat is the decomposition or dissociation of compound molecules. Just as the molecules of a vapour combine with evolution of heat to form the more complicated molecules of the liquid, and as the liquid molecules require the addition of heat to effect their separation into molecules of vapour; so in the case of molecules of different kinds which combine with evolution of heat, the reversal of the process can be effected either by the agency of heat, or indirectly by supplying the requisite amount of energy by electrical or other methods. Just as the latent heat of vaporization diminishes with rise of temperature, and the pressure of the dissociated vapour molecules increases, so in the case of compound molecules in general the heat of combination diminishes with rise of tempera- ture, and the pressure of the products of dissociation increases. There is evidence that the compound carbon dioxide, C02, is partly dissociated into carbon monoxide and oxygen at high temperatures, and that the proportion dissociated increases with rise of temperature. There is a very close analogy between these phenomena and the vaporization of a liquid. The laws which govern dissociation are the same fundamental laws of thermodynamics, but the relations involved are necessarily more complex on account of the presence of different kinds of molecules, and present special difficulties for accurate investiga- tion in the case where dissociation does not begin to be appreciable until a high temperature is reached. It is easy, however, to see that the general effect of dissociation must be to diminish the available temperature of combustion, and all experiments go to show that in ordinary combustible mixtures the rise of temperature actually attained is much less than that calculated as in § 22, on the assumption that the whole heat of combustion is developed and communicated to products of constant specific heat. The defect of temperature observed can be represented by supposing that the specific heat of the products of combustion increases with rise of temperature. This is the case for CO2 even at ordinary temperatures, according to Regnault, and probably also for air and steam at higher temperatures. Increase of specific heat is a necessary accompaniment of dissociation, and from some points of view may be regarded as merely another way of stating the facts. It is the most convenient method to adopt in the case of products of combustion consisting of a mixture of COz and steam with a large excess of inert gases, because the relations of equilibrium of dissociated molecules of so many different kinds would be too complex to permit of any other method of expression. It appears from the researches of Dugald Clerk, H. le Chatelier and others that the apparent specific heat of the products of combustion in a gas-engine may be taken as approximately -34 to -33 in place of -24 at working temperatures between 1000° C. and 1700° C., and that the ratio of the specific heats is about 1-29 in place of 1-41. This limits the availability of the heat of combustion by reducing the rise of temperature actually obtainable in combustion at constant volume by 30 or 40%, and also by reducing the range of temperature ff 19* for a given ratio of expansion r from r'41to r-29. The formula given in § 21 is no longer quite exact, because the ratio of the specific heats of the mixture during compression is not the same as that of the products of combustion during expansion. But since the work done depends principally on the expansion curve, the ratio of the range of temperature in ex- pansion (0'-0") to the maximum temperature 6' will still give a very good approximation to the possible efficiency. Taking r = 5, as before, for the compression ratio, the possible efficiency is reduced from 48% to 38%, if 7=1-29 instead of 1-41. A large gas-engine of the present day with r=s may actually realize as much as 34% indicated efficiency, which is 90% of the maximum possible, showing how perfectly all avoidable heat losses have been minimized. It is often urged that the gas-engine is relatively less efficient than the steam-engine, because, although it has a much higher absolute efficiency, it does not utilize so large a fraction of its temperature range, reckoning that of the steam-engine from the temperature of the boiler to that of the condenser, and that of the gas-engine from the maximum temperature of combustion to that of the air. This is not quite fair, and has given rise to the mistaken notion that " there is an immense margin for improve- ment in the gas-engine," which is not the case if the practical limitations of volume are rightly considered. If expansion could be carried out in accordance with Carnot's principle of maximum efficiency, down to the lower limit of temperature 00, with rejection of heat at 00 during compression to the original volume »o, it would no doubt be possible to obtain an ideal efficiency of nearly 80%. But this would be quite impracticable, as it would require expansion to about 100 times »0, or 500 times the com- pression volume. Some advantage no doubt might be obtained by carrying the expansion beyond the original volume. This has been done, but is not found to be worth the extra complica- tion. A more practical method, which has been applied by Diesel for liquid fuel, is to introduce the fuel at the end of compression, and adjust the supply in such a manner as to give combustion at nearly constant pressure. This makes it possible to employ higher compression, with a corresponding increase in the ratio of expansion and the theoretical efficiency. With a compression ratio of 14, an indicated efficiency of 40% has been obtained in this way, but owing to additional complications the brake efficiency was only 31%, which is hardly any improve- ment on the brake efficiency of 30% obtained with the ordinary type of gas-engine. Although Carnot's principle makes it possible to calculate in every case what the limiting possible efficiency would be for any kind of cycle if all heat losses were abolished, it is very necessary, in applying the principle to practical cases, to take account of the possibility of avoiding the heat losses which are supposed to be absent, and of other practical limita- tions in the working of the actual engine. An immense amount of time and ingenuity has been wasted in striving to realize impossible margins of ideal efficiency, which a close study of the practical conditions would have shown to be illusory. As Carnot remarks at the conclusion of his essay: " Economy of fuel is only one of the conditions a heat-engine must satisfy; in many cases it is only secondary, and must often give way to considerations of safety, strength and wearing qualities of the machine, of smallness of space occupied, or of expense in erecting. To know how to appreciate justly in each case the considerations of convenience and economy, to be able to distinguish the essential from the accessory, to balance all fairly, and finally to arrive at the best result by the simplest means, such must be the principal talent of the man called on to direct and co-ordinate the work of his fellows for the attainment of a useful object of any kind." TRANSFERENCE or HEAT 25. Modes of Transference. — There are three principal modes of transference of heat, namely (i) convection, (2) conduction, and (3) radiation. • (i) In convection, heat is carried or conveyed by the motion of heated masses of matter. The most familiar illustrations of this method of transference are the heating of buildings by the circulation of steam or hot water, or the equalization of tem- perature of a mass of unequally heated liquid or gas by convection currents, produced by natural changes of density or by artificial stirring. (2) In conduction, heat is transferred by contact between contiguous particles of matter and is passed on from one particle to the next without visible relative motion of the parts of the body. A familiar illustration of conduction is the passage of heat through the metal plates of a boiler from the fire to the water inside, or the transference of heat from a soldering bolt to the solder and the metal with which it is placed in contact. NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING] HEAT 149 (3) In radiation, the heated body gives rise to a motion of vibration in the aether, which is propagated equally in all directions, and is reconverted into heat when it encounters any obstacle capable of absorbing it. Thus radiation differs from conduction and convection in taking place most perfectly in the absence of matter, whereas conduction and convection require material communication between the bodies concerned. In the majority of cases of transference of heat all three modes 'of transference are simultaneously operative in a greater or less degree, and the combined effect is generally of great complexity. The different modes of transference are subject to widely different laws, and the difficulty of disentangling their effects and subjecting them to calculation is often one of the most serious obstacles in the experimental investigation of heat. In space void of matter, we should have pure radiation, but it is difficult to obtain so perfect a vacuum that the effects of the residual gas in transferring heat by conduction or convection are inappreciable. In the interior of an opaque solid we should have pure conduction, but if the solid is sensibly transparent in thin layers there must also be an internal radiation, while in a liquid or a gas it is very difficult to eliminate the effects of convection. These difficulties are well illustrated in the historical development of the subject by the experimental investigations which have been made to determine the laws of heat-transference, such as the laws of cooling, of radiation and of conduction. 26. Newton's Law of Cooling. — There is one essential condition common to all three modes of heat-transference, namely, that they depend on difference of temperature, that the direction of the transfer of heat is always from hot to cold, and that the rate of transference is, for small differences, directly proportional to the difference of temperature. Without difference of tem- perature there is no transfer of heat. When two bodies have been brought to the same temperature by conduction, they are also in equilibrium as regards radiation, and vice versa. If this were not the case, there could be no equilibrium of heat defined by equality of temperature. A hot body placed in an enclosure of lower temperature, e.g. a calorimeter in its containing vessel, generally loses heat by all three modes simultaneously in different degrees. The loss by each mode will depend in different ways on the form, extent and nature of its surface and on that of the enclosure, on the manner in which it is supported, on its relative position and distance from the enclosure, and on the nature of the intervening medium. But provided that the difference of temperature is small, the rate of loss of heat by all modes will be approximately proportional to the difference of temperature, the other conditions remaining constant. The rate of cooling or the rate of fall of temperature will also be nearly proportional to the rate of loss of heat, if the specific heat of the cooling body is constant, or the rate of cooling at any moment will be pro- portional to the difference of temperature. This simple relation is commonly known as Newton's law of cooling, but is limited in its application to comparatively simple cases such as the foregoing. Newton himself applied it to estimate the temperature of a red-hot iron ball, by observing the time which it -took to cool from a red heat to a known temperature, and comparing this with the time taken to cool through a known range at ordinary temperatures. According to this law if the excess of temperature of the body above its surroundings is observed at equal intervals of time, the observed values will form a geometrical progression with a common ratio. Supposing, for instance, that the surrounding temperature were o° C., that the red-hot ball took 25 minutes to cool from its original temperature to 20° C., and 5 minutes to cool from 20° C. to 10° C., the original temperature is easily calculated on the assumption that the excess of temperature above o° C. falls to half its value in each interval of 5 minutes. Doubling the value 20° at 25 minutes five times, we arrive at 640° C. as the original temperature. No other method of estimation of such temperatures was available in the time of Newton, but, as we now know, the simple law of proportionality to the temperature difference is inapplicable over such large ranges of temperature. The rate of loss of heat by radiation, and also by convection and conduction to the surrounding air, increases much more rapidly than in simple proportion to the temperature difference, and the rate of increase of each follows a different law. At a later date Sir John Herschel measured the intensity of the solar radiation at the surface of the earth, and endeavoured to form an estimate of the temperature of the sun by comparison with terrestrial sources on the assumption that the intensity of radiation was simply pioportional to the tem- perature difference. He thus arrived at an estimate of several million degrees, which we now know would be about a thousand times too great. The application of Newton's law necessarily leads to absurd results when the difference of temperature is very large, but the error will not in general exceed 2 to 3% if the temperature difference does not exceed 10° C., and the percentage error is proportionately much smaller for smaller differences. 27. Didong and Pelit's Empirical Laws of Cooling. — One of the most elaborate experimental investigations of the law of cooling was that of Dulong and Petit (Ann. Chim. Phys., 1817, 7, pp. 225 and 337), who observed the rate of cooling of a mercury thermometer from 300° C. in a water-jacketed enclosure at various temperatures from o° C. to 80° C. In order to obtain the rate of cooling by radiation alone, they exhausted the enclosure as perfectly as possible after the introduction of the thermometer, but with the imperfect appliances available at that time they were not able to obtain a vacuum better than about 3 or 4 mm. of mercury. They found that the velocity of cooling V in a vacuum could be represented by a formula of the type A(o'-o'0) • (5) in which t is the temperature of the thermometer, and /o that of the enclosure, a is a constant having the value 1-0075, and tne coefficient A depends on the form of the bulb and the nature of its surface. For the ranges of temperature they employed, this formula gives much better results than Newton's, but it must be remembered that the temperatures were expressed on the arbitrary scale of the mercury thermometer, and were not corrected for the large and uncertain errors of stem-exposure (see THERMOMETRY). Moreover, although the effects of cooling by convection currents are practically eliminated by exhausting to 3 or 4 mm. (since the density of the gas is reduced to i/2ooth while its viscosity is not appreciably affected), the rate of cooling by conduction is not materially diminished, since the conductivity, like the viscosity, is nearly independent of pressure. It has since been shown by Sir William Crookes (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1881, 21, p. 239) that the rate of cooling of a mercury thermometer in a vacuum suffers a very great diminution when the pressure is reduced from i mm. to -ooi mm., at which pressure the effect of conduction by the residual gas has practically disappeared. Dulong and Petit also observed the rate of cooling under the same conditions with the enclosure filled with various gases. They found that the cooling effect of the gas could be represented by adding to the term already given as representing radiation, an 'expression of the form V' = B/>«(/-fc)i:fM .... (6) They found that the cooling effect of convection, unlike that of radiation, was independent of the nature of the surface of the thermometer, whether silvered or blackened, that it varied as some power c of the pressure p, and that it was independent of the absolute temperature of the enclosure, but varied as the excess temperature (t-la) raised to the power 1-233. This highly artificial result undoubtedly contains some elements of truth, but could only be applied to experiments similar to those from which it was derived. F. Herv6 de la Provostaye and P. Q. Desains (Ann. Chim. Phys., 1846, 16, p. 337), in repeating these experiments under various conditions, found that the coefficients A and B were to some extent dependent on the temperature, and that the manner in which the cooling effect varied with the pressure depended on the form and size of the enclosure. It is evident that this should be the case, since the cooling effect of the gas depends partly on convective currents. HEAT [DIFFUSION OF TEMPERATURE which are necessarily greatly modified by the form of the enclosure in a manner which it would appear hopeless to attempt to represent by any general formula. 28. Surface Emissivity. — The same remark applies to many attempts which have since been made to determine the general value of the constant termed by Fourier and early writers the " exterior conductibility," but now called the surface emissivity. This coefficient represents the rate of loss of heat from a body per unit area of surface per degree excess of temperature, and includes the effects of radiation, convection and conduction. As already pointed out, the combined effect will be nearly proportional to the excess of temperature in any given case provided that the excess is small, but it is not necessarily pro- portional to the extent of surface exposed except in the case of pure radiation. The rate of loss by convection and conduction varies greatly with the form of the surface, and, unless the enclosure is very large compared with the cooling body, the effect depends also on the size and form of the enclosure. Heat is necessarily communicated from the cooling body to the layer of gas in contact with it by conduction. If the linear dimensions of the body are small, as in the case of a fine wire, or if it is separated from the enclosure by a thin layer of gas, the rate of loss depends chiefly on conduction. For very fine metallic wires heated by an electric current, W. E. Ayrton and H. Kilgour (Phil. Trans., 1892) showed that the rate of loss is nearly independent of the surface, instead of being directly proportional to it. This should be the case, as Porter has shown (Phil. Mag., March 1895), since the effect depends mainly on conduction. The effects of conduction and radiation may be approximately estimated if the conductivity of the gas and the nature and forms of the surfaces of the body and enclosure are known, but the effect of convection in any case can be determined only by experiment. It has been found that the rate of cooling by a current of air is approximately proportional to the velocity of the current, other things being equal. It is obvious that this should be the case, but the result cannot generally be applied to convection currents. Values which are commonly given for the surface emissivity must therefore be accepted with great reserve. They can be regarded only as approximate, and as applicable only to cases precisely similar to those for which they were experimentally obtained. There cannot be said to be any general law of convection. The loss of heat is not necessarily proportional to the area of the surface, and no general value of the coefficient can be given to suit all cases. The laws of con- duction and radiation admit of being more precisely formulated, and their effects predicted, except in so far as they are complicated by convection. 29. Conduction of Heat. — The laws of transference of heat in the interior of a solid body formed one of the earliest subjects of mathematical and experimental treatment in the theory of heat. The law assumed by Fourier was of the simplest possible type, but the mathematical application, except in the simplest cases, was so difficult as to require the development of a new mathematical method. Fourier succeeded in showing how, by his method of analysis, the solution of any given problem with regard to the flow of heat by conduction in any material could be obtained in terms of a physical constant, the thermal conductivity of the material, and that the results obtained by experiment agreed in a qualitative manner with those predicted by his theory. But the experimental determination of the actual values of these constants presented formidable difficulties which were not surmounted till a later date. The experimental methods and difficulties are discussed in a special article on CONDUCTION OF HEAT. It will suffice here to give a brief historical sketch, including a few of the more important results by way of illustration. 30. Comparison of Conducting Powers. — That the power of transmitting heat by conduction varied widely in different materials was probably known in a general way from prehistoric times. Empirical knowledge of this kind is shown in the con- struction of many articles for heating, cooking, &c., such as the copper soldering bolt, or the Norwegian cooking-stove. One of the earliest experiments for making an actual comparison of conducting powers was that suggested by Franklin, but carried out by Jan Ingenhousz (Journ. de phys., 1789, 34, pp. 68 and 380). Exactly similar bars of different materials, glass, wood, metal, &c., thinly coated with wax, were fixed in the side of a trough of boiling water so as to project for equal distances through the side of the trough into the external air. The wax coating was observed to melt as the heat travelled along the bars, the distance from the trough to which the wax was melted along each affording an approximate indication of the distribution of temperature. When the temperature of each bar had become stationary the heat which it gained by conduction from the trough must be equal to the heat lost to the surrounding air, and must therefore be approximately proportional to the distance to which the wax had melted along the bar. But the temperature fall per unit length, or the temperature-gradient, in each bar at the point where it emerged from the trough would be inversely proportional to the same distance. For equal temperature-gradients the quantities of heat conducted (or the relative conducting powers of the bars) would therefore be proportional to the squares of the distances to which the wax finally melted on each bar. This was shown by Fourier and Despretz (Ann. Mm. phys., 1822, 19, p. 97). 31. Diffusion of Temperature. — It was shown in connexion with this experiment by Sir H. Davy, and the experiment was later popularized by John Tyndall, that the rate at which wax melted along the bar, or the rate of propagation of a given temperature, during the first moments of heating, as distinguished from the melting-distance finally attained, depended on the specific heat as well as the conductivity. Short prisms of iron and bismuth coated with wax were placed on a hot metal plate. The wax was observed to melt first on the bismuth, although its conductivity is less than that of iron. The reason is that its specific heat is less than that of iron in the proportion of 3 to n. The densities of iron and bismuth being 7-8 and 9-8, the thermal capacities of equal prisms will be in the ratio -86 for iron to -29 for bismuth. If the prisms receive heat at equal rates, the bis- muth will reach the temperature of melting wax nearly three times as quickly as the iron. It is often stated on the strength of this experiment that the rate of propagation of a temperature wave, which depends on the ratio of the conductivity to the specific heat per unit volume, is greater in bismuth than in iron (e.g. Preston, Heat, p. 628). This is quite incorrect, because the conductivity of iron is about six times that of bismuth, and the rate of propagation of a temperature wave is therefore twice as great in iron as in bismuth. The experiment in reality is misleading because the rates of reception of heat by the prisms are limited by the very imperfect contact with the hot metal plate, and are not proportional to the respective conductivities. If the iron and bismuth bars are properly faced and soldered to the top of a copper box (in order to ensure good metallic contact, and exclude a non-conducting film of air), and the box is then heated by steam, the rates of reception of heat will be nearly proportional to the conductivities, and the wax will melt nearly twice as fast along the iron as along the bismuth. A bar of lead similarly treated will show a faster rate of propagation than iron, because, although its conductivity is only half that of iron, its specific heat per unit volume is 2-5 times smaller. 32. Bad Conductors. Liquids and Gases. — Count Rumford (1792) compared the conducting powers of substances used in clothing, such as wool and cotton, fur and down, by observing the time which a thermometer took to cool when embedded in a globe filled successively with the different materials. The times of cooling observed for a given range varied from 1300 to 900 seconds for different materials. The low conducting power of such materials is principally due to the presence of air in the interstices, which is prevented from forming convection currents by the presence of the fibrous material. Finely powdered silica is a very bad conductor, but in the compact form of rock crystal it is as good a conductor as some of the metals. According to the kinetic theory of gases, the conductivity of a gas depends on molecular diffusion. Maxwell estimated the conductivity of HEATING BY CONDENSATION] HEAT air at ordinary temperatures at about 20,000 times less than that of copper. This has been verified experimentally by Kundt and Warburg, Stefan and Winkelmann, by taking special precautions to eliminate the effects of convection currents and radiation. It was for some time doubted whether a gas possessed any true conductivity for heat. The experiment of T. Andrews, repeated by Grove, and Magnus, showing that a wire heated by an electric current was raised to a higher temperature in air than in hydrogen, was explained by Tyndall as being due to the greater mobility of hydrogen which gave rise to stronger convection currents. In reality the effect is due chiefly to the greater velocity of motion of the ultimate molecules of hydrogen, and is most marked if molar (as opposed to molecular) convection is eliminated. Molecular convection or diffusion, which cannot be distinguished experimentally from conduction, as it follows the same law, is also the main cause of conduction of heat in liquids. Both in liquids and gases the effects of convection currents are so much greater than those of diffusion or conduction that the latter are very difficult to measure, and, except in special cases, comparatively unimportant as affecting the transference of heat. Owing to the difficulty of eliminating the effects of radiation and convection, the results obtained for the conductivities of liquids are somewhat discordant, and there is in most cases great uncertainty whether the conductivity increases or diminishes with rise of temperature. It would appear, however, that liquids, such as water and glycerin, differ remarkably little in conduc- tivity in spite of enormous differences of viscosity. ' The viscosity of a liquid diminishes very rapidly with rise of temperature, without any marked change in the conductivity, whereas the viscosity of a gas increases with rise of temperature, and is always nearly proportional to the conductivity. 33. Difficulty of Quantitative Estimation of Heat Transmitted. — • The conducting powers of different metals were compared by C. M. Despretz, and later by G. H. Wiedemann and R. Franz, employing an extension of the method of Jan Ingenhousz, in which the temperatures at different points along a bar heated at one end were measured by thermometers or thermocouples let into small holes in the bars, instead of being measured at one point only by means of melting wax. These experiments un- doubtedly gave fairly accurate relative values, but did not permit the calculation of the absolute amounts of heat transmitted. This was first obtained by J. D. Forbes (Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1852; Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1862, 23, p. 133) by deducing the amount of heat lost to the surrounding air from a separate experiment in which the rate of cooling of the bar was observed (see CONDUC- TION OF HEAT). Clement (Ann. Mm. phys., 1841) had pre- viously attempted to determine the conductivities of metals by observing the amount of heat transmitted by a plate with one side exposed to steam at 100° C., and the other side cooled by water at 28° C. Employing a copper plate 3 mm. thick, and assuming that the two surfaces of the plate were at the same temperatures as the water and the steam to which they were exposed, or that the temperature-gradient in the metal was 72° in 3 mm., he had thus obtained a value which we_now know to be nearly 200 times too small. The actual temperature difference in the metal itself was really about 0-36° C. The remainder of the 72° drop was in the badly conducting films of water and steam close to the metal surface. Similarly in a boiler plate in contact with flame at 1500° C. on one side and water at, say, 150° C. on the other, the actual difference of temperature in the metal, even if it is an inch thick, is only a few degrees. The metal, unless badly furred with incrustation, is but little hotter than the water. It is immaterial so far as the transmission of heat is concerned, whether the plates are iron or copper. The greater part of the resistance to the passage of heat resides in a comparatively quiescent film of gas close to the surface, through which film the heat has to pass mainly by conduction. If a Bunsen flame, preferably coloured with sodium, is observed impinging on a cold metal plate, it will be seen to be separated from the plate by a dark space of a millimetre or less, throughout which the temperature of the gas is lowered by its own conductivity below the temperature of incandescence. There is no abrupt change of temperature in passing from the gas to the metal, but a continuous temperature-gradient from the temperature of the metal to that of the flame. It is true that this gradient may be upwards of 1000° C. per mm., but there is no discontinuity. 34. Resistance of a Gas Film to the Passage of Heat. — It is possible to make a rough estimate of the resistance of such a film to the passage of heat through it. Taking the average conductivity of the gas in the film as 10,000 times less than that of copper (about double the conductivity of air at ordinary temperatures) a millimetre film would be equivalent to a thickness of 10 metres of copper, or about 1-2 metres of iron. Taking the temperature- gradient as 1000° C. per mm. such a film would transmit i gramme-calorie per sq. cm. per sec., or 36,000 kilo-calories per sq. metre per hour. With an area of 100 sq. cms. the heat transmitted at this rate would raise a litre of water from 20° C. to 100° C. in 800 sees. By experiment with a strong Bunsen flame it takes from 8 to 10 minutes to do this, which would indicate that on the above assumptions the equivalent thickness of quiescent film should be rather less than i mm. in this case. The thickness of the film diminishes with the velocity of the burning gases impinging on the surface. This accounts for the rapidity of heating by a blowpipe flame, which is not due to any great increase in temperature of the flame as compared with a Bunsen. Similarly the efficiency of a' boiler is but slightly reduced if half the tubes are stopped up, because the increase pf draught through the remainder compensates partly for the diminished heating surface. Some resistance to the passage of heat into a boiler is also due to the water film on the inside. But this is of less account, because the conductivity of water is much greater than that of air, and because the film is continu- ally broken up by the formation of steam, which abstracts heat very rapidly. 35. Heating by Condensation of Steam. — It is often stated that the rate at which steam will condense on a metal surface at a temperature below that corresponding to the saturation pressure of the steam is practically infinite (e.g. Osborne Reynolds, Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1873, p. 275), and conversely that the rate at which water will abstract heat from a metal surface by the formation of steam (if the metal is above the temperature of saturation of the steam) is limited only by the rate at which the metal can supply heat by conduction to its surface layer. The rate at which heat can be supplied by condensation of steam appears to be much greater than that at which heat can be supplied by a flame under ordinary conditions, but there is no reason to suppose that it is infinite, or that any discontinuity exists. Experiments by H. L. Callendar and j. T. Nicolson by three independent methods (Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 1898, 131, p. 147; Brit. Assoc. Rep. p. 418) appear to show that the rate of abstraction of heat by evaporation, or that of communica- tion of heat by condensation, depends chiefly on the difference of temperature between the metal surface and the saturated steam, and is nearly proportional to the temperature difference (not to the pressure difference, as suggested by Reynolds) for such ranges of pressure as are common in practice. The rate of heat transmission they observed was equivalent to about 8 calories per sq. cm. per sec., for a difference of 20 ° C. between the temperature of the metal surface and the saturation tempera- ture of the steam. This would correspond to a condensation of 530 kilogrammes of steam at 100° C. per sq. metre per hour, or 109 Ib per sq. ft. per hour for the same difference of temperature, values which are many times greater than those actually obtained in ordinary' surface condensers. The reason for this is that there is generally some air mixed with the steam in a surface condenser, which greatly retards the condensation. It is also difficult to keep the temperature of the metal as much as 20° C. below the temperature of the steam unless a very free and copious circula- tion of cold water is available. For the same difference of temperature, steam can supply heat by condensation about a thousand times faster than hot air. This rate is not often approached in practice, but the facility of generation and transmission of steam, combined with its high latent heat 152 HEAT [THEORY OF EXCHANGES and the accuracy of control and regulation of temperature afforded, render it one of the most convenient agents for the distribution of large quantities of heat in all kinds of manu- facturing processes. 36. Spheroidal Slate. — An interesting contrast to the extreme rapidity with which heat is abstracted by the evaporation of a liquid in contact with a metal plate, is the so-called spheroidal state. A small drop of liquid thrown on a red-hot metal plate assumes a spheroidal form, and continues swimming about for some time, while it slowly evaporates at a temperature somewhat below its boiling-point. The explanation is simply that the liquid itself cannot come in actual contact with the metal plate (especially if the latter is above the critical temperature), but is separated from it by a badly conducting film of vapour, through which, as we have seen, the heat is comparatively slowly transmitted even if the difference of temperature is several hundred degrees. If the metal plate is allowed to cool gradually, the drop remains suspended on its cushion of vapour, until, in the case of water, a temperature of about 200° C. is reached, at which the liquid comes in contact with the plate and boils explosively, reducing the temperature of the plate, if thin, almost instantaneously to 100° C. The temperature of the metal is readily observed by a thermo-electric method, employing a platinum dish with a platinum-rhodium wire soldered with gold to its under side. The absence of contact between the liquid and the dish in the spheroidal state may also be shown by connecting one terminal of a galvanometer to the drop and the other through u battery to the dish, and observing that no current passes until the drop boils. 37. Early Theories of Radiation. — It was at one time supposed that there were three distinct kinds of radiation — thermal, luminous and actinic, combined in the radiation from a luminous source such as the sun or a flame. The first gave rise to heat, the second to light and the third to chemical action. The three kinds were partially separated by a prism, the actinic rays being generally more refracted, and the thermal rays less re- fracted than the luminous. This conception arose very naturally from the observation that the feebly luminous blue and violet rays produced the greatest photographic effects, which also showed the existence of dark rays beyond the violet, whereas the brilliant yellow and red were practically without action on the photographic plate. A thermometer placed in the blue or violet showed no appreciable rise of temperature, and even in the yellow the effect was hardly discernible. The effect increased rapidly as the light faded towards the extreme red, and reached a maximum beyond the extreme limits of the spectrum (Herschel), showing that the greater part of the thermal radiation was al- together non-luminous. It is now a commonplace that chemical action, colour sensation and heat are merely different effects of one and the same kind of radiation, the particular effect produced in each case depending on the frequency and intensity of the vibration, and on the nature of the substance on which it falls. When radiation is completely absorbed by a black substance, it is converted into heat, the quantity of heat produced being equivalent to the total energy of the radiation absorbed, irrespective of the colour or frequency of the different rays. The actinic or chemical effects, on the other hand, depend essenti- ally on some relation between the period of the vibration and the properties of the substance acted on. The rays producing such effects are generally those which are most strongly absorbed. The spectrum of chlorophyll, the green colouring matter of plants, shows two very strong absorption bands in the red. The red rays of corresponding period are found to be the most active in promoting the growth of the plant. The chemically active rays are not necessarily the shortest. Even photographic plates may be made to respond to the red rays by staining them with pinachrome or some other suitable dye. The action of light rays on the retina is closely analogous to the action on a photographic plate. The retina, like the plate, is sensitive only to rays within certain restricted limits of frequency. The limits of sensitiveness of each colour sensation are not exactly defined, but vary slightly from one individual to another, especially in cases of partial colour-blindness, and are modified by conditions of fatigue. We are not here concerned with these important physiological and chemical effects of radiation, but rather with the question of the conversion of energy of radiation into heat, and with the laws of emission and absorp- tion of radiation in relation to temperature. We may here also assume the identity of visible and invisible radiations from a heated body in all their physical properties. It has been abund- antly proved that the invisible rays, like the visible, (i) are propagated in straight lines in homogeneous media; (2) are reflected and diffused from the surface of bodies according to the same law; (3) travel with the same velocity in free space, but with slightly different velocities in denser media, being subject to the same law of refraction; (4) exhibit all the phenomena of diffraction and interference which are characteristic of wave- motion in general; (5) are capable of polarization and double refraction; (6) exhibit similar effects of selective absorption. These properties are more easily demonstrated in the case of visible rays on account of the great sensitiveness of the eye. But with the aid of the thermopile or other sensitive radiometer, they may be shown to belong equally to all the radiations from a heated body, even such as are thirty to fifty times slower in frequency than the longest visible rays. The same physical properties have also been shown to belong to electromagnetic waves excited by an electric discharge, whatever the frequency, thus including all kinds of aetherial radiation in the same category as light. 38. Theory of Exchanges. — The apparent concentration of cold by a concave mirror, observed by G. B. Porta and redis- covered by M. A. Pictet, led to the enunciation of the theory of exchanges by Pierre Prevost in 1791. Prevost's leading idea was that all bodies, whether cold or hot, are constantly radiating heat. Heat equilibrium, he says, consists in an equality of ex- change. When equilibrium is interfered with, it is re-established by inequalities of exchange. If into a locality at uniform temperature a refracting or reflecting body is introduced, it has no effect in the way of changing the temperature at any point of that locality. A reflecting body, heated or cooled in the interior of such an enclosure, will acquire the surrounding temperature more slowly than would a non-reflector, and will less affect another body placed at a little distance, but will not affect the final equality of temperature. Apparent radiation of cold, as from a block of ice to a thermometer placed near it, is due to the fact that the thermometer being at a higher tempera- ture sends more heat to the ice than it received back from it. Although Prevost does not make the statement in so many words, it is clear that he regards the radiation from a body as depending only on its own nature and temperature, and as independent of the nature and presence of any adjacent body. Heat equilibrium in an enclosure of constant temperature such as is here postulated by Prevost, has often been regarded as a consequence of Carnot's principle. Since difference of temperature is required for transforming heat into work, no work could be obtained from heat in such a system, and no spontaneous changes of tempera- ture can take place, as any such changes might be utilized for the production of work. This line of reasoning does not appear quite satisfactory, because it is tactitly assumed, in the reasoning by which Carnot's principle was established, as a result of universal experience, that a number of bodies within the same impervious enclosure, which contains no source of heat, will ultimately acquire the same temperature, and that difference of temperature is required to produce flow of heat. Thus although we may regard the equilibrium in such an enclosure as being due to equal exchanges of heat in all directions, the equal and opposite streams of radiation annul and neutralize each other in such a way that no actual transfer of energy in any direction takes place. The state of the medium is everywhere the same in such an enclosure, but its energy of agitation per unit volume is a function of the temperature, and is such that it would not be in equilibrium with any body at a different temperature. 39. " Full " and Selective Radiation. Correspondence of Emission and Absorption. — The most obvious difficulties in the DIATHERMANCY] HEAT way of this theory arise from the fact that nearly all radiation is more or less selective in character, as regards the quality and frequency of the rays emitted and absorbed. It was shown by J. Leslie, M. Melloni and other experimentalists that many substances such as glass and water, which are very transparent to visible rays, are extremely opaque to much of the invisible radiation of lower frequency; and that polished metals, which are perfect reflectors, are very feeble radiators as compared with dull or black bodies at the same temperature. If two bodies emit rays of different periods in different proportions, it is not at first sight easy to see how their radiations can balance each other at the same temperature. The key to all such difficulties lies in the fundamental conception, so strongly insisted on by Balfour Stewart, of the absolute uniformity (qualitative as well as quantitative) of the full or complete radiation stream inside an impervious enclosure of uniform temperature. It follows from this conception that the proportion of the full radiation stream absorbed by any body in such an enclosure must be exactly compensated in quality as well as quantity by the proportion emitted, or that the emissive and absorptive powers of any body at a given temperature must be precisely equal. A good reflector, like a polished metal, must also be a feeble radiator and absorber. Of the incident radiation it absorbs a small fraction and reflects the remainder, which together with the radiation emitted (being precisely equal to that absorbed) makes up the full radiation stream. A partly transparent material, like glass, absorbs part of the full radiation and transmits part. But it emits rays precisely equal in quality and intensity to those which it absorbs, which together with the transmitted portion make up the full stream. The ideal black body or perfect radiator is a body which absorbs all the radiation incident on it. The rays emitted from such a body at any temperature must be equal to the full radiation stream in an isothermal enclosure at the same temperature. Lampblack, which may absorb between 98 to 99% of the incident radiation, is generally taken as the type of a black body. But a closer approximation to full radia- tion may be obtained by employing a hollow vessel the internal walls of which are blackened and maintained at a uniform temperature by a steam jacket or other suitable means. If a relatively small hole is made in the side of such a vessel, the radiation proceeding through the aperture will be the full radia- tion corresponding to the temperature. Such a vessel is also a perfect absorber. Of radiation entering through the aperture an infinitesimal fraction only could possibly emerge by successive reflection even if the sides were of polished metal internally. A thin platinum tube heated by an electric current appears feebly luminous as compared with a blackened tube at the same temperature. But if a small hole is made in the side of the polished tube, the light proceeding through the hole appears brighter than the blackened tube, as though the inside of the tube were much hotter than the outside, which is not the case to any appreciable extent if the tube is thin. The radiation proceeding through the hole is nearly that of a perfectly black body if the hole is small. If there were no hole the internal stream of radiation would be exactly that of a black body at the same temperature however perfect the reflecting power, or however low the emissive power of the walls, because the defect in emissive power would be exactly compensated by the internal reflection. Balfour Stewart gave a number of striking illustrations of the qualitative identity of emission and absorption of a substance. Pieces of coloured glass placed in a fire appear to lose their colour when at the same temperature as the coals behind them, because they compensate exactly for their selective absorption by radiating chiefly those colours which they absorb. Rocksalt is remarkably transparent to thermal radiation of nearly all kinds, but it is extremely opaque to radiation from a heated plate of rocksalt, because it emits when heated precisely those rays which it absorbs. A plate of tourmaline cut parallel to the axis absorbs almost completely light polarized in a plane parallel to the axis, but transmits freely light polarized in a perpendicular plane. When heated its radiation is polarized in the same plane as the radiation which it absorbs. In the case of incandescent vapours, the exact correspondence of emission ' and absorption as regards wave-length of frequency of the light emitted and absorbed forms the foundation of the science of spectrum analysis. Fraunhofer had noticed the coincidence of a pair of bright yellow lines seen in the spectrum of a candle flame with the dark D lines in the solar spectrum, a coincidence which was afterwards more exactly verified by W. A. Miller. Foucault found that the flame of the electric arc showed the same lines bright in its spectrum, and proved that they appeared as dark lines in the otherwise continuous spectrum when the light from the carbon poles was transmitted through the arc. Stokes gave a dynamical explanation of the phenomenon and illustrated it by the analogous case of resonance in sound. KirchhofI completed the explanation (Phil. Mag., 1860) of the dark lines in the solar spectrum by showing that the reversal of the spectral lines depended on the fact that the body of the sun giving the continuous spectrum was at a higher temperature than the absorbing layer of gases surrounding it. Whatever be the nature of the selective radiation from a body, the radiation of light of any particular wave-length cannot be greater than a certain fraction E of the radiation R of the same wave-length from a black body at the same temperature. The fraction E measures the emissive power of the body for that particular wave-length, and cannot be greater than unity. The same fraction, by the principle of equality of emissive and absorptive powers, will measure the proportion absorbed of incident radiation R'. If the black body emitting the radiation R' is at the same tempera- ture as the absorbing layer, R = R', the emission balances the absorption, and the line will appear neither bright nor dark. If the source and the absorbing layer are at different temperatures, the radiation absorbed will be ER', and that transmitted will be R'-ER'. To this must be added the radiation emitted by the absorbing layer, namely ER, giving R'-E(R'-R). The lines will appear darker than the background R' if R' is greater than R, but bright if the reverse is the case. The D lines are dark in the sun because the photosphere is much hotter than the reversing layer. They appear bright in the candle-flame because the outside mantle of the flame, in which the sodium burns and combustion is complete, is hotter than the inner reducing flame containing the incandescent particles of carbon which give rise to the con- tinuous spectrum. This qualitative identity of emission and absorption as regards wave-length can be most exactly and easily verified for luminous rays, and we are justified in assuming that the relation holds with the same exactitude for nob-luminous rays, although in many cases the experimental proof is less complete and exact. 40. Diathermancy. — A great array of data with regard to the transmissive power or diathermancy of transparent substances for the heat radiated from various sources at different tempera- tures were collected by Melloni, Tyndall, Magnus and other experimentalists. The measurements were chiefly of a qualitative character, and were made by interposing between the source and a thermopile a layer or plate of the substance to be examined. This method lacked quantitative precision, but led to a number of striking and interesting results, which are admirably set forth in Ty ndall's Heal. It also gave rise to many curious discrepancies, some of which were recognized as being due to selective absorption, while others are probably to be explained by im- perfections in the methods of experiment adopted. The general result of such researches was to show that substances, like water, alum and glass, which are practically opaque to radiation from a source at low temperature, such as a vessel filled with boiling water, transmit an increasing percentage of the radiation when the temperature of the source is increased. This is what would be expected, as these substances are very transparent to visible rays. That the proportion transmitted is not merely a question of the temperature of the source, but also of the quality of the radiation, was shown by a number of experiments. For instance, K. H. Knoblauch (Pogg. Ann., 1847) found that a plate of glass interposed between a spirit lamp and a thermopile intercepts a larger proportion of the radiation from the flame itself than of the radiation from a platinum spiral heated in the flame, HEAT (DIATHERMANCY ' although the spiral is undoubtedly at a lower temperature than the flame. The explanation is that the spiral is a fairly good radiator of the visible rays to which the glass is transparent, but a bad radiator of the invisible rays absorbed by the glass which constitute the greater portion of the heat-radiation from the feebly luminous flame. Assuming that the radiation from the source under investiga- tion is qualitatively determinate, like that of a black body at a given temperature, the proportion transmitted by plates of various substances may easily be measured and tabulated for given plates and sources. But owing to the highly selective char- acter of the radiation and absorption, it is impossible to give any general relation between the thickness of the absorbing plate or layer and the proportion of the total energy absorbed. For these reasons the relative diathermancies of different materials do not admit of any simple numerical statement as physical constants, though many of the qualitative results obtained are very striking. Among the most interesting experiments were those of Tyndall, on the absorptive powers of gases and vapours, which led to a good deal of controversy at the time, owing to the difficulty of the experiments, and the contradictory results obtained by other observers. The arrangement employed by Tyndall for these measurements is shown in Fig. 6. A brass 7 FIG. 6. — Tyndall's Apparatus for observing absorption of heat by gas and vapours. tube AB, polished inside, and closed with plates of highly diathermanous rocksalt at either end, was fitted with stopcocks C and D for exhausting and admitting air or other gases or vapours. The source of heat S was usually a plate of copper heated by a Bunsen burner, or a Leslie cube containing boiling water as shown at E. To obtain greater sensitiveness for differential measurements, the radiation through the tube AB incident on one face of the pile P was balanced against the radiation from a Leslie cube on the other face of the pile by means of an adjust- able screen H. The radiation on the two faces of the pile being thus balanced with the tube exhausted, Tyndall found that the admission of dry air into the tube produced practically no absorp- tion of the radiation, whereas compound gases such as carbonic acid, ethylene or ammonia absorbed 20 to 90%, and a trace of aqueous vapour in the air increased its absorption 50 to 100 times. H. G. Magnus, on the other hand, employing a thermopile and a source of heat, both of which were enclosed in the same exhausted receiver, in order to avoid interposing any rocksalt or other plates between the source and the pile, found an absorp- tion of 11% on admitting dry air, but could not detect any difference whether the air were dry or moist. Tyndall suggested that the apparent absorption observed by Magnus may have been due to the cooling of his radiating surface by convection, which is a very probable source of error in this method of experi- ment. Magnus considered that the remarkable effect of aqueous vapour observed by Tyndall might have been caused by con- densation on the polished internal walls of his experimental tube, or on the rocksalt plates at either end.1 The question of 1 In reference to this objection, Tyndall remarks (Phil. Mag., 1862, p. 422; Heat, p. 385); " In the first place the plate of salt nearest the source of heat is never moistened, unless the experiments are of the roughest character. Its proximity to the source enables the heat to chase away every trace of humidity from its surface." He therefore took precautions to dry only the circumferential por- tions of the plate nearest the pile, assuming that the flux of heat through the central portions would suffice to keep them dry. This reasoning is not at all satisfactory, because rocksalt is very hygro- scopic and becomes wet, even in unsaturated air, if the vapour pressure is greater than that of a saturated solution of salt at the the relative diathermancy of air and aqueous vapour for radiation from the sun to the earth and from the earth into space is one of great interest and importance in meteorology. Assuming with Magnus that at least 10% of the heat from a source at 100° C. is absorbed in passing through a single foot of air, a very moderate thickness of atmosphere should suffice to absorb practically all the heat radiated from the earth into space. This could not be reconciled with well-known facts in regard to terrestrial radiation, and it was generally recognized that the result found by Magnus must be erroneous. Tyndall's experi- ment on the great diathermancy of dry air agreed much better with meteorological phenomena, but he appears to have exaggerated the effect of aqueous vapour. He concluded from his experiments that the water vapour present in the air absorbs at least 10% of the heat radiated from the earth within 10 ft. of its surface, and that the absorptive power of the vapour is about 17,000 times that of air at the same pressure. If the absorption of aqueous vapour were really of this order of magni- tude, it would exert a far greater effect in modifying climate than is actually observed to be the case. Radiation is observed to take place freely through the atmosphere at times when the proportion of aqueous vapour is such as would practically stop all radiation if Tyndall's results were correct. The very careful experiments of E. Lecher and J. Pernter (Phil. Mag., Jan. 1881) confirmed Tyndall's observations on the absorptive powers of gases and vapours satisfactorily in nearly all cases with the single exception of aqueous vapour. They found that there was no appreciable absorption of heat from a source at 100° C. in passing through i ft. of air (whether dry or moist), but that CO and CO2 at atmospheric pressure absorbed about 8%, and ethylene (olefiant gas) about 50% in the same distance; the vapours of alcohol and ether showed absorptive powers of the same order as that of ethylene. They confirmed Tyndall's important result that the absorption does not diminish in pro- portion to the pressure, being much greater in proportion for smaller pressures in consequence of the selective character of the effect. They also supported his conclusion that absorptive power increases with the complexity of the molecule. But they could not detect any absorption by water vapour at a pressure of 7 mm., though alcohol at the same pressure absorbed 3% and acetic acid 10%. Later researches, especially those of S. P. Langley with the spectre-bolometer on the infra-red spectrum of sunlight, demonstrated the existence of marked absorption bands, some of which are due to water vapour. From the character of these bands and the manner in which they vary with the state of the air and the thickness traversed, it may be inferred that absorption by water vapour plays an important part in meteorology, but that it is too small to be temperature of the plate. Assuming that the vapour pressure of the saturated salt solution is only half that of pure water, it would require an elevation of temperature of 10° C. to dry the rocksalt plates in saturated air at 15° C. It is only fair to say that the laws of the vapour pressures of solutions were unknown in Tyndall's time, and that it was usual to assume that the plates would not become wetted until the dew-point was reached. The writer has repeated Tyndall's experiments with a facsimile of one of Tyndall's tubes in the possession of the Royal College of Science, fitted with plates of rocksalt cut from the same block as Tyndall's, and therefore of the same hygroscopic quality. Employing a reflecting galvano- meter in conjunction with a differential bolometer, which is quicker in its action than Tyndall's pile, there appears to be hardly any difference between dry and moist air, provided that the latter is not more than half saturated. Using saturated air with a Leslie cube as source of heat, both rocksalt plates invariably become wet in a minute or two and the absorption rises to 10 or 20% according to the thickness of the film of deposited moisture. Employing the open tube method as described by Tyndall, without the rocksalt plates, the absorption is certainly less than I % in 3 ft. of air saturated at 20° C., unless condensation is induced on the walls of the tube. It is possible that the walls of Tyndall's tube may have become covered with a very hygroscopic film from the powder of the calcium chloride which he was in the habit of introducing near one end. Such a film would be exceedingly difficult to remove, and would account for thfi excessive precautions which he found necessary in drying the air in order to obtain the same transmitting power as a vacuum. It is probable that Tyndall's experiments on aqueous vapour were effected by experimental errors of this character. WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW] HEAT readily detected by laboratory experiments in a 4 ft. tube, with- out the aid of spectrum analysis. 41. Relation between Radiation and Temperature. — Assuming, in accordance with the reasoning of Balfour Stewart and Kirchhoff, that the radiation stream inside an impervious enclosure at a uniform temperature is independent of the nature of the walls of the enclosure, and is the same for all substances at the same temperature, it follows that the full stream of radiation in such an enclosure, or the radiation emitted by an ideal black body or full radiator, is a function of the temperature only. The form of this function may be determined experimentally by observing the radiation between two black bodies at different temperatures, which will be proportional to the difference of the full radiation streams corresponding to their several temperatures. The law now generally accepted was first proposed by Stefan as an empirical relation. Tyndall had found that the radiation from a white hot platinum wire at 1 200° C. was 11-7 times its radiation when dull red at 525° C. Stefan (Wien. Akad. Ber., 1879, 79, p. 421) noticed that the ratio 11-7 is nearly that of the fourth power of the absolute temperatures as estimated by Tyndall. On making the somewhat different assumption that the radiation between two bodies varied as the difference of the fourth powers of their absolute temperatures, he found that it satisfied approxi- mately the experiments of Dulong and Petit and other observers. According to this law the radiation between a black body at a temperature 6 and a black enclosure or a black radiometer at a temperature 00 should be proportional to (04-004). The law was very simple and convenient in form, but it rested so far on very insecure foundations. The temperatures given by Tyndall were merely estimated from the colour of the light emitted, and might have been some hundred degrees in error. We now know that the radiation from polished platinum is of a highly selective character, and varies more nearly as the fifth power of the absolute temperature. The agreement of the fourth power law with Tyndall's experiment appears therefore to be due to a purely accidental error in estimating the tempera- tures of the wire. Stefan also found a very fair agreement with Draper's observations of the intensity of radiation from a platinum wire, in which the temperature of the wire was deduced from the expansion. Here again the apparent agreement was largely due to errors in estimating the temperature, arising from the fact that the coefficient of expansion of platinum increases considerably with rise of temperature. So far as the experimental results available at that time were concerned, Stefan's law could be regarded only as an empirical expression of doubtful significance. But it received a much greater import- ance from theoretical investigations which were even then in progress. James Clerk Maxwell (Electricity and Magnetism, 1873) had shown that a directed beam of electromagnetic radiation or light incident normally on an absorbing surface should produce a mechanical pressure equal to the energy of the radiation per unit volume. A. G. Bartoli (1875) took up this idea and made it the basis of a thermodynamic treatment of radiation. P. N. Lebedew in 1900, and E. F. Nichols and G.,F. Hull in 1901, proved the existence of this pressure by direct experiments. L. Boltzmann (1884) employing radiation as the working sub- stance in a Carnot cycle, showed that the energy of full radiation at any temperature per unit volume should be pro- portional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. This law was first verified in a satisfactory manner by Heinrich Schneebeli (Wied. Ann., 1884, 22, p. 30). He observed the radiation from the bulb of an air thermometer heated to known temperatures through a small aperture in the walls of the furnace. With this arrangement the radiation was very nearly that of a black body. Measurements by J.T. Bottomley, August Schleier- , macher, L. C. H. F. Paschen and others of the radiation from electrically heated platinum, failed to give concordant results on account of differences in the quality of the radiation, the importance of which was not fully realized at first. Later researches by Paschen with improved methods verified the law, and greatly extended our knowledge of radiation in other directions. One of the most complete series of experiments on the relation between full radiation and temperature is that of O. R. Lummer and Ernst Pringsheim (Ann. Phys., 1897, 63, P- 395)- They employed an aperture in the side of an enclosure at uniform temperature as the source of radiation, and compared the intensities at different temperatures by means of a bolometer. The fourth power law was well satisfied throughout the whole range of their experiments from -190° C. to 2300° C. According to this law, the rate of loss of heat by radiation R from a body of emissive power E and surface S at a temperature 6 in an enclosure at 00 is given by the formula where a is the radiation constant. The absolute value of a was determined by F. Kurlbaum using an electric compensation method (Wied. Ann., 1898, 65, p. 746), in which the radiation re- ceived by a bolometer from a black body at a known temperature was measured by finding the electric current required to produce the same rise of temperature in the bolometer. K. Angstrom employed a similar method for solar radiation. Kurlbaum gives thevalue"• 6-n, v. 7, 8. The practice is prohibited in Deut. xxiii. 17. 1 Column i. 15, 16, 42, 43, ii. 128, iii. 30, 31, iv. 47, 48, &c. Probably we should regard them as differentiated hypostases. * Hence the 'Ashtaroth or offspring of flocks in Deut. vii. 13, xxviii. 18. A like function belonged to the Babylonian Ishtar. See " Descent of Ishtar to Hades," Rev. lines 6-10, where universal non-intercourse of sexes follows Ishtar's departure from earth to Hades. 4 Proleg. Gesch. Israels (2nd ed.), p. 240 foil., cf . p. 258. Israelite tribes by the rallying cry " the sword of Yahweh " (Judges vii. 20). In this way 'Ophrah became the centre of the coalition under Gideon in the tribe of Manasseh. Its im- portance is attested by Judges viii. 22-28, and we may disregard the " snare " which the Deuteronomic writer condemns in accordance with the later canons of orthodoxy. What 'Ophrah became on a small scale in the days of Gideon, Jerusalem became on a larger scale in the days of David and his successors. It was the religious expression of the unity of Israel which the life and death struggle with the Philistines had gradually wrought out. Despite the capture of the ark after the disastrous battle of Shiloh, Yahweh had in the end shown himself through a destructive plague superior in might to the Philistine Dagon. There are indeed abundant indications that prove that in the prevalent popular religion of the regal period monotheistic conceptions had no place. Yahweh was god only of Israel and of Israel's land. An invasion of foreign territory would bring Israel under the power of its patron-deity. The wrath with which the Israelite armies believed themselves to be visited (probably an outbreak of pestilence) when the king of Moab was reduced to his last extremity, was obviously the wrath of Chemosh the god of Moab, which the king's sacrifice of his only son had awakened against the invading army (2 Kings iii. 27). In other. words, the ordinary Israelite worshipper of Yahweh was at this time far removed from monotheism, and still remained in the preliminary stage of henotheism, which regarded Yahweh as sole god of Israel and Israel's land, but at the same time recognized the existence and power of the deities of other lands and peoples. Of this we have recurring examples in pre-exilian Hebrew history. See i Sam. xxvi. 19; Judges xi. 23, 24; Ruth i. 16. 5. Characteristics and Constituent Elements. — It is only possible here to refer in briefest enumeration to the material and external objects and forms of popular Hebrew religion. These were of the simplest character. The upright stone (or massebah) was the material symbol of deity on which the blood of sacrifice was smeared, and in which the numen of the god resided. It is probable that in some primitive sanctuaries no real distinction was made between this stone- pillar and the altar or place where the animal was slaughtered. In ordinary pre-exilian high places the custom described in the primitive compend of laws (Ex. xx. 24) would be observed. A mound of earth was raised which would serve as a platform on which the victim would be slaughtered in the presence of the concourse of spectators. In the more important shrines, as at Jerusalem or Samaria, there would be an altar of stone or of bronze. Another accompaniment of the sanctuary would be the sacred tree — most frequently a terebinth (cf. Judges ix. 37 " terebinth of soothsayers "), or it might be a palm tree (cf. " palm tree of Deborah " in Judges iv. 5), or a tamarisk ('eshel), or pomegranate(rww«on),as at the high place in Gibeah where Saul abode. Moreover, we have frequent' references to sacred springs, as that of Beer-sheba, ' Enharod ('eyn-harod) (Judges vii. i; cf. also Judges 19, ' En-ha^ore ['eyn-haqqore']). (On this subject of holy trees, holy waters and holy stones, consult article TREE- WORSHIP, and Robertson Smith's Religion of the Semites, 2nd ed., pp. 165-197.) The wide prevalence of magic and soothsaying may be illustrated from the historical books of the Old Testament as well as from the pre-exilian prophets. The latter indeed tolerated the qosem (soothsayer) as they did the seer (ro'eh). The rhabdomancy denounced by Hosea (iv. 12) was associated with idolatry at the high places. But the arts of the necromancer were always and without exception treated as foreign to the religion of Yahweh. The necromancer of ba'al 'obh' was held to be possessed of the spirit who spoke through him with a hollow voice. Indeed both necromancer and the spirit that possessed him were sometimes identified, and the former was simply called obh. It is probable that necromancy, like the worship of Asherah and 'Ashtoreth, as well as the cult of graven images, was a Canaanite importation into Israel's religious practices. (See Marti, Religion des A.T., p. 32.) HEBREW RELIGION 181 Priest- hood. The history of the rise of the priesthood in Israel is exceedingly obscure. In the nomadic period and during the earlier years of the settlement of Israel in Canaan the head of every family could offer sacrifices. In the primitive codes, Ex. xx. 22-xxiii. 19 (E), xxxiv. 10-28 (J), we have no allusion to any separate order of men who were qualified to offer sacrifices. In Ex. xxiv. 5 (E) we read that Moses simply commissioned young men to offer sacrifices. On the other hand the addendum to the book of Judges, chaps, xvii., xviii. (which Budde, Moore and other critics consider to belong to the two sources of the narratives in Judges, viz. J1 as well as E), makes reference to a Levite of Bethlehem-Judah, expressly stated in xvii. 7 as belonging to a clan of Judah. This man Micah took into his household as priest. This narrative has all the marks of primitive simplicity. There can be no reasonable doubt that the Levite here was member of a priestly tribe or order, and this view is confirmed by the discovery of what is really the same word in south Arabian inscriptions.2 The narrative is of some value as it shows that while it was possible to appoint any one as a priest, since Micah, like David, appointed one of his own sons (xvii. 5), yet a special priest-tribe or order also existed, and Micah considered that the acquisition of one of its members was for his household a very exceptional advantage: " Now 1 know that Yahweh will befriend me because I have the Levite as priest." 3 In other words a priest who was a Levite possessed a superior professional qualification. He is paid ten shekels per annum, together with his food and clothing, and is dignified by the appellation " father " (cf. the like epithet of " mother " applied to the prophetess Deborah, Judges v. 7; see also 2 Kings ii. 12, vi. 21, xiii. 14). This same narrative dwells upon the graven images, ephod and teraphim, as forming the apparatus of religious ceremonial in Micah's household. Now the ephod and teraphim are constantly mentioned together (cf. Hos. iii. 4) and were used in divination. The former was the plated image of Yahweh (cf. Judges viii. 26, 27) and the latter were ancestral images (see Marti, op. cit. pp. 27, 29; Harper, Int. Comm. " Amos and Hosea," p. 222). In other words the function of the priest was not merely sacrificial (a duty which Kautzsch unnecessarily detaches from the services which he originally rendered), nor did he merely bear the ark of the covenant and take charge of God's house; but he was also and mainly (as the Arabic name kahin shows) the soothsayer who consulted the ephod and gave the answers required on the field of battle (see i Sam. and 2 Sam. passim) and on other occasions. This is clearly shown in the " blessing of Moses " (Deut. xxxiii. 8), where the Levite is specially associated with another apparatus of inquiry, viz. the sacred lots, Urim and Thummim. The true character of Urim (as expressing " aye ") and Thummim (as expressing " nay " ) is shown by the reconstructed text of i Sam. xiv. 41 on the basts of the Septuagint. See Driver ad loc. The chief and most salient characteristic of the worship of the high places was geniality. The sacrifice was a feast of social communion between the deity and his worshippers, and knit botn deitv and clan-members together in ship. the bonds of a close fellowship. This genial aspect of Hebrew worship is nowhere depicted more graphic- ally than in the old narrative (a J section = Budde's G) i Sam. ix. 19-24, where a day of sacrifice in the high place is described. Saul and his attendant are invited by the seer-priest Samuel into the banqueting chamber (lishkah) where thirty persons partake of the sacrificial meal. It was the 'dsiph or festival of ingathering, when the agricultural operations were brought to a close, which exhibited these genial features of Canaanite- Hebrew life most vividly. References to them abound in pre- exilian literature: Judges xxi. 21 (cf. ix. 27); Amos viii. i foil.; Hos. ix. i foil., Jer. xxxi. 4; Isa. xvi. 10 (Jer. xlviii. 33). These festivals formed the veins and arteries of ancient Hebrew 1 Internal. Crit. Commentary, Judges, Introd. p. xxx., also p. 367 foil. 2 m1? "priest," nm1? "priestess"; see Hommel, Sud-arabische Chrestomathie, p. 127; Ancient Hebrew Tradition, p. 278 foil. 3 Moore regards this verse as belonging to the J or older document, op. cit. p. 367. clan and tribal life.4 Wellhausen's characterization of the Arabian hajj& applies with equal force to the Hebrew hagg (festival) : " They formed the rendezvous of ancient life. Here came under the protection of the peace of God the tribes and clans which otherwise lived apart from one another and only knew peace and security within their own frontiers." i Sam. xx. 28 foil, indicates the strong claims on personal attendance exercised on each individual member by the local clan festival at Bethlehem-Judah. It is easy to discern from varied allusions in the Old Testament that the Canaanite impress of sensuous life clung to the autumnal vintage festivals. They became orgiastic in character and scenes of drunkenness, cf. Judges ix. 27; i Sam. 14-16; Isa. xxviii. 7, 8. Against this tendency the Nazirite order and tradition was a protest. Cf. Amos ii. n foil.; Judges xiii. 7, 14. As certain sanctuaries, Shiloh, Shechem, Bethel, &c., grew in importance, the priesthoods that officiated at them would acquire special prestige. Eli, the head priest at Shiloh in the early youth of Samuel, held an important position in what was then the chief religious and political centre of Ephraim; and the office passed by inheritance to the sons in ordinary cases. In the regal period the royal residence gave the priesthood of that place an exceptional position. Thus Zadok, who obtained the priestly office at Jerusalem in the reign of Solomon and was succeeded by his sons, was regarded in later days as the founder of the true and legitimate succession of the priesthood descended from Levi (Ezek. xl. 46, xliii. 19, xliv. 15; cf. i Kings ii. 27, 35). His descent, however, from Eleazar, the elder brother of Aaron, can only be regarded as the later artificial construction of the post-exilian chronicler (i Chron. vi. 4-15, 50-53, xxiv. i foil.), who was controlled by the traditions which prevailed in the 4th century B.C. and after. 6. The Prophets. — The rise of the order of prophets, who gradually emerged out of and became distinct from the old Hebrew " seer " or augur (i Sam. ix. g),6 marks a new epoch in the religious development of the Hebrews. Over the successive stages of this growth we pass lightly (see PROPHET). The life- and-death struggle between Israel and the Philistines in the reign of Saul called forth under Samuel's leadership a new order of " men of God," who were called " prophets " or divinely inspired speakers.7 These men were distributed in various settlements, and their exercises were usually of an ecstatic character. The closest modern analogy would be the orders of dervishes in Islam. Probably there was little externally to distinguish the prophet of Yahweh in the days of Samuel from the Canaanite- Phoenician prophets of Baal and Asherah (i Kings xviii. 19, 26, 28), for the practices of both were ecstatic and orgiastic (cf. i Sam. x. 5 foil., xviii. 10, xix. 23 foil.). The special quality which distinguished these prophetic gilds or companies was an intense patriotism combined with enthusiastic devotion to the cause of Yahweh. This necessarily involved in that primitive age an extreme jealousy of foreign importations or innovations in ritual. It is obvious from numerous passages that these pro- phetic gilds recognized the superior position and leadership of Samuel, or of any other distinguished prophet such as Elijah or Elisha. Thus i Sam. xix. 20, 23 et seq. show that Samuel was regarded as head of the prophetic settlement at Naioth. With reference to Elijah and Elisha, see 2 Kings ii. 3, 5, 15, iv. i, 38 et seq., vi. i et seq. There cannot be any doubt that 4 Similarly in ancient Greece. See the instructive passage in Aristotle, Nic. Eth. viii. q (4, 5), on the relation of Greek sacrifices and festivals to Koivwvlai and politics: oj yap dpxeuat Ovalat xal (Hivo&oi alvovr(u ylyvfoOai /j«-d rds TUT Kapruv ni5as olov drapxai ; cf. Grote on Pan-Hellenic festivals, History of Greece, vol. iiij ch. 28. 6 Wellhausen, Reste arabischtn Heidentums (2nd ed.), p. 89. ' Though this be an interpolated gloss (Thenius, Budde), it states a significant truth as Kautzsch clearly shows, op. cit. p. 672. _In Micah iii. 7 the fyozeh is mentioned in a sense analogous totnero'eft or " seer," and coupled with the qosem or " soothsayer," viz. as spurious; cf. Deut. xviii. 10. 7 No better derivation is forthcoming of the word nabhi , " prophet," than that it is a Ka^fl form of the root ndM = Assyr. nabii, " speak." 182 HEBREW RELIGION such enthusiastic devotees of Yahweh, in days when religion meant patriotism, did much to keep alive the flame of Israel's hope and courage in the dark period of national disaster. It is significant that Saul in his last unavailing struggle against the overwhelming forces of the Philistines sought through the medium of a sorceress for an interview with the deceased prophet Samuel. It was the advice of Elisha that rescued the armies of Jehoram and Jehoshaphat in their war against Moab when they were involved in the waterless wastes that surrounded them (2 Kings iii. 14 foil.). We again find Elisha intervening with effect on behalf of Israel in the wars against Syria, so that his fame spread to Syria itself (2 Kings v.-viii. 7 foil.). Lastly it was the fiery counsels of the dying prophet, accompanied by the acted magic of the arrow shot through the open window, and also of the thrice smitten floor, that gave nerve and courage to Joash, king of Israel, when the armies of Syria pressed heavily on the northern kingdom (2 Kings xiii. 14-19). We see that the prophet had now definitely emerged from the old position of " seer." Prophetic personality now moved in a larger sphere than that of divination, important though that function be in the social life of the ancient state1 as instrumental in declaring the will of the deity when any enterprise was on foot. For the prophet's function became in an increasing degree a function of mind, and not merely of traditional routine or mechanical technique, like that of the diviner with his arrows or his lots which he cast in the presence of the ephod or plated Yahweh image. The new name nabhi' became necessary to express this function of more exalted significance, in which human personality played its larger role. Even as early as the time of David it would seem that Nathan assumed this more developed function as interpreter of Yahweh's righteous will to David. But both in 2 Sam. xii. 1-15 as well as in 2 Sam. vii. we have sections which are evidently coloured by the conceptions of a later time. We stand on safer ground when we come to Elijah's bold intervention on behalf of righteousness when he declared in the name of Yahweh the divine judgment on Ahab and his house for the judicial murder of Naboth. We here observe a great advance in the vocation of the prophet. He becomes the interpreter and vindicator of divine justice, the vocal exponent of a nation's conscience. For Elijah was in this case obviously no originator or innovator. He represents the old ethical Mosaism, which had not disappeared from the national con- sciousness, but still remained as the moral pre-supposition on which the prophets of the following century based their appeals and denunciations. It is highly significant that Elijah, when driven from the northern kingdom by the threats of the Tyrian Jezebel, retreats to the old sanctuary at Horeb, whence Moses derived his inspiration and his Torah. We have hitherto dealt with isolated examples of prophetism and its rare and distinguished personalities. The ordinary Hebrew nabhi' still remained not the reflective visionary, stirred at times by music into strange raptures (2 Kings iii. 15), but the ecstatic and orgiastic dervish who was meshuggah or " frenzied," a term which was constantly applied to him from the days of Elisha to those of Jeremiah (2 Kings ix. n; in Hos. ix. 7 and Jer. xxix. 26 it is regarded as a term of reproach). It is only in rare instances that some exalted personality is raised to a higher level. Of this we have an interesting example in the vivid episode that preceded the battle of Ramoth-Gilead described in i Kings xxii., when Micaiah appears as the true prophet of Yahweh, who in his rare independence stands in sharp contrast with the conventional court prophets, who prophesied then, as their descendants prophesied more than two centuries later, smooth things. It is not, however, till the 8th ceijtury that prophecy attained its highest level as the interpreter of God's ways to men. This is due to the fact that it for the first time unfolded the true character of Yahweh, implicit in the old Mosaic religion and submerged in the subsequent centuries of Israel's life in Canaan, but now at length made clear and explicit to the mind of the 1 In Isa. iii. 2 the soothsayer is placed on a level with the judge, prophet and elder. nation. It became now detached from the limitations of nation- alism and local association with which it had been hitherto circumscribed. Even Elisha, the greatest prophet of the gth century, had remained within these national limitations which characterized the popular conceptions of Yahweh. Yahweh was Israel's war- god. His power was asserted in and from Canaanite soil. If Naaman was to be healed, it could only be in a Palestinian river, and two mules' load of earth would be the only permanent guarantee of Yahweh's effective blessing on the Syrian general in his Syrian home. That larger conceptions prevailed in some of the loftier minds of Israel, and may be held to have existed even as far back as the age of Moses, is a fact which the Yahwistic cosmogony in Gen. ii. 46-9 (which may have been composed in the 9th century B.C.) clearly suggests, and it is strongly sustained by the over- whelming evidence of the powerful influence of Babylonian culture in the Palestinian region during the centuries 2000- 1400 B.C.2 Probably in our modern construction of ancient Hebrew history sufficient consideration has not been given to the inevitable coexistence of different types and planes of thought, each evolved from earlier and more primordial forms. In other words we have to deal not with one evolution but with evolutions. The existence of the purer and larger conception of Yahweh's character and power before the advent of Amos indicates that the transition from the past was not so sudden as Wellhausen's graphic portrayal in the gth edition of this Encyclopaedia (art. ISRAEL) would have led us to suppose. There were pre-existent ideas upon which that prophet's epoch-making message was based. Yet this consideration should in no way obscure the fact that the prophet lived and worked in the all-pervading atmosphere of the popular syncretic Yahweh religion, intensely national and local in its character. In Wellhausen's words, each petty state " revolved on its own axis " of social-religious life till the armies of Tiglath-Pileser III. broke up the security within the Canaanite borders. According to the dominating popular conception, the destruction of the national power by a foreign army meant the overthrow of the prestige of the national deity by the foreign nation's god. If Assyria finally overthrew Israel and carried off Yahweh's shrine, Assur (Asur), the tutelary deity of Assyria, was mightier than Yahweh. This was precisely what was happening among the northern states, and Amos foresaw that this might eventually be Israel's doom. Rabshakeh's appeal to the besieged inhabitants of Jerusalem was based on these same considerations. He argued from past history that 2 Kautzsch, in his profoundly learned article on the " Religion of Israel," to which frequent reference has been made, exhibits (pp. 669-671) an excess of scepticism, in our opinion, towards the views propounded by Gunkel in 1895 (Schopfung und Chaos) respecting the intimate connexion between the early Hebrew cosmogonic ideas and those of Babylonia. Stade indeed (Z.A.T.W., 1903, pp. 176- 178) maintained that the conception of Yahweh as creator of the world could not have arisen till after the middle of the 8th century as the result of prophetic teaching, and that it was not till the time of Ezekiel that Babylonian conceptions entered the world of Hebrew thought in any fulness. Such a theory appears to ignore the remark- able results of archaeology since 1887. At that time Stade's position might have appeared reasonable. It was the conclusion to which Wellhausen's brilliant literary analysis, when not supplemented by the discoveries at Tell el-Amarna and Tell el-Hesi, appeared to many scholars (by no means all) inevitably to conduct us. But the years 1887 to 1891 opened many eyes to the fact that the Hebrews lived their life on the great highways of intercourse between Egypt on the one hand, and Babylonia, Assyria and the N. Palestinian states on the other, and that they could scarcely have escaped the all-pervading Babylonian influences of 2000-1400 B.C. It is now becoming clearer every day, especially since the discovery of the laws of Khammurabi, that, if we are to think sanely about Hebrew history before as well as after the exile, we can only think of Israel as part of the great complex of Semitic and especially Canaanite humanity that lived its life in western Asia between 2000 and 600 B.C.; and that while the Hebrew race maintained by the aid of prophetism its own individual and exalted place, it was not less susceptible then, than it has been since, to the moulding influences of great adjacent civilizations and ideas. Cf. C. H. W. Johns in Inter- preter, pp. 300-304 (in April 1906), on prophetism in Babylonia. HEBREW RELIGION 183 Yahweh would be powerless in the presence of Ashur (2 Kings xviii. 33-35)- This problem of religion was solved by Amos and by the prophets who succeeded him through a more exalted conception of Yahweh and His sphere of working, which tended to detach Him from His limited realm as a national deity. Amos exhibited Him to his countrymen as lord of the universe, who made the seven stars and Orion and turns the deep midnight darkness into morning. He calls to the waters of the sea and pours them on the earth's surface (chap. v. 8). Such a universal God of the world would hardly make Israel His exclusive concern. Thus He not only brought the Israelites out of Egypt, but also the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir (ix. 7). But Amos went beyond this. Yahweh was not only the lord of the universe and possessed of sovereign power. The prophet also emphasized with passionate earnestness that Yahweh was a God whose character was righteous, and God's demand upon His people Israel was not for sacrifices but for righteous conduct. Sacrifice, as this prophet, like his successor Jeremiah, insisted (Amos v. 25; cf. Jer. vii. 22) played no part in Mosaic religion. In words which evidently impressed his younger contemporary Isaiah (cf. esp. Is. chap. i. 11-17), Amos denounced the non- ethical ceremonial formalism of his countrymen which then prevailed (chap. v. 21 foil.): — " I hate, I contemn your festivals and in your feasts I delight not; for when you offer me your burnt-offerings and gifts, I do not regard them with favour and your fatted peace-offerings I will not look at. Take away from me the clamour of your songs; and the music of your viols I will not hear. But let judgment roll down like waters and justice like a perennial brook." In the younger contemporary prophet of Ephraim, Hosea, the stress is laid on the relation of love (hesed) between Yahweh, the divine husband, and Israel, the faithless spouse. Israel's faithlessness is shown in idolatry and the prevailing corruption of the high places in which the old Canaanite Baal was worshipped instead of Yahweh. It is shown, moreover, in foreign alliances. Compacts with a powerful foreign state, under whose aegis Israel was glad to shelter, involved covenants sealed by sacrificial rites in which the deity or deities of the foreign state were involved as well as Yahweh, the god of the weaker vassal-state. And so Yahweh's honour was compromised. While these aspects of Israel's relation to Yahweh are emphasized by the Ephraimite prophet, the larger conceptions of Yahweh's character as universal Lord and the God of righteousness, whose government of the world is ethical, emphasized by the prophet of Tekoah, are scarcely presented. In Isaiah both aspects — divine universal sovereignty and justice, taught by Amos, and divine loving-kindness to Israel and God's claims on His people's allegiance, taught by Hosea — are fully expressed. Yahweh's relation of love to Israel is exhibited under the purer symbol of fatherhood (Isa. i. 2-4), a conception which was as ancient and familiar as that of husband, though perhaps the latter recurs more frequently in prophecy (Isa. i. 21 ; Ezek. xvi. &c.). Even more insistently does Isaiah present the great truth of God's universal sovereignty. As with his elder contemporary, the foreign peoples — (but in Isaiah's oracles Assyria and Egypt as well as the Palestinian races) — come within his survey. The ' ' fullness of the earth " is Yahweh 's glory (vi. 3) and the nations of the earth are the instruments of His irresistible and righteous will. Assyria is the " bee " and Egypt the " fly " for which Yahweh hisses. Assyria is the " hired razor " (Isa. vii. 18, 19), or the " rod of His wrath," for the chastise- ment of Israel (x. 5). But the instrument unduly exalts itself, and Assyria itself shall suffer humiliation at the hands of the world's divine sovereign (x. 7-15). And so the old limitations of Israel's popular religion, — the same limitations that encumbered also the religions of all the neighbouring races that succumbed in turn to Assyria's in- vincible progress, — now began to disappear. Therefore, while every other religion which was purely national was extinguished in the nation's overthrow, the religion of Israel survived even amid exile and dispersion. For Amos and Isaiah were able to single out those loftier spiritual and ethical elements which lay implicit in Mosaism and to lift them into their due place of prominence. National sacra and the ceremonial requirements were made to assume a secondary r61e or were even ignored.1 The centre of gravity in Hebrew religion was shifted from ceremonial observance and local sacra to righteous conduct. Religion and righteousness were henceforth welded into an indissoluble whole. The religion of Yahweh was no longer to rest upon the narrow perishable basis of locality and national sacra, but on the broad adamantine foundations of a universal divine sovereignty over all mankind and of righteousness as the essential element in the character of Yahweh and in his claims on man. This was the " corner-stone of precious solid foundation ": "I will make judgment the measuring-line and righteousness the plummet " (Isa.xxviii. 16, 17). The religion of the Hebrew race — properly the Jews — now enters on a new stage, for it should be observed that it was Amos, Isaiah and Micah — prophets of Judah — who laid the actual foundations. The latter half of the 8th century, which witnessed a rapid succession of reigns in the northern kingdom accompanied by dismemberment of its territory and final overthrow, witnessed also the humiliating vassalage and religious decline of the kingdom of Judah. Unlike Amos and Micah, Isaiah was not only the prophet of denunciation but also the prophet of hope. Though Yahweh's chastisements on Ephraim and Judah would continue to fall till scarcely a remnant was left (Isa. vi. 13, LXX.), yet all was not to be lost. A remnant of the people was to return, i.e. bs converted to Yahweh. The name given to an infant child — Immanuel — was to become the mystic symbol of a growing hope. God's presence was to abide in Jerusalem, and, as the century drew near its close, " Immanuel " became the watchword and talisman of a strong faith that God would never permit Jerusalem to be captured by the Assyrians. In fact it is not improbable that the words of consolation uttered by the prophet (Isa. viii. 9-10) in the dark days of Ahaz (735-734 B.C.) were among the oracles which God commanded Isaiah " to seal up among his disciples " (verse 16), and that they were quoted once more with effect as the armies of Sennacherib closed around Jerusalem. The talismanic name Immanuel became the nucleus out of which the later Messianic prophecies of Isaiah grew. To this age alone can we probably assign Isa. Lx. 1-7, xi. 1-9, xxxii. 1-3. The hopes expressed in the word Immanuel, " God with us," were to become embodied in a personality of the royal seed of David, an ideal righteous ruler who was to bring peace to the war-distraught realm. Thus Isaiah became in that troubled age the true founder of Messianic prophecy. The strange contrast between the succes- sion of dynasties and kings cut off by assassination in the northern kingdom, ending in the tragic overthrow of 721 B.C., and the persistent succession through three centuries of the seed of David on the throne of Jerusalem, as well as the marvellous escape of Jerusalem in 701 B.C. from the fate of Samaria, must have invested the seed of David in the eyes of all thoughtful observers with a mysterious and divine significance. The Messianic prophecies of Isaiah, the prophet of faith and deliverance, were destined to reverberate through all subsequent centuries. We hear the echoes in Jeremiah and Ezekiel and lastly in Haggai in ever feebler tones, and they were destined to reawaken in the Psalter (Pss. ii. and Ixxii.), in the psalms of Solomon and in the days of Christ. See MESSIAH (and also the article " Messiah " in Hastings 's Diet, of Christ and the Gospels). The next notable contribution to the permanent growth of Hebrew prophetic religion was made about a century after the lifetime of Isaiah by Jeremiah and Ezekiel. The reaction into idolatry and Babylonian star worship in the long reign of Manasseh synchronized and was connected with vassalage 'There is some danger in too strictly construing the language of the prophets and also the psalmists. It is not to be supposed that either Amos or Isaiah would have countenanced the total suppression of all sacrificial observance. It was the existing cere- monial observance divorced from the ethical piety that they denounced. The speech of prophecy is poetical and rhetorical, not strictly defined and logical like that of a modern essayist. See Moore in Encyc. Bibl., '"Sacrifice," col. 4222. 184 HEBREW RELIGION to Assyria, while the reformation in the reign of Josiah (621 B.C.) is conversely associated with the decay of Assyrian power after the death of Assur-bani-pal. That reformation failed to effect its purifying mission. The hurt of the daughter of God's people was but lightly healed (Jer. vi. 14, 15; cf. viii. u, 12). No possibility of recovery now remained to the diseased Hebrew state. The outlook appeared indeed far darker to Jeremiah than it seemed more than a century before to Isaiah in the evil days of Jotham and Ahaz, " when the whole head was sick and the whole heart faint " (Isa. i. 5). Jeremiah foresaw that there was now no possibility of recovery. The Hebrew state was doomed and even its temple was to be destroyed. This involved an entire reconstruction of theological ideas which went beyond even the reconstructions of Amos and Isaiah. In the old religion the race or clan was the unit of religion as well as of social life. Properly speaking, the individual was related to God only through the externalities of the clan or tribal life, its common temple and its common sacra. But now that these external bases of the old religion were to be swept away, a reconstruction of religious ideas became necessary. For the external supports which had vanished Jeremiah substituted a basis which was internal, personal and spiritual (i.e. ethical). In place of the old covenant based on external observance, which had been violated, there was to be a new covenant which was to consist not in outward prescription, but in the law which God would place in the heart (Jer. xxxi. 30-33). This was to take place by an act of divine grace (Jer. xxiv. 5 foil.) : " I will give them an heart to know me that I am the Lord " (verse 7). Ezekiel, who borrowed both Jeremiah's language and ideas, expresses the same thought in the well-known words that Yahweh would give the people instead of a heart of stone a heart of flesh (Ezek. xi. 19, 20, xx. 40 foil., xxxvi. 25-27), and would shame them by his loving-kindness into repentance, and there " shall ye remember your ways and all your doings wherein ye have been denied and ye shall loathe yourselves in your own sight " (xx. 43). Personal religion now became an important element in Hebrew piety and upon this there logically followed the idea of personal responsibility. The solidarity of race or family was expressed in the old tradition reflected in Deut. v. 9, 10, that God would visit the sins of the fathers upon the children, and it lived on in later Judaism under exaggerated forms. The hopes of the individual Jew were based on the piety of holy ancestors. " We have Abraham as our father." But Ezekiel expressed the strong reaction which had set in against this belief in its older forms. He denies that the individual ever dies for the sins of the father. " The soul that sinneth, it (the pronoun emphasized in the original) shall die " (Ezek. xviii. 4). Neither Noah, Daniel nor Job could have rescued by his righteousness any but his own soul (xiv. 14). And as a further consequence individual freedom is strongly asserted. It is possible for every sinner to turn to God and escape punishment, and conversely for a righteous man to backslide and fall. In the presence of these awful truths which Ezekiel preached of individual freedom and of impending judgment, the prophet is weighted with a heavy responsibility. It is his duty to warn every individual, for no sinner is to be punished without warning (Ezek. iii. 16 foil, xxxiii.). The closing years of the Judaean kingdom and the final destruction of the temple (586 B.C.) shattered the Messianic ideals cherished in the evening of Isaiah's lifetime and again in the opening years of the reign of Josiah. The untimely death of that monarch upon the battlefield of Megiddo (608 B.C.), followed by the inglorious reigns of the kings who succeeded him, who became puppets in turn of Egypt or of Babylonia, silenced for a while the Messianic hopes for a future king or line of kings of Davidic lineage who would rule a renovated kingdom in righteousness and peace. Even in the darkness of the exile period hopes did not die. Yet they no longer remained the same. In the Deutero-Isaiah (chaps, xl.-lv.) we have no longer a Jewish but a foreign messiah. The onward progress of the Persian Cyrus and his anticipated conquest of Babylonia marked him out as Yahweh's anointed instrument for effecting the deliverance of exiled Israel and their restoration to their old home and city (Isa. xli. 2, xliv. 24, xlv.). This was, however, but a subsidiary issue and possesses no permanent spiritual significance. • Of far more vital importance is the conception of Israel as God's suffering servant. This is not the place to enter into the pro- longed controversy as to the real significance of this term, whether it signifies the nation Israel or the righteous community only, or finally an idealized prophetic individual who, like the prophet Jeremiah, was destined to suffer for the well-being of his people. Duhm, in his epoch-making commentary, distin- guishes on the grounds of metre and contents the four servant- passages, in the last of which (Iii. i3-liii. 12) the ideal suffering servant of Yahweh is portrayed most definitely as an individual. In the " servant-passages " he is innocent, while in the rest of the Deutero-Isaiah he appears as by no means faultless, and the personal traits are not prominent. These views of Duhm, in which a severe distinction is thus drawn between the repre- sentation of Yahweh's servant in the servant-passages, and that which meets us in the rest of the Deutero-Isaiah, have been challenged by a succession of critics.1 It is only necessary for us to take note of the ideal in its general features. It probably arose from the fact that the calamities from which Israel had suffered both before and during the exile had drawn the reflective minds of the race to the contemplation of the problem of suffering. The " servant of Yahweh " presents one aspect of the problem and its attempted solution, the book of Job another, while in the Psalms, e.g. Pss. xxii., xlii.-xliii., Ixxiii., Ixxvii., other phases of the problem are presented. In the Deutero-Isaiah the meaning of Israel's sufferings is exhibited as vicarious. Israel is suffering for a great end. He suffers, is despised, rejected, chastened and afflicted that others may be blessed and be at peace through his chastisement. This noble conception of Israel's great destiny is conveyed in Isa. xlix. 6, in words which may be regarded as perhaps the noblest utterance in Hebrew prophecy: " To establish the tribes of Jacob and bring back the preserved of Israel is less important than being my servant. Yea, I will make you a light to the Gentiles that my salvation may be unto the end of the earth."2 This passage, which belongs to the second of the brief " servant-songs," sets the mission of Israel in its true relation to the world. It is the necessary corollary to the teaching of Amos, that God is the righteous lord of all the world. If Jerusalem has been chosen as His sanctuary and Israel as His own people, it is only that Israel may diffuse God's blessings in the world even at the cost of Israel's own humiliation, exile and dispersion. The Deutero-Isaiah closes a great prophetic succession, which begins with Amos, continues in Isaiah in even greater splendour with the added elements of hope and Messianic expectation, and receives further accession in Jeremiah with his special teaching on inward spiritual and personal religion which constituted the new covenant of divine grace. Finally the Deutero-Isaiah conveyed to captive Israel the message of Yahweh's unceasing love and care, and the certainty of their return to Judaea and the restoration of the national prosperity which Ezekiel had already announced in the earlier period of the exile. To this is united the noble ideal of the suffering servant, which serves both as a contribution to the great problem of suffering as purifying and vicarious and as the interpretation to the mind of the nation itself of that nation's true function in the future, a lesson which the actual future showed that Israel was slow to receive. Nowhere in the Old Testament does the doctrine taught by Amos of Yahweh's universal power and sovereignty 1 Viz. Budde in Die so-genannten Ebed-Jahweh Lieder u. die Bedeutung des Knechtes Jahwehs in Jes. xl.-lv. (Giessen, 1900); Karl Marti in his well-known commentary on Isaiah, and F. Giesebrecht, Der Knecht Jahives des Deuterojesaja. The special servant-songs which Duhm asserts can be readily detached from the texture of the Deutero-Isaiah without disturbance to its integrity are Isa. xlii. 1-4, xlix. 1-6, i. 4-9, Hi. 13-liii. 12. 2 We have here followed Dillmann's construction of a difficult passage which Duhm attempts to simplify by omission of the com- plicating clause without altering the general sense. HEBREW RELIGION 185 receive ampler and more splendid exposition than in the great lyrical passages of chap. xl. It marks the highest point to which the Hebrew race attained in its progress from henotheism to monotheism. Here again we see the wholesome influences of the exile. The Jew had passed from the narrow confines of his homeland into a wider world, and this larger vision of human life reacted on the prophet's theology. This closes the evolution of Hebrew prophetism. What immediately follows is on a descending slope with some striking exceptions, e.g. the book of Job and the book of Jonah. 7. Deuteronomic Legalism. — The book of Deuteronomy was the product of prophetic teaching operating on traditional custom, which was represented in its essential features by the two codes of legislation contained in Ex. xx. 24-xxiii. 19 (E) and Ex. xxxiv. 10-26 (J), but had also become tainted and corrupted by centuries of Canaanite influence and practice which especially infected the cult of the high places. The existence of " high places " is presupposed in those two ancient codes and is also presumed in the narratives of the documents E and J which contain them. But the prevalence of the worship of " other gods " and of graven images in these " high places," and the moral debasement of life which accompanied these cults, made it clear that the " high places " were sources of grave injury to Israel's social life. In all probability the reformation instituted in the reign of Hezekiah, to which 2 Kings xviii. 4 (cf. verse 22) refers, was only partial. It is hardly possible that all the high places were suppressed. The idolatrous reaction in the reign of Manasseh appears to have restored all the evils of the past and added to them. Another and more drastic reform than that which had been previously initiated (probably at the instigation of Isaiah and Micah) now became necessary to save the state. It is universally held by critics that our present book of Deuteronomy (certainly chaps, xii.-xxvi.) is closely connected with the reformation in the reign of Josiah. It is quite clear that many provisions in the old codes of J and E expanded lie at the basis of the book of Deuteronomy. But new features were added. We note for the first time definite regulations respecting Passover and the close union of that celebration with Massoth or " unleavened bread." We note the laws respecting the clean and unclean animals (certainly based on ancient custom). Moreover, the prohibitions are strengthened and multiplied. In addition to the bare interdict of the sorceress (Ex. xxii. 18), of stone pillars to the Canaanite Baal, of the Asherah-pole, molten images and the worship of other gods than Yahweh (Ex. xxxiv. 13-17), we now have the strict prohibition of any employment whatever of the stone- symbol (Mas$ebhah), and of all forms of sorcery, soothsaying and necromancy (Deut. xviii. 10, n. Respecting the stone- pillar see xvi. 22). But of much more far-reaching importance was the law of the central sanctuary which constantly meets us in Deuteronomy in the reference to " the place (i.e. Jerusalem) which Yahweh you,r God shall choose out of all your tribes to put His name there " (xii. 5, xvi. 5, n, 16, xxvi. 2). There alone all offerings of any kind were to be presented (xii. 6, 7, xvi. 7). By this positive enactment all the high places outside the one sanctuary in Jerusalem became illegitimate. A further consequence directly followed from the limitation as to sanctuary, viz. limitation as to the officiating ministers of the sanctuary. In the " book of the covenant " (Ex. xx. 22-xxii. 19), as we have already seen, and in the general practice of the regal period, there was no limitation as to the priesthood, but a definite order of priesthood, viz. Levites, existed, to whom a higher professional prestige belonged. As it was impossible to find a place for the officiating priests of the high places, non-levitical as well as levitical, in the single sanctuary, it became necessary to restrict the functions of sacrifice to the Levites only as well as to the existing official priesthood of the Jerusalem temple (see PRIEST). Doubtless such a reform met with strong resistance from the disestablished and vested interests, but it was firmly supported by royal influence and by the Jerusalem priesthood as well as by the true prophets of Yahweh who had protested against the idolatrous usages and corruptions of the high places. The strong impress of Hebrew prophecy is to be found in the deeply marked ethical spirit of the Deuteronomic legislation. Love to God and love to man is stamped on a large number of its provisions. Love to God is emphasized in Deut. vi. 5, while love to man meets us in the constant reference to the fatherless and the widow (cf. especially Deut. xvi.). This note of philanthropy is frequently found as a mitigating element (e.g. in the laws respecting slavery and war)' that subdues or even removes the harshness of earlier laws or usages. It should be noted, however, that the spirit of brotherly love was confined within national barriers. It did not operate as a rule beyond the limits of race. The book of Deuteronomy, in conjunction with the reformation of Josiah's reign (which synchronizes with the rapid decline of Assyria and the reviving prestige of Yahweh), appeared to mark the triumph of the great prophetic movement. It became at once a codified standard of purer religious life and ultimately served as a beacon of light for the future. But there was shadow as well as light. We note (a) that though the book of Deuteronomy bears the prophetic impress, the priestly impress is perhaps more marked. The writer " evinces a warm regard for the priestly tribe; he guards its privileges (xviii. 1-8), demands obedience for its decisions (xxiv. 8; cf. xvii. 10-12) and earnestly commends its members to the Israelites' benevolence (xii. 18-19, xiv. 27-29, &c.)."2 (b) In many passages Jewish particularism is painfully manifest. Yahweh's care for other peoples does not appear. The flesh of a dead (unslaughtered) beast is not to be eaten, but it may be given to the " stranger within the gates "! (Deut. xiv. 2i).s (c) Prophetic religion was a religion of the spirit which came to the messenger (Isa. Ixi. i) and expressed itself as a word of instruction of Yahweh (torah) ; see Isa. i. 10. Now when the Hebrew religion was reduced to written form it began to be a book-religion, and since the book consisted of fixed rules and enactments, religion began to acquire a stereotyped character. It will be seen in the sequel that this was destined to be the grow- ing tendency of Jewish religious life — to conform itself to prescribed rules, in other words, it became legalism. (d) Lastly, the old genial life of the high places, in which the " new moon " or Sabbath or the annual festival was a sacrificial feast of com- munion, in which the members of the local community or clan enjoyed fellowship with one another — all this picturesque life ceased to be. And though there was positive gain in the removal of idolatrous and corrupt modes of worship, there was also positive loss in the disappearance of this old genial phase of Hebrew social life and worship. It involved a vast difference to many a Judaean village when the festival pilgrimage was no longer made to the familiar local sanctuary with its hoary associations of ancient heroic or patriarchal story, but to a distant and comparatively unfamiliar city with its stately shrine and priesthood. 8. Ezekiel's System. — Ezekiel was the successor of Jeremiah and inherited his conceptions. But though the younger prophet adopted the ideas respecting personal religion and individual responsibility from the elder, the characters of the two men were very different. Jeremiah, when he foretold the destruction of the external state and temple ritual, found no resource save in a reconstruction that was internal and spiritual. In this he was true to his prophetic impulse and genius. But Ezekiel was, as Wellhausen well describes him, " a priest in prophet's mantle." While Jeremiah's tendency was spiritual and ideal, Ezekiel's was constructive and practical. He was the first to foretell with clearness the return of his people from captivity foreshadowed by Jeremiah, and he set himself the task even in 1 Thus in comparison with the " book of the covenant," Deuter- onomy adds the stipulation in reference to the release of the slave; that his master was to provide him liberally from his flocks, his corn and his wine (Deut. xv. 13, 14). See Hastings's D.B., arts. " Ser- vant," " Slave," p. 464, where other examples may be found. In war fruit-trees are to pe spared (Deut. xx. 19 foil.), whereas the old universal practice is the barbarous custom Elisha commended (2 Kings iii. 19) of ruthlessly destroying them. 1 Drivers .Internal. Commentary on Deuteronomy, Introd. p. xxx. 1 It should be noted that in P (Code of Holiness) Lev. xvii. 15 foil the resident alien (ger) is placed on an equality with the Jew. i86 HEBREW RELIGION the midnight darkness of Israel's exile to prepare for the nation's renewed life. The external bases of Israel's religion had been swept away, and in exchange for these Jeremiah had led his countrymen to the more permanent internal grounds of a spiritual renewal. But a religion could not permanently subsist in this world of space and time without some external concrete embodiment. It was the task of Ezekiel to take up once more the broken threads of Israel's religious traditions, and weave them anew into statelier forms of ritual and national polity. The priest-prophet's keen eye for detail, manifested in the elaborate vision of the wheels and living creatures (Ezek. i.) and in his lamentation on Tyre (chap, xxvii.), is also exhibited in the visions contained in chaps, xl.-xlviii., which describe the ideal reconstructed temple and theocracy of the restored Israel. The foreground is filled by the temple and its precincts. The officiating priests are now the descendants of the line of Zadok belonging to the tribe of Levi. Thus the priesthood is still further restricted as compared with the restriction already noted in the Deuteronomic legislation. It is the sons of Zadok only that have any right to offer sacrifice at the altar of burnt offering (xliii. 19, xliv. 15 foil.). The Levites, who formerly ministered in the high places, now discharge the subordinate offices of gate-keepers and slaughterers of the sacrificial victims. Another element in this ideal scheme which comes into prominence is the sharp distinction between holy and profane. The word holiness (qodesh) in primitive Hebrew usage partook of the nature of taboo, and came to be applied to whatever, whether thing or person, stood in close relation to deity and belonged to him, and could not, therefore, be used or treated like other objects not so related, and so was separated or stood apart. The idea underlying the word, which to us is invested with deep ethical meaning, had only this non-ethical, ritual significance in Ezekiel. Unlike the old temple and city, the ideal temple of Ezekiel is entirely separate from the city of Jerusalem. In the immediate surroundings of the temple there is an open space. Then come two concentric forecourts of the temple. The temple stands in the midst of what is called the gizrah or space severed off. The outer court lies higher than the open space, the inner court higher still, and the temple-building in the centre highest of all. No heathen may tread the outer court, no layman the inner court, while the holiest of all may not be trodden even by the priest Ezekiel but only by the angel who accompanies him. " The temple-house has a graduated series of compartments increasing in sanctity inwards " (Davidson). In the innermost the presence of Yahweh abides. We are here moving in a realm of ideas prevailing in ancient Israel respecting holiness, uncleanness and sin, which are ceremonial and not ethical; see especially Robertson Smith's Religion of the Semites, 2nd ed., p. 446 foil, (additional note B.) on holiness, uncleanness and taboo. It is, of course, true that the ethical conception of sin as violation of righteousness and an act of rebellion against the divine righteous will had been developed since the days of Amos and Isaiah; but, as we have already observed, cultus and prophetic teaching were separated by an immense gulf, and in spite of the reformation of 621 B.C. still remain separated. In the sacrificial system of sin-offerings (haltdlh and1 'ashdni) we have to do with sin as ceremonial violation and neglect (frequently involuntary), or violation of holiness in the old sense of the term or as personal uncleanness (touching a corpse, eating unclean food, sexual impurity, &c.). In the historical evolution of Hebrew sacrifice it is remarkable how long this non-ethical and primitive survival of old custom still survived, even far into post-exilian times. (See SACRIFICE; also Moore's art. " Sacrifice " in Ency. Bibl.) One conspicuous feature of Ezekiel's system is the predomin- ance of piacular sacrifice. It undoubtedly existed in pre-exilian Israel, especially in times of crisis or calamity, for the appease- ment of an offended deity (2 Sam. xxiv. 18 foil.), and in Deut. xxi. 1-9, we have details of the purificatory rite which was necessary when human blood was shed; but now and in the future propitiatory sacrifice and ideas of propitiation began to overshadow all the other forms of sacrifice and their ideas. Ezekiel prescribes a half-yearly ritual of sin-offering whereby atonement was to be made (xlv. 18-20). We shall see subsequently to what great institution this led the way. Ezekiel's system constituted an ecclesiastical in place of a political organization, a church-state in place of a nation. We clearly discern how this reacted on his Messianic conceptions. In his earlier oracles (xxxiv. 23 foil.) we find one shepherd ruling over united Israel, viz. Yahweh's servant David, whereas in the ideal scheme detailed in chap. xl. et seq. the r61e of the prince as a ruler is a very shadowy one. The prince, it is true, has a central domain, but his functions are ecclesiastical and sub- ordinate and his powers strictly limited (xlvi. 3-8, 12, 16-18). Thus the exile period marks the parting of the ways in the development of Hebrew religion. In the Deutero-Isaiah we reach the highest point in the evolution of prophetism. It is true that we have some noble resounding echoes in the lyrical passages Ix.-lxii. in the Trito-Isaiah during the post-exilian period, and in such psalm literature as Pss. xxii., xxxvii., 1., Ixii., cvii., cxlv. 9-12 and others; and also in Isa. xxxv., which is obviously a lyrical reproduction of earlier literature. But it cannot be said that we possess in later literature any fresh contribution to the conception of God or any presentation of a higher ideal of human life1 or national destiny than that which meets us in chap. xl. or in the servant-passages of the Deutero- Isaiah. It may with truth be said that after Jeremiah we discern the parting of the ways. The first is represented by the Deutero-Isaiah, who constitutes the climax and close of Hebrew prophetism, which is henceforth (with the possible exception of the Trito-Isaiah, Malachi and Jonah, who reproduce some features of the earlier prophecy) a virtually arrested development. The second path is that which is traced out by the priest-prophet Ezekiel, and is that of legalism. which was destined to secure a permanent place in the life and literature of the Jewish people. It is essentially the path which may be summed up in the word Judaism, though, as will be shown in the sequel, Judaism came to include many other factors. The statement, however, remains virtually true, since Judaism is mainly constituted by the body of legal precepts called the Torah, and, moreover, by the post- exilian Torah. p. Post-exilian Law — The Priestercodex? — The oracles of Malachi clearly reveal the continued influence of the book of Deuteronomy in his day. But the new conditions created by the return of the exiles and the germinating influence of Ezekiel's ideas developed a process of new legislative construction. The code of holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.) is the most obvious product of that influence. The ideas of expiation and atonement so prevalent in Ezekiel's scheme, which there find expression in the half-yearly sacrificial celebrations, are expressed in Lev. xvi. in the single annual great fast of atonement. It is impossible to enter here into the numerous details of that impressive ceremonial. Two special features, however, which characterize the celebration should here be noted: (a) The person of the high priest, who is throughout the entire drama the chief and indeed the sole actor. This supreme official, who was destined ultimately to take the place of the king in the church-nation of post-exilian Judaism, is mentioned for the first time in Zech. iii. i 3 (in the person of Joshua) . In the Priestercodex he stands at the head of the priests, who are, in the post-exilian system, the sons of Aaron and possessed the sole right to offer the temple sacrifices. On the great day of atonement the high priest appears in a vicarious and representative capacity, and offers on behalf of the whole nation which he was considered to embody in his sacred person. (b) The rite of the goal devoted to Azazel. There can be little 1 We shall have to note the emergence of the doctrine of the resurrection of the righteous in later Judaism, which is obviously a fresh contribution of permanent value to Hebrew doctrine. On the other hand, the doctrine of pre-existence is speculative rather than religious, and applies to institutions rather than persons. 2 The legislative portions are mainly comprised in Ex. xxxv.- end, Leviticus entire and Num. i.-x. 3 But this term (literally the chief priest) was already in use during the regal period to designate the head priest of an important sanctuary such as Jerusalem (2 Kings xii. n). HEBREW RELIGION 187 doubt that Azazel was an evil demon (like an Arabic Jinn) of the desert. The goat set apart for Azazel was in the concluding part of the ceremonial brought before the high priest, who laid both his hands upon it and confessed over it the sins of the people. It was then carried off by an appointed person to a lonely spot and there set free. In later post-exilian times this great day of atonement became to an increasing degree a day of humiliation for sin and penitent sorrow, accompanied by confession; and the sins confessed were not only of a purely ceremonial character, whether voluntary or inadvertent, but also sins against righteousness and the duties which we owe to God and man. This element of public confession for sin became more prominent in the days when synagogal worship developed, and prayer took the place of the sacrificial offerings which could only be offered in the Jerusalem temple. The development of the priestly code of legislation (Priestercodex) was a gradual process, and probably occupied a considerable part of the sth century B.C. The Hebrew race now definitely entered upon the new path of organized Jewish legalism which had been originally marked out for it by Ezekiel in the preceding century. It became a holy people on holy ground. Circumcision and Sabbath, separation from marriage with a foreigner, which rendered a Jew unclean, as well as strict conformity to the precepts of the Torah, constituted hence- forth an adamantine bond which was to preserve the Jewish communities from disintegration. 10. The later Post-exilian Developments in Jewish Religion. — These may be briefly referred to under the following aspects: (a) Codified law and the written record of the patriarchal history, as well as the life and work of the lawgiver Moses (to whom the entire body of law came to be ascribed), assumed an ever greater importance. The reverence felt for the canonized Torah or law (the Pentateuch or so-called five books of Moses) grew even into worship. Of this spirit we find clear expression in some of the later psalms, e.g. the elaborate alphabetic Ps. cxix. and the latter portion of Ps. xix. There were various causes which combined to enhance the importance of the written Torah (the " instruction " par excellence communicated by God through Moses). Chief among these were (i) The conception of God as transcendent. We have taken due note of Amos, who unfolded the character of Yahweh as universal righteous sovereign; and also the sublime portrayal of His exalted nature in Isa. xl. (verse 15; cf. 22-26, and Job xxxvi. 22-xlii. 6). The intellectual influence of Greece, manifested in Alexandrian philosophy, tended to remove God still further from the human world of phenomena into that of an inaccessible transcendental abstrac- tion. Little, therefore, was possible for the Jew save strict per- formance of the requirements of the Torah, once for all given to Moses on Sinai, and, in his approach to the awful and unknown mystery, to rely on ceremonial and ascetic performances (see Wendt's Teaching of Jesus, i. 55 foil.). The same tendency led the pious worshippers to avoid His awful name and to sub- stitute Adonai in their scriptures or to use in the Mishna the term " name " (shem) or " heaven." (2) The Maccabean conflic (165 B.C.) tended to accentuate the national sentiment of anta gonism to Hellenic influence. The Hasldim or pious devotees who arose at that time, were the originators of the Pharisaic movement which was conservative as well as national, and laic stress on the strict performance of the law. (b) Eschatology in the Judaism of the Greek period began ti assume a new form. The pre-exilian prophets (especially Isaiah spoke of the forthcoming crisis in the world's history as a daj of the Lord." These were usually regarded as visitations o chastisement for national sins and vindications of divin righteousness or judgments, i.e. assertions of God's power a judge (shophet). By the older prophets this judgment of Go< or " day of Yahweh " was never held to be far removed fron the horizon of the present or the world in which they lived. Bu now as we enter the Greek period (320 B.C. and onwards) ther is a gradual change from prophecy to apocalyptic. " It may b asserted in general terms that whereas prophecy foretells definite future which has its foundation in the present, apoca yptic directs its anticipations solely and simply to the future, o a new world-period which stands sharply contrasted with the resent. The classical model for all apocalyptic is to be found in Dan. vii. It is only after a great war of destruction, a day of Yahweh's great judgment, that the dominion of God will begin " Bousset) . Ezek. xxxviii. and xxxix. clearly bear the apocalyptic haracter; so also Isa. xxxiv. and notably Isa. xxiv.-xxvii. Apocalyptic, as Baldensperger has shown, formed a counterpoise o the normal current of conformity to law. It arose from a piritual movement in answer to the yearning of the heart: ' O that Thou mightest rend the heavens and come down and he mountains quake at Thy presence!" (Isa. Ixiv. i [Heb. xiii. 19]); and it was intended to meet the craving of souls sick with waiting and disappointment. The present outlook was wpeless, but in the enlarged horizon of time as well as space the houghts of some of the most spiritual minds in Judaism were directed to the transcendent and ultimate. The present world was corrupt and subject to Satan and the powers of darkness. This they called " the present aeon " (age). Their hopes were herefore directed to " the coming aeon." Between the two aeons there would take place the advent of the Messiah, who would lead the struggle with evil powers which was called " the agonies of the Messiah." This terrible intermezzo was no longer terrestrial, but was a cosmic and universal crisis in which the Messiah would emerge victorious from the final conflict with the icathen and demonic powers. This victory inaugurates the entrance of the " aeon to come," in which the faithful Jews would enter their inheritance. In this way we perceive the transformation of the old Messianic doctrine through apocalyptic. 3f apocalyptic literature we have numerous examples extending Tom the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D. (See especially Charles's Book of Enoch.) The doctrine of the resurrection of the righteous to life in the tieavenly world became engrafted on to the old doctrine of Sheol, or the dark shadowy underworld (Hades), where life was joyless and feeble, and from which the soul might be for a brief space summoned forth by the arts of the necromancer. The most vivid portraiture of Sheol is to be found in the exilian passage Isa. xiv. 9-20 (cf. Job x. 21-22). With this also compare the Babylonian Descent of Ishtar to Hades. The added conception of the resurrection of the righteous does not appear in the world of Jewish thought till the early Greek period in Isa. xxvi. 19. R. H. Charles thinks that in this passage the idea of resurrection is of purely Jewish and not of Mazdaan (or Zoroastrian) origin, but it is otherwise with Dan. xii. 2 ; see his Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish and Christian. Corresponding to heaven, the abode of the righteous, we have Ce-henna (originally Ce-Hinnom, the scene of the Moloch rites of human sacrifice), the place of punish- ment after death for apostate Jews. (c) Doctrine of Angels and of Hyposlases. — In the writings of the pre-exilian period we have frequent references to super- natural personalities good and bad. It is only necessary to refer to them by name. Sebaoth, or " hosts," attached to the name of Yahweh, denoted the heavenly retinue of stars. The seraphim were burning serpentine forms who hovered above the enthroned Yahweh and chanted the Trisagion in Isaiah's consecration vision (Isa. vi.). We have also constant references to " angels " (malachlm) of God, divine messengers who represent Him and may be regarded- as the manifestation of His power and presence. This especially applies to the " angel of Yahweh " or angel of His Presence [Ex. xxiii. 20, 23 (E). Note in Ex. xxxiii. 14 (J) he is called "my face" or "presence"1 (cf. Isa. Ixiii. 9)]. We also know that from earliest times Israel believed in the evil as well as good spirits. Like the Arabs they held that demons became incorporate in serpents, as in Gen. iii. The nephUlm were a monstrous brood begotten of the inter- course of the supernatural beings called " sons of God " with the women of earth. We also read of the " evil spirit " that came upon Saul. Contact with Babylonia tended to stimulate the 1 Cf. the Phoenician parallel of " Face of Baal," worshipped as Tanit, "queen of Heaven" (Bathgen, Beitrdge zur Semit. Religions- geschichte, p. 55 foil.); also the place Penuel (face of God). i88 HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE angelology and demonology of Israel. The Hebrew word shed or " demon " is no more than a Babylonian loan word, and came to designate the deities of foreign peoples degraded into the position of demons.1 LUith, the blood-sucking night-hag of the post-exilian Isa. xxxiv. 14, is the Babylonian Lildtu. Whether the se'irim or shaggy satyrs (Isa. xiii. 31; Lev. xvii. 7) and Azazel were of Babylonian origin it is difficult to determine. The emergence of Satan as a definite supernatural personality, the head or prince of the world of evil spirits, is entirely a pheno- menon of post-exilian Judaism. He is portrayed as the arch- adversary and accuser of man. It is impossible to deny Persian influence in the development of this conception, and that the Persian Ahriman (Angromainyu) , the evil personality opposed to the good, Ahura Mazda, moulded the Jewish counterpart, Satan. But in Judaism monotheistic conceptions reigned supreme, and the Satan of Jewish belief as opposed to God stops short of the dualism of Persian religion. Of this we see evidence in the multiplication of Satans in the Book of Enoch. In the Book of Jubilees he is called maslema.'J J.Q later Judaism Sammael is the equivalent of Satan. Persian influence is also responsible for the vast multiplication of good spirits or angels, Gabriel, Raphael, Michael, &c., who play their part in apocalyptic works, such as the Book of Daniel and the Book of Enoch. Probably the transcendent nature of the deity in the Judaism of this later period made the interposition of mediating spirits an intellectual necessity (cf. Ps. civ. 4). It also stimulated the creation of divine hypostases. First among these may be men- tioned Wisdom. The roots of this conception belong to pre-exilian times, in which the " word " of divine denunciation was regarded as a quasi-material thing. (It is hurled against offending Israel, Isa. ix. 8.) In the post-exilian cosmogony it is the divine word or fiat that creates the world (Gen. i.; cf. Ps. xxxiii. 6, 9). Out of these earlier conceptions the idea of the divine wisdom (Heb. hokhmah) gradually arose during the Persian period. The expression " wisdom," as it is employed in the locus classicus, Prov. viii., connotes the contents of the Divine reason — His conscious life, out of which created things emerge. This wisdom is personified. It dwelt with God (Prov. viii. 22 foil.) before the world was made. It is the companion of His throne, and by it He made the world (Prov. iii. 19, viii. 27; cf. Ps. civ. 24). It, moreover, enters into the life of the world and especially man (Prov. viii. 31). This conception of wisdom became still further hypostatized. It becomes redemptive of man. In the Wisdom of Solomon it is the sharer of God's throne (irapeSpos), the effulgence of the eternal light and the outflow of His glory (Wisd. vii. 25, viii. 3 foil., ix. 4, 9); " Them that love her the Lord doth love " (Ecclesiasticus iv. 14). This group of ideas culminated in the Logos of Philo, expressing the world of divine ideas which God first of all creates and which becomes the mediating and formative power between the absolute and trans- cendent deity and passive formless matter, transmuted thereby into a rational,rordered universe. In later Jewish literature we meet with further examples of similar hypostases in the form of Memra, Melatron, Shechinah, Holy Spirit and Bath kol. (d) The doctrine of pre-existence is another product of the speculative tendency of the Jewish mind. The Messiah's pre- existent state before the creation of the world is asserted in the Book of Enoch (xlviii. 6, 7). Pre-existence is also asserted of Moses and of sacred institutions such as the New Jerusalem, the Temple, Paradise, the Torah, &c. (Apocal. of Baruch iv. 3-lix. 4; Assumptio Mosis i. 14, 17) Edersheim's Life and Times of the Messiah, i. 175 and footnote i. ii. Christ resumes the Broken Tradition of Prophelism. — The Psalms of Solomon and the synoptic Gospels (70 B.C.-A.D. 100) clearly reveal the powerful revival of Messianic hopes of a national deliverer of the seed of David. This Messianic expecta- tion had been a fermenting leaven since the great days of Judas Maccabaeus. The conceptions of Jesus of Nazareth, however, were not the Messianic conceptions of his fellow-countrymen, but 1 Deut. xxxii. 17; Ps. cvi. 37. Baal Zebub of the Philistine Ekron became the Beelzebub who was equivalent to Satan. of the spiritual " son of man " destined to found a kingdom of God which was righteousness and peace. The Torah of Jesus was essentially prophetic and in no sense priestly or legal. The arrested prophetic movement of Jeremiah and Deutero-Isaiah reappears in John the Baptist and Jesus after an interval of more than five centuries. The new covenant of redeeming grace — the righteousness which is in the heart and not in externalities of legal observance or ceremonial — are once more proclaimed, and the exalted ideals of the suffering servant of Isa. xlix. 6 and Isa. liii. (nearly suppressed in the Targum of Jonathan) are reasserted and vindicated by the words and life of Jesus. Like Jeremiah He foretold the destruction of the temple and suffered the extreme penalties of anti-patriotism. And thus Israel's old prophetic Torah was at length to achieve its victory, for after Jesus came St Paul. " Many shall come from the east and the west and sit down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven " (Matt. viii. n, 12). The fetters of nationalism were to be broken, and the Hebrew religion in its essential spiritual elements was to become the heritage of all humanity. AUTHORITIES. — i. On Semitic religion generally: Wellhausen's Reste des arabischen Heidentums (2nd ed.) and Robertson Smith's Religion of the Semites (2nd ed.) are chiefly to be recommended. Barton's Semitic Origins is extremely able, but his doctrine of the derivation, of male from original female deities is pushed to an extreme. Bathgen's Beitrage zur semitischen Religions geschichte (1888) is most useful, and contains valuable epigraphic material. Baudissin's Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte (1876) is still valuable. See also Kuenen's National Religions and Universal Religions (Hibbert lectures) and Lagrange's Etudes surles religions semitiques (2nd ed.). 2. On Hebrew religion in particular : specially full and helpful is Kautzsch's article " Religion of Israel " in Hastings's D.B., extra vol.; Marti's recent Religion des A.T. (1906) and his Geschichte der israelitischen Religion, are clear, compact and most serviceable, and the former work presents the subject in fresh and suggestive aspects. Wellhausen's Prolegomena, and Judische Geschichte should be read both for criticism and Hebrew history generally. Duhm's Theologie der Propheten and Robertson Smith's Prophets of Israel should also be consulted. Strongly to be recommended are Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgzschichte • Bennett, Theo- logy of the Old Testament and Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; A. B. Davidson, The Theology of the Old Testament, as well as the sections devoted to " Sacralaltertiimer " in the Hebrdische Archdo- logie both of Benzinger and also of Nowack. Budde's Die Religion des Volkes Israel bis zur Verbannung, as well as Addis's recent Hebrew Religion (1906), is a most careful and scholarly compendium. Harper's Introd. to his Commentary on Amos and Hosea (I. and T. Clark) contains a useful survey of the history of Hebrew religion before the 8th century. Buchanan Gray's Divine Discipline of Israel, and A. S. Peake's Problem of Suffering in the O. T. , are sugges- tive. See also S. A. Cook, Religion of A ncient Palestine. 3. On the history of Judaism till the time of Christ, Schurer's Geschichte des judischen Volkes im Zeitalter Christi (3rded.), vol. ii. and in part vol. iii., are indispensable. Bousset's Religion des Judentums (2nd ed.), and Volz, Die judische Eschatologie von Daniel bis Akiba, are highly to be commended. Weber's Judische Theologie is a usef ul compendium of the theology of later Judaism. 4. On the special department of eschatology the standard works are R. H. Charles, Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish and Christian, and Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode, as well as Gressmann's suggestive work Der Ursprung der israelitisch-jiidischen Eschatologie, which contains, however, much that is speculative. On apocalyptic generally the introductions to Charles's Book of Enoch, Apocalypse of Baruch, Ascension of Isaiah and Book of Jubilees, should be carefully noted. See also ESCHATOLOGY. 5. On the religion of Babylonia, Jastrow's work is the standard one. Zimmern's Heft ii. in K.A.T. (3rd ed.) is specially important to the Old Testament student. See also W. Schrank, Babylonische Suhnriten. (O. C. W.) HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE, one of the books of the New Testament. In the oldest MSS. it bears no other title than " To Hebrews." This brief heading embraces all that on which Christian tradition from the end of the 2nd century was un- animous; and it says no more than that the readers addressed were Christians of Jewish extraction. This would be no sufficient address for an epistolary writing (xiii. 22) directed to a definite circle of readers, to whose history repeated reference is made, and with whom the author had personal relations (xiii. 19, 23). Probably, then, the original and limited address, or rather saluta- tion, was never copied when this treatise in letter form, like the epistle to the Romans, passed into the wider circulation which HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE 189 its contents merited. In any case the Roman Church, where the first traces of the epistle occur, about A.D. 96 (i Clement), had nothing to contribute to the question of authorship except the negative opinion that it was not by Paul (Euseb. Red. Hist. iii. 3) : yet this central church was in constant connexion with provincial churches. The earliest positive traditions belong to Alexandria and N. Africa. The Alexandrine tradition can be traced back as far as a teacher of Clement, presumably Pantaenus (Euseb. Ecd. Hist. vi. 14), who sought to explain why Paul did not name himself as usual at the head of the epistle. Clement himself, taking it for granted that an epistle to Hebrews must have beeen written in Hebrew, supposes that Luke translated it for the Greeks. Origen implies that " the men of old " regarded it as Paul's, and that some churches at least in his own day shared this opinion. But he feels that the language is un-PauIine, though the " admirable " thoughts are not second to those of Paul's unquestioned writings. Thus he is led to the view that the ideas were orally set forth by Paul, but that the language and composition were due to some one giving from memory a sort of free interpretation of his teacher's mind. According to some this disciple was Clement of Rome; others name Luke; but the truth, says Origen, is known to God alone (Euseb. vi. 25, cf. iii. 38). Still from the time of Origen the opinion that Paul wrote the epistle became prevalent in the East. The earliest African tradition, on the other hand, preserved by Tertullian1 (De pudicilia, c. 20), but certainly not invented by him, ascribed the epistle to Barnabas. Yet it was perhaps, like those named by Origen, only an inference from the epistle itself, as if a " word of exhortation " (xiii. 22) by the Son of Exhortation (Acts iv. 36 ; see BARNABAS). On the whole, then, the earliest traditions in East and West alike agree in effect, viz. that our epistle was not by Paul, but by one of his associates. This is also the twofold result reached by modern scholarship with growing clearness. The vacillation of tradition and the dissimilarity of the epistle from those of Paul were brought out with great force by Erasmus. Luther (who suggests Apollos) and Calvin (who thinks of Luke or Clement) followed with the decisive argument that Paul, who lays such stress on the fact that his gospel was not taught him by man (Gal. i.), could not have written Heb. ii. 3. Yet the wave of reaction which soon over- whelmed the freer tendencies of the first reformers, brought back the old view until the revival of biblical criticism more than a century ago. Since then the current of opinion has set irrevoc- ably against any form of Pauline authorship. Its type of thought is quite unique. The Jewish Law is viewed not as a code of ethics or " works of righteousness," as by Paul, but as a system of religious rites (vii. n) shadowing forth the way of access to God in worship, of which the Gospel reveals the archetypal realities (ix. i, n, 15, 23 f., x. i ff., 19 ff.). The Old and the New Covenants are related to one another as imperfect (earthly) and perfect (heavenly) forms of the same method of salvation, each with its own type of sacrifice and priesthood. Thus the conception of Christ as High Priest emerges, for the first time, as a central point in the author's conception pf Christianity. The Old Testament is cited after the Alexandrian version more exclusively than by Paul, even where the Hebrew is divergent. Nor is this accidental. There is every appearance that the author was a Hellenist who lacked knowledge of the Hebrew text, and derived his metaphysic and his allegorical method from the Alexandrian rather than the Palestinian schools. Yet the epistle has manifest Pauline affinities, and can hardly have originated beyond the Pauline circle, to which it is referred not only by the author's friendship with Timothy (xiii. 23), but by many echoes of the Pauline theology and even, it seems, of passages in Paul's epistles (see Holtzmann, Einleitung in das N.T., 1892, p. 298). These features early suggested Paul as the author of a book which stood in MSS. immediately after the epistles of that apostle, and contained nothing in its title to 'Also in Codex Claromontanus, the Tractatus de libris (x.), Philastrius of Brescia (c. A.D. 380), and a prologue to the Catholic Epistles (Revue benedictinc, xxiii. 82 ff.). It is defended in a mono- graph by H. H. B. Ayles (Cambridge, 1899). distinguish it from the preceding books with like headings, " To the Romans," " To the Corinthians," and the like. A similar history attaches to the so-called Second Epistle of Clement (see CLEMENTINE LITERATURE). Everything turns, then, on internal criticism of the epistle, working on the distinctive features already noticed, together with such personal allusions as it affords. As to its first readers, with whom the author stood in close relations (xiii. 19, 23, cf. vi. 10, x. 32-34), it used generally to be agreed that they were " Hebrews " or Christians of Jewish birth. But, for a generation or so, it has been denied that this can be inferred simply from the fact that the epistle approaches all Christian truth through Old Testament forms. This, it is said, was the common method of proof, since the Jewish scriptures were the Word of God to all Christians alike. Still it remains true that the exclusive use of the argument from Mosaism, as itself implying the Gospel of Jesus the Christ as final cause (reXos), does favour the view that the readers were of Jewish origin. Further there is no allusion to the incorporation of " strangers and foreigners " (Eph. 11. 19) with the people of God. Yet the readers are not to be sought in Jerusalem (see e.g. ii. 3), nor anywhere in Judaea proper. The whole Hellenistic culture of the epistle (let alone its language), and the personal references in it, notably that to Timothy in xiii. 23, are against any such view: while the doubly emphatic " all " in xiii. 24 suggests that those addressed were but part of a community composed of both Jews and Gentiles. Caesarea, indeed, as a city of mixed population and lying just outside Judaea proper — a place, moreover, where Timothy might have become known during Paul's two years' detention there — would satisfy many conditions of the problem. Yet these very conditions are no more than might exist among intensely Jewish members of the Dispersion, like " the Jews of Asia " (cf . Sir W.M. Ramsay, The Letters to the Seven Churches, 155 f.), whose zeal for the Temple and the Mosaic ritual customs led to Paul's arrest in Jerusalem (Acts xix. 27 f., cf. 20 f.), in keeping both with his former experiences at their hands and with his forebodings re- sultingtherefrom(xx. 19, 22-24). Our"Hebrews" hadobviously high regard for the ordinances of Temple worship. But this was the case with the dispersed Jews generally, who kept in touch with the Temple, and its intercessory worship for all Israel, in every possible way; in token of this they sent with great care their annual contribution to its services, the Temple tribute. This bond was doubtless preserved by Christian Hellenists, and must have tended to continue their reliance on the Temple services for the forgiveness of their recurring " sins of ignorance " — subsequent to the great initial Messianic forgiveness coming with faith in Jesus. Accordingly many of them, while placing their hope for the future upon Messiah and His eagerly expected return in power, might seek assurance of present forgiveness of daily offences and cleansing of conscience in the old mediatorial system. In particular the annual Day of Atonement would be relied on, and that in proportion as the expected Parousia tarried, and the first enthusiasm of a faith that was largely eschatological died away, while ever-present temptation pressed the harder as disappointment and perplexity increased. Such was the general situation of the readers of this epistle, men who rested partly on the Gospel and partly on Judaism. For lack of a true theory as to the relation between the two, they were now drifting away (ii. i) from effective faith in the Gospel, as being mainly future in its application, while Judaism was a very present, concrete, and impressive system of religious aids— to which also their sacred scriptures gave constant witness. The points at which it chiefly touched them may be inferred from the author's counter-argument, with its emphasis in the spiritual ineffectiveness of the whole Temple-system, its high- priesthood and its supreme sacrifice on the Day of Atonement. With passionate earnestness he sets over against these his constructive theory as to the efficacy, the heavenly yet unseen reality, of the definitive " purification of sins " (i. 3) and per- fected access to God's inmost presence, secured for Christians as such by Jesus the Son of God (x. 9-22), and traces their moral feebleness and slackened zeal to want of progressive insight i go HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE into the essential nature of the Gospel as a " new covenant," moving on a totally different plane of religious reality from the now antiquated covenant given by Moses (viii. 13). The following plan of the epistle may help to make apparent the writer's theory of Christianity as distinct from Judaism, which is related to it as " shadow " to reality: Thesis: The finality of the form of religion mediated in God's Son, i. 1-4. i. The supreme excellence of the Son's Person (i. 5-iii. 6), as compared with (a) angels, (6) Moses. Practical exhortation, iii. 7-iv. 13, leading up to: ii. The corresponding efficacy of the Son's High-priesthood (iv. I4~ix.). (1) The Son has the qualifications of all priesthood, especially sympathy. Exhortation, raising the reader's thought to the height of the topic reached (v. ll-vi. 20). (2) The Son as absolute high priest, in an order transcending the Aaronic (vii.) and relative to a Tabernacle of ministry and a Covenant higher than the Mosaic in point of reality and finality (viii., ix.). (3) His Sacrifice, then, is definitive in its effects (T«-«Xeiu«), and supersedes all others (x. 1-18). iii. Appropriation of the benefits of the Son's high-priesthood, by steadfast faith, the paramount duty (x. icj-xii.). More personal epilogue (xiii.). As lack of insight lay at the root of their troubles, it was not enough simply to enjoin the moral fidelity to conviction which is three parts of faith to the writer, who has but little sense of the mystical side of faith, so marked in Paul. There was need of a positive theory based on real insight, in order to inspire faith for more strenuous conflict with the influences tending to produce the apostasy from Christ, and so from " the living God," which already threatened some of them (iii. 12). Such " apostasy " was not a formal abjuring of Jesus as Messiah, but the subtler lapse involved in ceasing to rely on relation to Him for daily moral and religious needs, summed up in purity of conscience and peace before God (x. 19-23, xiii. 20 f.). This " falling aside " (vi. 5, cf. xii. 12 f.), rather than conscious " turning back," is what is implied in the repeated exhortations which show the intensely practical spirit of the whole argument. These exhortations are directed chiefly against the dullness of spirit which hinders progressive moral insight into the genius of the New Covenant (v. n-vi. 8), and which, in its blindness to the full work of Jesus, amounts to counting His blood as devoid of divine efficacy to consecrate the life (x. 26, 29), and so to a personal " crucifying anew " of the Son of God (vi. 6). The antidote to such " profane " negligence (ii. i, 3, xii. 12 f., 15-17) is an earnestness animated by a fully-assured hope, and sustained by a " faith " marked by patient waiting (/taKpodvuia) for the inheritance guaranteed by divine promise (x. ii f.). The outward expression of such a spirit is " bold confession," a glorying in that Hope, and mutual encouragement therein (iii. 6,12 f .) ; while the sign of its decay is neglect to assemble together for mutual stimulus, as if it were not worth the odium and opposition from fellow Jews called forth by a marked Christian confession (x. 23-25, xii. 3) — a very different estimate of the new bond from that shown by readiness in days gone by to suffer for it (x. 32 ff.). Their special danger, then, the sin which deceived(iii. 13) the more easily that it represented the line of least resistance (perhaps the best paraphrase of eiwepioraTOS djuaprta in xii. i), was the exact opposite of " faith " as the author uses it, especially in the chapter devoted to its illustration by Old Testament examples. His readers needed most the moral heroism of fidelity to the Unseen, which made men "despise shame " due to aught that sinners in their unbelief might do to them (xii. 2-11, xiii. 5 f.) — and of which Jesus Himself was at once the example and the inspiration. To quicken this by awakening deeper insight into the real objects of " faith," as these bore on their actual life, he develops his high argument on the lines already indicated. Their situation was so dangerous just because it combined inward debility and outward pressure, both tending to the same result, viz. practical disuse of the distinctively Christian means of grace, as compared with those recognized by Judaism, and such conformity to the latter as would make the reproach oi the Cross to cease (xiii. 13, cf. xi. 26). This might, indeed, relieve the external strain of the contest (&yuiv xii. i), which had become well-nigh intolerable to them. But the practical surrender of what was distinctive in their new faith meant a theoretic surrender of the value once placed on that element, when it was matter of a living religious experience far in advance of what Judaism had given them (vi. 4 ff., x. 26-29). This twofold infidelity, in thought and deed, God, the " living " God of pro- gress from the " shadow " to the substance, would require at their hands (x. 30 f., xii. 22-29). For it meant turning away from an appeal that had been known as " heavenly," for some- thing inferior and earthly (xii. 25); from a call sanctioned by the incomparable authority of Him in whom it had reached men, a greater than Moses and all media of the Old Covenant, even the Son of God. Thus the key of the whole exhortation is struck in the opening words, which contrast the piecemeal revelation " to the fathers " in the past, with the complete and final revelation to themselves in the last stage of the existing order of the world's history, in a Son of transcendent dignity (i. i ff., cf. ii. i ff., x. 28 f., xii. 18 ff.). This goes to the root of their difficulty, ambiguity as to the relation of the old and the new elements in Judaeo-Christian piety, so that there was constant danger of the old overshadowing the new, since national Judaism remained hostile. At a stroke the author separates the new from the old, as belonging to a new " covenant " or order of God's revealed will. It is a confusion, resulting in loss, not in gain, as regards spiritual power, to try. to combine the two types of piety, as his readers were more and more apt to do. There is no use, religiously, in falling back upon the old forms, in order to avoid the social penalties of a sectarian position within Judaism, when the secret of religious " perfection " or maturity (vi. i, cf. the frequent use of the kindred verb) lies elsewhere. Hence the moral of his whole argument as to the two covenants, though it is formulated only incidentally amid final detailed counsels (xiii. 13 f.) is to leave Judaism, and adopt a frankly Christian standing, on the same footing with their non-Jewish brethren in the local church. For this the time was now ripe; and in it lay the true path of safety — eternal safety as before God, whatever man might say or do (xiii. 5 f.). The obscure section, xiii. 9 f.,is to be taken as "only a symptom of the general retrogression of religious energy " (Julicher), and not as bearing directly on the main danger of these " Hebrews." The " foods " in question probably refer neither to temple sacrifices nor to the Levitical laws of clean and unclean foods, nor yet to ascetic scruples (as in Rom. xiv., Col. ii. 20 ff.), but rather to some form of the idea, found also among the Essenes, that food might so be partaken of as to have the value of a sacrifice (see verse 15 foil.) and thus ensure divine favour. Over against this view, which might well grow up among the Jews of the Dispersion as a sort of substitute for the possibility of offering sacrifices in the Temple — but which would be a lame addition to the Christianity of their own former leaders (xiii. 7 f.) — the author first points his readers to its refutation from experience, and then to the fact that the Christian's " altar " or sacrifice (i.e. the supreme sin-offering) is of the kind which the Law itself forbids to be associated with " eating." If Christians wish to offer any special sacrifice to God, let it be that of grateful praise or deeds of beneficence (15 f.). In trying further to define the readers addressed in the epistle, one must note the stress laid on suffering as part of the divinely appointed discipline of sonship (ii. 10, v. 8, xii. 7 f.), and the way in which the analogy in this respect between Jesus, as Messianic Son, and those united to Him by faith, is set in relief. He is not only the inspiring example for heroic faith in the face of opposition due to unbelievers (xii. 3 ff.), but also the mediator qualified by his very experience of suffering to sympathize with His tried followers, and so to afford them moral aid (ii. 17 f., v. 8 f., cf. iv. 15). This means that suffering for Christianity, at least in respect of possessions (xiii. 5 f., cf. x. 34) and social standing, was imminent for those addressed: and it seems as if they were mostly men of wealth and position (xiii. 1-6, HEBRIDES 191 vi. 10 f., x. 34), who would feel this sort of trial acutely (cf. Jas. i. 10). Such men would also possess a superior mental culture (cf. v. n f.), capable of appreciating the form of an epistle " far too learned for the average Christian " (Julicher), yet for which its author apologizes to them as inadequate (xiii. 22). It was now long since they themselves had suffered seriously for their faith (x. 32 f.); but others had recently been harassed even to the point of imprisonment (xiii. 3); and the writer's very impatience to hurry to their side implies that the crisis was both sudden and urgent. The finished form of the epistle's argument is sometimes urged to prove that it was not originally an epistle at all, written more or less on the spur of the moment, but a literary composition, half treatise and half homily, to which its author — as an afterthought — gave the suggestion of being a Pauline epistle by adding the personal matter in ch. xiii. (so W. Wrede, Das literarische Rdtsel des Hebriierbriefs, 1906, pp. 70-73). The latter part of this theory fails to explain why the Pauline origin was not made more obvious, e.g. in an opening address. But even the first part of it overlooks the probability that our author was here only fusing into a fresh form materials often used before in his oral ministry of Christian instruction. Many attempts have been made to identify the home of the Hellenistic Christians addressed in this epistle. For Alexandria little can be urged save a certain strain of " Alexandrine " idealism and allegorism, mingling with the more Palestinian realism which marks the references to Christ's sufferings, as well as the eschatology, and recalling many a passage in Philo. But Alexandrinism was a mode of thought diffused throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, and the divergences from Philo's spirit are as notable as the affinities (cf. Milligan, ut infra, 203 ff.). For Rome there is more to be said, in view of the references to Timothy and to " them of Italy " (xiii. 23 f.) ; and the theory has found many supporters. It usually contemplates a special Jewish-Christian house-church (so Zahn), like those which Paul salutes at the end of Romans, e.g. that meeting in the house of Prisca and Aquila (xvi. 5); and Harnack has gone so far as to suggest that they, and especially Prisca, actually wrote our epistle. There is, however, really little that points to Rome in particular, and a good deal that points away from it. The words in xii. 4, " Not yet unto blood have ye resisted," would ill suit Rome after the Neronian "bath of blood" in A.D. 64 (as is usually held), save at a date too late to suit the reference to Timothy. Nor does early currency in Rome prove that the epistle was written to Rome, any more than do the words " they of Italy salute you." This clause must in fact be read in the light of the reference to Timothy, which suggests that he had been in prison in Rome and was about to return, possibly in the writer's company, to the region which was apparently the headquarters of both. Now this in Timothy's case, as far as we can trace his steps, was Ephesus; and it is natural to ask whether it will not suit all the conditions of the problem. It suits those of the readers,1 as analysed above; and it has the merit of suggesting to us as author the very person of all those described in the New Testament who seems most capable of the task, Apollos, the learned Alexandrian (Acts xviii. 24 ff.), connected with Ephesus and with Paul and his circle (cf. i Cor. xvi. 12), yet having his own distinctive manner of presenting the Gospel (i Cor. iv. 6). That Apollos visited Italy at any rate once during Paul's imprisonment in Rome is a reasonable inference from Titus iii. 13 (see PAUL); and if so, it is quite natural that he should be there again about the time of Paul's martyrdom. With that event it is again natural to connect Timothy's imprisonment, his release from which our author records in closing; while the news of Jewish success in Paul's case would enhance any tendency among Asian Jewish Christians to shirk " boldness " of confession (x. 23, 35, 38 f.), in fear of 1 i.e. a house-church of upper-class Jewish Christians, not fully in touch with the attitude even of their own past and present " leaders " (xiii. 7, 17), as distinct from the local church generally (xiii. 24). The Gospel had reached them, as also the writer himself (cf. Acts xviii. 25), through certain hearers of the Lord (ii. 3), not necessarily apostles. further aggression from their compatriots. On the chronology adopted in the article PAUL, this would yield as probable date for the epistle A.D. 61-62. The place of writing would be some spot in Italy (" they of Italy salute you ") outside Rome, probably a port of embarkation for Asia, such as Brundisium. Be this as it may, the epistle is of great historical importance, as reflecting a crisis inevitable in the development of the Jewish- Christian consciousness,when a definite choice between the old and the new form of Israel's religion had to be made, both for internal and external reasons. It seems to follow directly on the situation implied by the appeal of James to Israel in dispersion, in view of Messiah's winnowing-fan in their midst (i. 1-4, ii. 1-7, v. 1-6, and especially v.7-n). It may well be the immediate antecedent of that revealed in i Peter, an epistle which perhaps shows traces of its influence (e.g. in i. 2, " sprinkling of the blood of Jesus Christ," cf. Heb. ix. 13 f., x. 22, xii. 24). It is also of high interest theologically, as exhibiting, along with affinities to several types of New Testament teaching (see STEPHEN), a type all its own, and one which has had much influence on later Christian thought (cf. Milligan, ut infra, ch. ix.). Indeed, it shares with Romans the right to be styled " the first treatise of Christian theology." Literature. — The older literature may be seen in the great work of F. Bleek, Der Brief an die Hebraer (1828-1840), still a valuable storehouse of material, while Bleek's later views are to be found in a posthumous work (Elberfeld, 1868); also in Franz Delitzsch's Commentary (Edinburgh, 1868). The more recent literature is given in G. Milligan, The Theology of the Epistle of the Hebrews (1899), a useful summary of all bearing on the epistle, and in the large New Testament Introductions and Biblical Theologies. See also Hast- ings's Diet, of the Bible, the Encycl. Biblica and T. Zahn's article in Hauck's Realencyklopadie. (J. V. B.) HEBRIDES, THE, or WESTERN ISLES, a group of islands off the west coast of Scotland. They are situated between 55° 3 5' and 58° 30' N. and 5° 26' and 8° 40' W. Formerly the term was held to embrace not only all the islands off the Scottish western coast, including the islands in the Firth of Clyde, but also the peninsula of Kintyre, the Isle of Man and the Isle of Rathlin, off the coast of Antrim. They have been broadly classified into the Outer Hebrides and the Inner Hebrides, the Minch and Little Minch dividing the one group from the other. Geologically, they have also been differentiated as the Gneiss Islands and the Trap Islands. The Outer Hebrides being almost entirely composed of gneiss the epithet suitably serves them, but, strictly speaking, only the more northerly of the Inner Hebrides may be distinguished as Trap Islands. The chief islands of the Outer Hebrides are Lewis-with-Harris (or Long Island), North Uist, Benbecula, South Uist, Barra, the Shiants, St Kilda and the Flannan Isles, or Seven Hunters, an unin- habited group, about 20 m. N.W. of Gallon Head in Lewis. Of these the Lewis portion of Long Island, the Shiants and the Flannan belong to the county of Ross and Cromarty, and the remainder to Inverness-shire. The total length of this group, from Barra Head to the Butt of Lewis, is 130 m., the breadth varying from less than i m. to 30 m. The Inner Hebrides are much more scattered and principally include Skye, Small Isles (Canna, Sanday, Rum, Eigg and Muck), Coll, Tyree, Lismore, Mull, Ulva, Staffa, lona, Kerrera, the Slate Islands (Seil, Easdale, Luing, Shuna, Torsay), Colonsay, Oronsay, Scarba, Jura, Islay and Gigha. Of these Skye and Small Isles belong to Inverness-shire, and the rest to Argyllshire. The Hebridean islands exceed 500 in number, of which one-fifth are inhabited. Of the inhabited islands n belong to Ross and Cromarty, 47 to Inverness-shire, and 44 to Argyllshire, but of this total of 102 islands, one-third have a population of only 10 souls, or fewer, each. The population of the Hebrides in 1901 numbered 78,947 (or 28 to the sq. m.), of whom 41,031 were females, who thus exceeded the males by 10%, and 22,733 spoke Gaelic only and 47,666 Gaelic and English. The most populous island is Lewis-with-Harris (32,160), and next to it are Skye (13,883), Islay (6857) and Mull (4334>- Of the total area of 1,800,000 acres, or 2812 sq. m., only one-ninth is cultivated, most of the surface being moorland and mountain. The annual rainfall, particularly in the Inner 192 HEBRON Hebrides, is heavy (42^6 in. at Stornoway) but the temperature is high, averaging for the year 47° F. Potatoes and turnips are the only 'oot crops that succeed, and barley and oats are grown in some of the islands. Sheep-farming and cattle-raising are carried on very generally, and, with the fisheries, provide the main occupation of the inhabitants, though they profit not a little from the tourists who flock to many of the islands through- out the summer. The principal industries include distilling, slate-quarrying and the manufacture of tweeds, tartans and other woollens. There are extensive deer forests in Lewis-with- Harris, Skye, Mull and Jura. On many of the islands there are prehistoric remains and' antiquities within the Christian period. The more populous islands are in regular communication with certain points of the mainland by means of steamers fromGlasgow, Oban and Mallaig. The United Free Church has a strong hold on the poeple, but in a few of the islands the Roman Catholics have a great following. In the larger inhabited islands board schools have been established. The islands unite with the counties to which they belong in returning members to parliament (one for each shire). History. — The Hebrides are mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of "E/3ou5ai and by Pliny under that of Hebudes, the modern spelling having, it is said, originated in a misprint. By the Norwegians they were called Sudreyjar or Southern Islands. The Latinized form was Sodorenses, preserved to modern times in the title of the bishop of Sodor and Man. The original inhabitants seem to have been of the same Celtic race as those settled on the mainland. In the 6th century Scandinavian hordes poured in with their northern idolatry and lust of plunder, but in time they adopted the language and faith of the islanders. Mention is made of incursions of the vikings as early as 793, but the principal immigration took place towards the end of the gth century in the early part of the reign of Harald Fairhair, king of Norway, and consisted of persons driven to the Hebrides, as well as to Orkney and Shetland, to escape from his tyrannous rule. Soon afterwards they began to make incursions against their mother-country, and on this account Harald fitted out an expedition against them, and placed Orkney, Shetland, the Hebrides and the Isle of Man under Norwegian government. The chief seat of the Norwegian sovereignty was Colonsay. About the year 1095 Godred Crovan, king of Dublin, Man and the Hebrides, died in Islay. His third son, Olaf, succeeded to the government about 1103, and the daughter of Olaf was married to Somerled, who became the founder of the dynasty known as Lords of the Isles. Many efforts were made by the Scottish monarchs to displace the Norwegians. Alexander II. led a fleet and army to the shores of Argyllshire in 1 249, but he died on the island of Kerrera. On the other hand, Haakon IV., king of Norway, at once to restrain the independence of his jarls and to keep in check the ambition of the Scottish kings, set sail in 1263 on a great expedition, which, however, ended disastrously at Largs. Magnus, son of Haakon, concluded in 1 266 a peace with the Scots, renouncing all claim to the Hebrides and other islands except Orkney and Shetland, and Alexander III. agreed to give him a sum of 4000 merks in four yearly payments. It was also stipulated that Margaret, daughter of Alexander, should be betrothed to Eric, the son of Magnus, whom she married in 1281. She died two years later, leaving an only daughter afterwards known as the Maid of Norway. The race of Somerled continued to rule the islands, and from a younger son of the same potentate sprang the lords of Lome, who took the patronymic of Macdougall. John Macdonaldof Islay, who died about 1386, was the first to adopt the title of Lord of the Isles. He was one of the most potent of the island princes, and was married to a daughter of the earl of Strathearn, afterwards Robert II. His son, Donald of the Isles, was memor- able for his rebellion in support of his claim to the earldom of Ross, in which, however, he was unsuccessful. Alexander, son of Donald, resumed the hereditary warfare against the Scottish crown; and in 1462 a treaty was concluded between Alexander's son and successor John and Edward IV. of England, by which John, his son John, and his cousin Donald Balloch, became bound to assist King Edward and James, earl of Douglas, in subduing the kingdom of Scotland. The alliance seems to have led to no active operations. In the reign of James V. another John of Islay resumed the title of Lord of the Isles, but was compelled to surrender the dignity. The glory of the lordship of the isles — the insular sovereignty — had departed. From the time of Bruce the Campbells had been gaining the ascendancy in Argyll. The Macleans, Macnaughtons, Maclachlans, Laments, and other ancient races had sunk before this favoured family. The lordship of Lome was wrested from the Macdougalls by Robert Bruce, and their extensive possessions, with Dunstaffnage Castle, bestowed on the king's relative, Stewart, and his de- scendants, afterwards lords of Lome. The Macdonalds of Sleat, the direct representatives of Somerled,' though driven from Islay and deprived of supreme power by James V., still kept a sort of insular state in Skye. There were also the Macdonalds of Clanranald and Glengarry (descendants of Somerled), with the powerful houses of Macleod of Dunvegan and Macleod of Harris, M'Neill of Barra and Maclean of Mull. Sanguinary feuds continued throughout the i6th and I7th centuries among these rival clans and their dependent tribes, and the turbulent spirit was not subdued till a comparatively recent period. James VI. made an abortive endeavour to colonize Lewis. William III. and Queen Anne attempted to subsidize the chiefs in order to preserve tranquillity, but the wars of Montrose and Dundee, and the Jacobite insurrections of 1715 and 1745, showed how futile were all such efforts. It was not till 1748, when a decisive blow was struck at the power of the chiefs by the abolition of heritable jurisdictions, and the appointment of sheriffs in the different districts, that the arts of peace and social improvement made way in these remote regions. The change was great, and at first not unmixed with evil. A new system of management and high rents were imposed, in consequence of which numbers of the tacksmen, or large tenants, emigrated to North America. The exodus continued for many years. Sheep-farming on a large scale was next introduced, and the crofters were thrust into villages or barren corners of the land. The result was that, despite the numbers who entered the army or emigrated to Canada, the standard of civilization sank lower, and the popula- tion multiplied in the islands. The people came to subsist almost entirely on potatoes and herrings; and in 1846, when the potato blight began its ravages, nearly universal destitution ensued — embracing, over the islands generally, 70% of the inhabitants. Temporary relief was administered in the shape of employment on roads and other works; and an emigration fund being raised, from 4000 to 5000 of the people in the most crowded districts were removed to Australia. Matters, however, were not really mended, and in 1884 a royal commission reported upon the condition of the crofters of the islands and mainland. As a result of their inquiry the Crofters' Holdings Act was passed in 1886, and in the course of a few years some improvement was evident and has since been sustained. AUTHORITIES. — Martin Martin's Description of the Western Islands of Scotland (1703) ; T. Pennant's Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the Hebrides (1774); James Boswell's Tour to the Hebrides with Samuel Johnson, LL.D. (1898); John Macculloch's Geological Account of the Hebrides (1819); Hugh Miller's Cruise of the " Betsy " (1858); W. A. Smith's Lewisiana, or Life in the Outer Hebrides (1874); Alexander Smith, A Summer in Skye (1865); Robert Buchanan, The Hebrid Isles (1883) ; C. F. Gordon-Gumming, In the Hebrides (1883) ; Report of the Crofters' Commission (1884); A. Goodrich-Freer, Outer Isles (1902); and W. C. Mackenzie, History of the Outer Hebrides (1903). Their history under Norwegian rule is given in the Chronica regum Manniae et insularum, edited, with learned notes, from the MS. in the British Museum by Professor P. A. Munch of Ghristiania (1860). HEBRON (mod. Khultl er-Rahman, i.e. " the friend of the Merciful One " — an allusion to Abraham), a city of Palestine some 20 m. S. by S.W. of Jerusalem. The city, which lies 3040 ft. above the sea, is of extreme antiquity (see Num. xiii. 22, and Josephus, War, iv. 9, 7) and until taken by the Calebites (Josh. xv. 13) bore the name Kirjath-Arba. Biblical traditions connect it closely with the patriarch Abraham and make it a " city of refuge." The town figures prominently under David as the headquarters of his early rule, the scene of Abner's murder HECATAEUS OF ABDERA— HECATE '93 and the centre of Absalom's rebellion. In later days the Edom ites held it for a time, but Judas Maccabaeus recovered it It was destroyed in the great war under Vespasian. In A.D. 1 16 Hebron became the see of a Latin bishop, and it was taken in 1187 by Saladin. In 1834 it joined the rebellion against Ibrahim Pasha, who took the town and pillaged it. Modern Hebron rise on the east slope of a shallow valley — a long narrow town o stone houses, the flat roofs having small stone domes. The main quarter is about 700 yds. long, and two smaller groups o houses exist north and south of this. The hill behind is terraced and luxuriant vineyards and fruit plantations surround the place which is well watered on the north by three principal springs including the Well Sirah, now 'Ain Sara (2 Sam. iii. 26). Thre< conspicuous minarets rise, two from the Haram, the other in the north quarter. The population (10,000 ) includes Moslems and about 500 Jews. The Bedouins bring wool and camel's hair to the market; and glass bracelets, lamps and leather water- skins are manufactured in the town. The most conspicuous building is the Haram built over the supposed site of the cave o: Machpelah. It is an enclosure measuring 112 ft. east and west by 198 north and south, surrounded with high rampart walls 01 masonry similiar in size and dressing to that of the Jerusalem Haram walls. These ramparts are ascribed by architectural authorities to the Herodian period. The interior area is partly occupied by a 12th-century Gothic church, and contains six modern cenotaphs of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Sarah, Rebecca and Leah. The cave beneath the platform has probably not been entered for at least 600 years. The numerous traditional sites now shown round Hebron are traceable generally to medieval legendary topography; they include the Oak of Mamre (Gen. xiii. 18 R.V.) which has at various times been shown in different positions from £ to 2 m. from the town. There are a British medical mission, a German Protestant mission with church and schools, and, near Abraham's Oak, a Russian mission. Since 1880 several notices of the Haram, within which are the tombs of the Patriarchs, have appeared. See C. R. Conder, Pal. Exp. Fund, Memoirs, iii. 333, &c.; Riant, Archives de I'orient latin, ii. 411, &c.; Dalton and Chaplin, P.E.F Quarterly Statement (1897); Goldziher, "Das Patriarchengrab in Hebron," in Zeitschrift d. Dn. Pal. Vereins, xvii. (R. A. S. M.) HECATAEUS OF ABDERA (or of Teos), Greek historian and Sceptic philosopher, flourished in the 4th century B.C. He accompanied Ptolemy I. Soter in an expedition to Syria, and sailed up the Nile with him as far as Thebes (Diogenes Laertius ix. 61). The result of his travels was set down by him in two works— AiyuTma/cd and Ilept "Tirep^opeoiv, which were used by Diodorus Siculus. According to Suidas, he also wrote a treatise on the poetry of Hesiod and Homer. Regarding his authorship of a work on the Jews (utilized by Josephus in Contra Apionem), it is conjectured that portions of the AiymnaKa were revised by a Hellenistic Jew from his point of view and published as a special work. Fragments in C. W. Miiller's Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum. HECATAEUS OF MILETUS (6th-Sth century B.C.), Greek historian, son of Hegesander, flourished during the time of the Persian invasion. After having travelled extensively, he settled in his native city, where he occupied a high position, and devoted his time to the composition of geographical and historical works. When Aristagoras held a council of the leading lonians at Miletus, to organize a revolt against the Persian rule, Hecataeus in vain tried to dissuade his countrymen from the undertaking (Herodotus v. 36, 125). In4Q4, when the defeated lonians were obliged to sue for terms, he was one of the ambassadors to the Persian satrap Artaphernes, whom he persuaded to restore the constitution of the Ionic cities (Diod. Sic. x. 25). He is by some credited with a work entitled TTJS irepioSos ("Travels round the Earth "), in two books, one on Europe, the other on Asia, in which were described the countries and inhabitants of the known world, the account of Egypt being especially com- prehensive; the descriptive matter was accompanied by a map, based upon Anaximander's map of the earth, which he corrected and enlarged. The authenticity of the work is, however, xm. 7 strongly attacked by J. Wells in the Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxix. pt. i. 1909. The only certainly genuine work of Hecataeus was the Ttv(ri\oyiai or 'laropiai, a systematic account of the traditions and mythology of the Greeks. He was probably the first to attempt a serious prose history and to employ critical method to distinguish myth from historical fact, though he accepts Homer and the other poets as trustworthy authority. Herodotus, though he once at least controverts his statements, is indebted to Hecataeus not only for facts, but also in regard of method and general scheme, but the extent of the debt depends on the genuineness of the Fjjs irtpiodos. See fragments in C. W. Miiller, Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum,\. ; H. Berger, Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen (1903); E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, i.; W. Mure, History of Greek Literature, iy. ; especially J. V. Prasek, Hekataios als Herodots Quelle zur Geschichte Vorderasiens. Beitrage zur alien Geschichte (Klio), iv. 193 seq. (1904), and J. Wells in Journ. Hell. Stud., as above. HECATE (Gr. "EKarf, " she who works from afar "'), a goddess in Greek mythology. According to the generally accepted view, she is of Hellenic origin, but Farnell regards her as a foreign importation from Thrace, the home of Bendis, with whom Hecate has many points in common. She is not mentioned in the Iliad or the Odyssey, but in Hesiod (Theogony, 409) she is the daughter of the Titan Perses and Asterie, in a passage which may be a later interpolation by the Orphists (for other genealogies see Steuding in Roscher's Lexikon). She is there represented as a mighty goddess, having power over heaven, earth and sea; hence she is the bestower of wealth and all the blessings of daily life. The range of her influence is most varied, extending to war, athletic games, the tending of cattle, hunting, the assembly of the people and the law-courts. Hecate is frequently identified with Artemis, an identification usually justified by the assump- tion that both were moon-goddesses. Farnell, who regards Artemis as originally an earth-goddess, while recognizing a " genuine lunar element " in Hecate from the sth century, considers her a chthonian rather than a lunar divinity (see also Warr in Classical Review, ix. 390). He is of opinion that neither borrowed much from, nor exercised much influence on, the cult and character of the other. Hecate is the chief goddess who presides over magic arts and spells, and in this connexion she is the mother of the sorceresses Circe and Medea. She is constantly invoked, in the well-known .dyll (ii.) of Theocritus, in the incantation to bring back a woman's Pithless lover. As a chthonian power, she is worshipped at the Samothracian mysteries, and is closely connected with Demeter. Alone of the gods besides Helios, she witnessed the abduction of Persephone, and, torch in hand (a natural symbol for the moon's light, but see Farnell), assisted Demeter in her search for her daughter. On moonlight nights she is seen at the cross-roads (hence her name rpioSIrw, Lat. Trivia) accompanied by the dogs of the Styx and crowds of the dead. Here, on the last day of the month, eggs and fish were offered to her. Black puppies and she-Iambs (black victims being offered to chthonian deities) were also sacrificed (Schol. on Theocritus ii. 12). Pillars ike the Hermae, called Hecataea, stood, especially in Athens, at cross-roads and doorways, perhaps to keep away the spirits of evil. Like Artemis, Hecate is also a goddess of fertility, presiding especially over the birth and the youth of wild animals, nd over human birth and marriage. She also attends when the oul leaves the body at death, and is found near graves, and on he hearth, where the master of the house was formerly buried. t is to be noted that Hecate plays little or no part in mythological egend. Her worship seems to have flourished especially in the wilder parts of Greece, such as Samothrace and Thessaly, in Caria and on the coasts of Asia Minor. In Greece proper it prevailed on the east coast and especially in Aegina, where icr aid was invoked against madness. In older times Hecate is represented as single-formed, clad in 1 J. B. Bury, in Classical Review, iii. p. 41 6, suggests that the name leans " dog," against which see J. H. Vince, t'6. iv. p. 47. G. C. Varr, ib. ix. 390, takes the Hesiodic Hecate to be a moon-goddess, aughter of the sun-god Perseus. HECATOMB— HECKER a long robe, holding burning torches; later she becomes triformis, " triple-formed," with three bodies standing back to back — corresponding, according to those who regard her as a moon- goddess, to the new, the full and the waning moon. In her six hands are torches, sometimes a snake, a key (as wardress of the lower world), a whip or a dagger; her favourite animal was the dog, which was sacrificed to her — an indication of her non- Hellenic origin, since this animal very rarely fills this part in genuine Greek ritual. See H. Steuding in Roscher's Lexikun, where the functions of Hecate are systematically derived from the conception of her as a moon-goddess; L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, ii., where this view is examined ; P. Paris in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites; O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, ii. (1906) p. 1288. HECATOMB (Gr. e/caro^Sr; from tKariv, a hundred, and /Sow, an ox), originally the sacrifice of a hundred oxen in the religious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans; later a large number of any kind of animals devoted for sacrifice. Figura- tively, "hecatomb" is used to describe the sacrifice or destruc- tion by fire, tempest, disease or the sword of any large number of persons or animals; and also of the wholesale destruction of inanimate objects, and even of mental and moral attributes. HECATO OF RHODES, Greek Stoic philosopher and disciple of Panaetius (Cicero, De officiis, iii. 15). Nothing else is known of his life, but it is clear that he was eminent amongst the Stoics of the period. He was a voluminous writer, but nothing remains. A list is preserved by Diogenes, who mentions works on Duty, Good, Virtues, Ends. The first, dedicated to Tubero, is eulogized by Cicero in the De officiis, and Seneca refers to him frequently in the De beneficiis. According to Diogenes Laertius, he divided the virtues into two kinds, those founded on scientific intellectual principles (i.e. wisdom and justice), and those which have no such basis (e.g. temperance and the resultant health and vigour). Cicero shows that he was much interested in casuistical questions, as, for example, whether a good man who had received a coin which he knew to be bad was justified in passing it on to another. On the whole, his moral attitude is cynical, and he is inclined to regard self-interest as the best criterion. This he modifies by explaining that self-interest is based on the relationships of life; a man needs money for the sake of his children, his friends and the state whose general prosperity depends on the wealth of its citizens. Like the earlier Stoics, Cleanthes and Chrysippus, he held that virtue may be taught. (See STOICS and PANAETIUS.) HECKER, FRIEDRICH FRANZ KARL (1811-1881), German revolutionist, was born at Eichtersheim in the Palatinate on the a8th of September 1811, his father being a revenue official. He studied law with the intention of becoming an advocate, but soon became absorbed in politics. On entering the Second Chamber of Baden in 1842, he at once began to take part in the opposition against the government, which assumed a more and more openly Radical character, and in the course of which his talents as an agitator and his personal charm won him wide popularity and influence. A speech, denouncing the projected incorporation of Schleswig and Holstein with Denmark, delivered in the Chamber of Baden on the 6th of February 1845, spread his fame beyond the limits of his own state, and his popularity was increased by his expulsion from Prussia on the occasion of a journey to Stettin. After the death of his more moderate- minded friend Adolf Sander (March gth, 1845), Hecker's tone towards the government became more and more bitter. In spite cf the shallowness and his culture and his extremely weak character, he enjoyed an ever-increasing popularity. Even before the outbreak of the revolution he included Socialistic claims in his programme. In 1847 he was temporarily occupied with ideas of emigration, and with this object made a journey to Algiers, but returned to Baden and resumed his former position as the Radical champion of popular rights, later becoming president of the Volksverein, where he was destined to fall still further under the influence of the agitator Gustav von Strove. In conjunction with Struve he drew up the Radical programme carried at the great Liberal meeting held at Offenburg on the 1 2th of September 1847 (entitled " Thirteen Claims put forward by the People of Baden"). In addition to the Offenburg pro- gramme, the Sturmpetition of the ist of March 1848 attempted to extort from the government the most far-reaching concessions. But it was in vain that on becoming a deputy Hecker en- deavoured to carry out its impracticable provisions. He had to yield to the more moderate majority, but on this account was driven still further towards the Left. The proof lies in the new Offenburg demands of the igth of March, and in the resolution moved by Hecker in the preliminary parliament of Frankfort that Germany should be declared a republic. But neither in Baden nor Frankfort did he at any time gain his point. This double failure, combined with various energetic measures of the government, which were indirectly aimed at him (e.g. the arrest of the editor of the Constanzer Seeblatt, a friend of Hecker's, in Karlsruhe station on the 8th of April), inspired Hecker with the idea of an armed rising under pretext of the foundation of the German republic. The pth tc the nth of April was secretly spent in preliminaries. On the i2th of April Hecker and Struve sent a proclamation to the inhabitants of the Seekreis and of the Black Forest " to summon the people who can bear arms to Donaueschingen at mid-day on the I4th, with arms, ammunition and provisions for six days." They expected 70,000 men, but only a few thousand appeared. The grand-ducal government of the Seekreis was dissolved, and Hecker gradually gained reinforcements. But friendly advisers also joined him, pointing out the risks of his undertaking. Hecker, however, was not at all ready to listen to them; on the contrary, he added to violence an absurd defiance, and offered an amnesty to the German princes on condition of their retiring within fourteen days into private life. The troops of Baden and Hesse marched against him, under the command of General Friedrich von Gagern, and on the 2oth of April they met near Kandern, where Gagern was killed, it is true, but Hecker was completely defeated. Like many of the revolutionaries of that period, Hecker retired to Switzerland. He was, it is true, again elected to the Chamber of Baden by the circle of Thiengen, but the government, no longer willing to respect his immunity as a deputy, refused its ratification. On this account Hecker resolved in September 1848 to emigrate to North America, and obtained possession of a farm near Belleville in the state of Illinois. During the second rising in Baden in the spring of 1849 he again made efforts to obtain a footing in his own state, but with- out success. He only came as far as Strassburg, but had to retreat before the victories of the Prussian troops over the Baden insurgents. On his return to America he won some distinction during the Civil War as colonel of a regiment which he had himself got together on the Federal side in 1861 and 1864. It was with great joy that he heard of the union of Germany brought about by the victory over France in 1870-71. It was then that he made his famous festival speech at St Louis, in which he gave an animated expression to the enthusiasm of the German Americans for their newly-united fatherland. He received a less favourable impression during a journey he made in Germany in 1873. He died at St Louis on the 24th of March 1881. Hecker was always very much beloved of all the German democrats. The song and the hat named after him (the latter a broad slouch hat with a feather) became famous as the symbols of the middle-classes in revolt. In America, too, he had won great esteem, not only on political grounds but also for his personal qualities. See F. Hecker, Die Erhebung des Volkes in Baden fur die deutsche RepuUik (Baden, 1848); F. Hecker, Reden und Vorlesungen (Neer- stadt a. d. H., 1872) ; F. v. Weech, Badische Biographien, iv. (1891) ; L. Mathy, Aus dern NacUasse von K. Matty, Brief e aus den Jahren 1846-1848 (Leipzig, 1898). (J. HN.) HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS (1810-1888), American Roman Catholic priest, the founder of the "Paulist Fathers," was born in New York City, of German immigrant parents, on the 1 8th of December 1819. When barely twelve years of age, he had to go to work, and pushed a baker's cart for his elder brothers, who had a bakery in Rutgers Street. But he studied HECKMONDWIKE— HECTOR at every possible opportunity, becoming immersed in Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, and while still a lad took part in certain politico-social movements which aimed at the elevation of the working man. It was at this juncture that he met Orestes Brownson, who exercised a marked influence over him. Isaac was deeply religious, a characteristic for which he gave much credit to his prayerful mother, and remained so amid all the reading and agitating in which he engaged. Having grown into young manhood, he joined the Brook Farm movement, and in that colony he tarried some six months. _ Shortly after leaving it (in 1844) he was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church by Bishop McCloskey of New York. One year later he was entered in the novitiate of the Redemptorists in Belgium, and there he cultivated to a high degree the spirit of lofty mystical piety which marked him through life. Ordained a priest in London by Wiseman in 1849, he returned to America, and worked until 1857 as a Redemptorist missionary. With all his mysticism, Isaac Hecker had the wide-awake mind of the typical American, and he perceived that the missionary activity of the Catholic Church in the United States must remain to a large extent ineffective unless it adopted methods suited to the country and the age. In this he had the sympathy of four fellow Redemptorists, who like himself were of American birth and converts from Protestantism. Acting as their agent, and with the consent of his local superiors, Hecker went to Rome to beg of the Rector Major of his Order that a Redemptorist novitiate might be opened in the United States, in order thus to attract American youths to the missionary life. In furtherance of this request, he took with him the strong approval of some members of the American hierarchy. The Rector Major, instead of listening to Father Hecker, expelled him from the Order for having made the journey to Rome without sufficient authoriza- tion. The outcome of the trouble was that Hecker and the other four American Redemptorists were permitted by Pius IX. in 1858 to form the separate religious community of the Paulists. Hecker trained and governed this community in spiritual exercises and mission-preaching until his death in New York City, after seventeen years of suffering, on the 22nd of December 1888. He founded and was the director of the Catholic Publication Society, was the founder, and from 1865 until his death the editor, of the Catholic World, and wrote Questions of the Soul (1855), Aspirations of Nature (1857), Catholicity in the United Stales (1879) and The Church and the Age (i The name of Hecker is closely associated with that of " American- ism." To understand this movement it is necessary to comprehend the tendency of events in Catholic Europe rather than in America itself. The steady decline in the power and influence of French Catholicism since shortly after 1870 is the most remarkable feature of the history of the Third Republic. Not only did the French State pass laws bearing more and more stringently on the Church, under each succeeding ministry, but the bulk of the people acquiesced in the policy of its legislators. The clergy, if not Catholicism, was rapidly losing its hold over the once Catholic nation. Observing this fact, and encouraged by the action of Leo XIII., who, in 1892 called on French Catholics loyally to accept the Republic, a body of vigorous young French priests set themselves to check the disaster. They studied the causes which produced it. These causes, they considered to be, first, the clergy's predominant sympathy with the monarchists, and in its undisguised hostility to the Republic; secondly, the Church's aloofness from modern men, methods and thought. The progressive party believed that there was too little cultivation of individual, independent character, while too much stress was laid upon what might be called the mechanical or routine side of religion. The party perceived, too, that Catholicism was making scarcely any use of modern aggressive modes of propaganda; that, for example, the Church took but an insignificant part in social move- ments, in the organization of clubs for social study, in the establishing of settlements and similar philanthropic endeavour. Lack of adaptability to modern needs expresses in short the deficiencies in Catholicism which these men endeavoured to correct. They began a domestic apostolate which had for one of its rallying cries, "Allans au peuple,''—" Let us go to the people." They agitated for the inauguration of social works, for a more intimate mingling of priests with the people, and for general cultivation of personal initiative, both in clergy and in laity. Not unnaturally, they looked for inspiration to America. There they saw a vigorous Church among a free people, with priests publicly respected, and with a note of aggressive zeal in every project of Catholic enterprise. From the American priesthood, Father Hecker stood out conspicuous for sturdy courage, deep interior piety, an assertive self-initiative and immense love of modern times and modern liberty. So they took Father Hecker for a kind of patron saint. His biography (New York, 1891), written in English by the Paulist Father Elliott, was translated into French (1897), and speedily became the book of the hour. Under the inspiration of Father Hecker's life and character, the more spirited section of the French clergy undertook the task of persuading their fellow- Criests loyally to accept the actual political establishment, and then, reaking out of their isolation, to put themselves in touch with the intellectual life of the country, and take an active part in the work of social amelioration. In 1897 the movement received an impetus — and a warning — when Mgr O'Connell, former Rector of the American College in Rome, spoke on behalf of Father Hecker's ideas at the Catholic Congress in Friburg. The conservatives took alarm at what they considered to be symptoms of pernicious modernism or " Liberalism." Did not the watchword " Allans au peuple " savour of heresy ? Did it not tend toward breaking down the divinely established distinction between the priest and the layman, and conceding something to the laity in the management of the Church ? The insistence upon individual initiative was judged to be incompatible with the fundamental principle of Catholicism, obedience to authority. Moreover, the conservatives were, almost to a man, anti-republicans who distrusted and disliked the democratic abb6s. Complaints were sent to Rome. A violent polemic against the new movement was launched in Abb6 Maignan s Le pere Hecker, est-il un saint ? (1898). Repugnance to American tendencies and influences had a strong representation in the Curia and in powerful circles in Rome. Leo XIII. was extremely reluctant to pronounce any strictures upon American Catholics, of whose loyalty to the Roman See, and to their faith, he had often spoken in terms of high approbation. But he yielded, in a measure, to the pressure brought to bear upon him, and, early in February 1899, addressed to Cardinal Gibbons the Brief Testem Benevolentiae. This document contained a condem- nation of the following doctrines or tendencies: (a) undue insistence on interior initiative in the spiritual life, as leading to disobedience; (6) attacks on religious vows, and disparagement of the value in the present age, of religious orders; (c) minimizing Catholic doctrine; (d) minimizing the importance of spiritual direction. The brief did not assert that any unsound doctrine on the above points had been held by Hecker or existed among Americans. Its tenour was, that if such opinions did exist, the Pope called upon the hierarchy to eradicate the evil. Cardinal Gibbons and many other prelates replied to Rome. With all but unanimity, they declared that the incriminated opinions had no existence among American Catholics. It was well known that Hecker never had countenanced the slightest departure from Catholic principles in their fullest and most strict application. The disturbance caused by the condemnation was slight; almost the entire laity, and a considerable part of the clergy, never understood what the noise was about. The affair was soon forgotten, but the result was to strengthen the hands of the con- servatives in France. (J. J. F.) HECKMONDWIKE, an urban district in the Spen Valley parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. S.S.E. of Bradford, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great Northern, and London & North-Western railways. Pop. (1901), 9459. Like the town of Dewsbury, on the south-east, it is an important centre of the blanket and carpet manufactures, and there are also machine works, dye works and iron foundries. Coal is extensively wrought in the vicinity. HECTOR, in Greek mythology, son of Priam and Hecuba, the husband of Andromache. Like Paris and other Trojans, he had an Oriental name, Darius. In Homer he is represented as an ideal warrior, the champion of the Trojans and the mainstay of the city. His character is drawn in most favourable colours as a good son, a loving husband and father, and a trusty friend. His leave-taking of Andromache in the sixth book of the Iliad, and his departure to meet Achilles for the last time, are most touchingly described. He is an especial favourite of Apollo; and later poets even describe him as son of that god. His chief exploits during the war were his defence of the wounded Sarpedon, his fight with Ajax, son of Telamon (his particular enemy), and the storming of the Greek ramparts. When Achilles, enraged with Agamemnon, deserted the Greeks, Hector drove them back to their ships, which he almost succeeded in burning. Patroclus, the friend of Achilles, who came to the help of the Greeks, was slain by Hector with the help of Apollo. Then Achilles, to revenge his friend's death, returned to the war, slew Hector, dragged his body behind his chariot to the camp, and afterwards round the tomb of Patroclus. Aphrodite and Apollo preserved 196 HECUBA— HEDGES AND FENCES it from corruption and mutilation. Priam, guarded by Hermes, went to Achilles and prevailed on him to give back the body, which was buried with great honour. Hector was afterwards worshipped in the Troad by the Boeotian tribe Gephyraei, who offered sacrifices at his grave. HECUBA (Gr. 'E/cd/3?7), wife of Priam, daughter of the Phrygian king Dymas (or of Cisseus, or of the river-god Sangarius). According to Homer she was the mother of nineteen of Priam's fifty sons. When Troy was captured and Priam slain, she was made prisoner by the Greeks. Her fate is told in various ways, most of which connect her with the promontory Cynossema, on the Thracian shore of the Hellespont. According to Euripides (in the Hecuba), her youngest son Polydorus had been placed during the siege of Troy under the care of Polymestor, king of Thrace. When the Greeks reached the Thracian Chersonese on their way home Hecuba discovered that her son had been murdered, and in revenge put out the eyes of Polymestor and murdered his two sons. She was acquitted by Agamemnon; but, as Polymestor foretold, she was turned into a dog, and her grave became a mark for ships (Ovid, Metam. xiii. 399-575; Juvenal x. 271 and Mayor's note). According to another story, she fell to the lot of Odysseus, as a slave, and in despair threw herself into the Hellespont ; or, she used such insulting language towards her captors that they put her to death (Dictys Cretensis v. 13. 16). It is obvious from the tales of Hecuba's trans- formation and death that she is a form of some goddess to whom dogs were sacred; and the analogy with Scylla is striking. HEDA, WILLEM CLAASZ (c. i594~c. 1670), Dutch painter, born at Haarlem, was one of the earliest Dutchmen who devoted himself exclusively to the painting of still life. He was the contemporary and comrade of Dirk Hals, with whom he had in common pictorial touch and technical execution. But Heda was more careful and finished than Hals, and showed consider- able skill and not a little taste in arranging and colouring chased cups and beakers and tankards of precious and inferior metals. Nothing is so appetizing as his " luncheon," with rare comestibles set out upon rich plate, oysters — seldom without the cut lemon — bread, champagne, olives and pastry. Even the commoner " refection " is also not without charm, as it comprises a cut ham, bread, walnuts and beer. One of Heda's early masterpieces, dated 1623, in the Munich Pinakothek is as homely as a later one of 1651 in the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna. A more luxurious repast is a " Luncheon in the Augsburg Gallery," dated 1644. Most of Heda's pictures are on the European continent, notably in the galleries of Paris, Parma, Ghent, Darmstadt, Gotha, Munich and Vienna. He was a man of repute in his native city, and filled all the offices of dignity and trust in the gild of Haarlem. He seems to have had con- siderable influence in forming the younger Franz Hals. HEDDLE, MATTHEW FORSTER (1828-1897), Scottish mineralogist, was born at Hoy in Orkney on the 28th of April 1828. After receiving his early education at the Edinburgh academy, he entered as a medical student at the university in that city, and subsequently studied chemistry and mineralogy at Klausthal and Freiburg. In 1851 he took his degree of M.D. at Edinburgh, and for about five years practised there. Medical work, however, possessed for him little attraction; he became assistant to Prof. Connell, who held the chair of chemistry at St Andrews, and in 1862 succeeded him as professor. This post he held until in 1880 he was invited to report on some gold mines in South Africa. On his return he devoted himself with great assiduity to mineralogy, and formed one of the finest collections by means of personal exploration in almost every part of Scotland. His specimens are now in the Royal Scottish Museum at Edinburgh. It had been his intention to publish a comprehensive work on the mineralogy of Scotland. This he did not live to complete, but the MSS. fell into able hands, and The Mineralogy of Scotland, in 2 vols., edited by J. G. Goodchild. was issued in 1901. Heddle was one of the founders of the Mineralogical Society, and he contributed many articles on Scottish minerals, and on the geology of the northern parts of Scotland, to the Mineralogical Magazine, as well as to the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He died on the igth of November 1897. See Dr Heddle and his Geological Work (with portrait), by J. G. Goodchild, Trans, Edin. Geol. Soc. (1898) vii. 317. HEDGEHOG, or URCHIN, a member of the mammalian order Insectivora, remarkable for its dentition, its armature of spines and its short tail. The upper jaw is longer than the lower, the snout is long and flexible, with the nostrils narrow, and the claws are long but weak. The animal is about 10 in. long, its eyes are small, and the lower surface covered with hairs of the ordinary character. The brain is remarkable for its low development, the cerebral hemispheres being small, and marked with but one groove, and that a shallow one, on each side. The hedgehog has the power of rolling itself up into a ball, from which the spines stand out in every direction. The spines are sharp, hard and elastic, and form so efficient a defence that there are few animals able to effect a successful attack on this creature. The moment it is touched, or even hears the report of a gun, it rolls itself up by the action of the muscles beneath the skin, while this contraction effects the erection of the spines. The most important muscle is the orbicularis panniculi, which extends over the anterior region of the skull, as far down the body -_,-.,. , .... The Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). as the ventral hairy region, and on to the tail, but three other muscles aid in the contraction. Though insectivorous, the hedgehog is reported to have a liking for mice, while frogs and toads, as well as plants and fruits, all seem to be acceptable. It will also eat snakes, and its fond- ness for eggs has caused it to meet with the enmity of game- preservers; and there is no doubt it occasionally attacks leverets and game-chicks. In a state of nature it does not emerge from its retreat during daylight, unless urged by hunger or by the necessities of its young. During winter it passes into a state of hibernation, when its temperature falls considerably; having provided itself with a nest of dry leaves, it is well protected from the influences of the rain, and rolling itself up, remains undisturbed till warmer weather returns. In July or August the female brings forth four to eight young, or, according to others, two to four at a somewhat earlier period; at birth the spines, which in the adult are black in the middle, are white and soft, but soon harden, though they do not attain their full size until the succeeding spring. The hedgehog, which is known scientifically as Erinaceus europaeus, and is the type of the family Erinaceidae, is found in woods and gardens, and extends over nearly the whole of Europe; and has been found at 6000 to 8000 ft. above the level of the sea. The adult is provided with thirty-six teeth; in the upper jaw are 6 incisors, 2 canines and 12 cheek-teeth, and in the lower jaw 4 incisors, 2 canines and 10 cheek-teeth. The genus is represented by about a score of species, ranging over Europe, Asia, except the Malay countries, and Africa. (R. L.*) HEDGES AND FENCES. The object of the hedge » or fence (abbreviation of " defence ") is to mark a boundary or to enclose 1 Hedge is a Teutonic word, cf. Dutch heg, Ger. Heche; the ^ root appears in other English words, e.g. " haw," as in " hawthorn." HEDON— HEDONISM 197 an area of land on which stock is kept. The hedge, i.e. a. row of bushes or small trees, forms a characteristic feature of the scenery of England, especially in the midlands and south; it is more rarely found in other countries. Its disadvantages as a fence are that it is not portable, that it requires cutting and training while young, that it harbours weeds and vermin and that it occupies together with the ditch which usually borders it a considerable space of ground, the margins of which cannot be cultivated. For these reasons it is to some extent superseded by the fence proper, especially where shelter for cattle is not required. In Great Britain the hawthorn (q.v.) is by far the most important of hedge plants. Holly resembles the hawthorn in its amenability to pruning and in its prickly nature and closeness of growth , which make it an effective barrier to, and shelter for, stock, but it is less hardy and more slow-growing than the hawthorn. Hornbeam, beech, myrobalan or cherry plum and blackthorn also have their advantages, hornbeam being proof against great exposure, blackthorn thriving on poor land and possessing great impenetrability and so on. Box, yew, privet and many other plants are used for ornamental hedging; in the United States the osage orange and honey locust are favourite hedge plants. As fences, wooden posts and rails and stone walls may be conveniently used in districts where the requisite materials are plentiful. But the most modern form of fence is formed of wire strands either smooth or barbed (see BARBED WIRE), strained between iron standards or wooden or concrete posts. The wire may be interwoven with vertical strands or, if necessary, may be kept apart by iron droppers between the standards. Fences of a lighter description are machine-made with pickets of split chestnut or other wood closely set, woven with a few strands of wire; they are braced by posts at intervals. From the fact that tramps and vagabonds frequently sleep under hedges the word has come to be used as a term of contempt, as in " hedge-priest," an inferior and -illiterate kind of parson at one time existing in England and Ireland, and in " hedge- school," a low class school held in the open air, formerly very common in Ireland. From the sense of " hedge " as an enclosure or barrier the verb "to hedge" means to enclose, to form a barrier or defence, to bound or limit. As a sporting term the word is used in betting to mean protection from loss, by betting on both sides, by "laying off " on one side, after laying odds on another or vice versa. The word was early used figuratively in the sense of to avoid committing oneself. See articles in the Cyclopaedia of American Agriculture, vol. i., ed. by L. H. Bailey (New York, 1907); in the Standard Cyclopaedia of Modern Agriculture, ed. by R. P. Wright (London, 1908-1909); and in the Encyclopaedia of Agriculture, vol. ii., ed. by C. E. Green and D. Young (Edinburgh, 1908). HEDON, a municipal borough in the Holderness parliamentary division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. E. of Hull by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 1010. It stands in a low-lying, flat district bordering the Humber. It is 2 m. from the river, but was formerly reached by a navigable inlet, now dry, and was a considerable port. There is a small harbour, but the prosperity of the port has passed to Hull. The church of St Augustine is a splendid cruciform building with central tower. It is Early English, Decorated and Perpendicular, the tower being of the last period. The west front is particularly fine, and the church, with its noble pro- portions and lofty clerestories, resembles a cathedral in miniature. There are a manufacture of bricks and an agricultural trade. The corporation consists of a mayor, 3 aldermen and 9 councillors; and possesses a remarkable ancient mace, of isth- century workmanship. Area, 321 acres. According to tradition the men of Hedon received a charter of liberties from King jEthelstan, but there is no evidence to prove this or indeed to prove any settlement in the town until after the Conquest. The manor is not mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but formed part of the lordship of Holderness which William the Conqueror granted to Odo, count of Albemarle. A charter of Henry II., which is undated, contains the first certain evidence of settlement. By it the king granted to William, count of Albemarle, free borough rights in Hedon so that his burgesses there might hold of him as freely and quietly as the burgesses of York or Lincoln held of the king. An earlier charter granted to the inhabitants of • York shows that these rights included a trade gild and freedom from many dues not only in England but also in France. King John in 1200 granted a confirmation of these liberties to Baldwin, count of Albemarle, and Hawisia his wife and for this second charter the burgesses themselves paid 70 marks. In 1272 Henry III. granted to Edmund, earl of Lancaster, and Avelina his wife, then lord and lady of the manor, the right of holding a fair at Hedon on the eve, day, and morrow of the feast of St Augustine and for five following days. After the countess's death the manor came to the hands of Edward I. In 1 280 it was found by an inquisition that the men of Hedon " were few and poor " and that if the town were demised at a fee-farm rent the town might improve. The grant, however, does not appear to have been made until 1346. Besides this charter Edward III. also granted the burgesses the privilege of electing a mayor and bailiffs every year. At that time Hedon was one of the chief ports in the Humber, but its place was gradually taken by Hull after that town came into the hands of the king. Hedon was incorporated by Charles II. in 1661, and James II. in 1680 gave the burgesses another charter granting among other privileges that of holding two extra fairs, but of this they never appear to have taken advantage. The burgesses returned two members to parliament in 1295, and from 1547 to 1832 when the borough was disfranchised. See Victoria County History, Yorkshire; J. R. Boyle, The Early History of the Town and Port of Hedon (Hull and York, 1895) ; G. H. Park, History of the Ancient Borough of Hedon (Hull, 1895). HEDONISM (Gr. •fiSovri, pleasure, from iJ56s, sweet, pleasant), in ethics, a general term for all theories of conduct in which the criterion is pleasure of one kind or another. Hedonistic theories of conduct have been held from the earliest times, though they have been by no means of the same character. Moreover, hedonism has, especially by its critics, been very much mis- represented owing mainly to two simple misconceptions, In the first place hedonism may confine itself to the view that, as a matter of observed fact, all men do in practice make pleasure the criterion of action, or it may go further and assert that men ought to seek pleasure as the sole human good. The former statement takes no view as to whether or not there is any absolute good: it merely denies that men aim at anything more than pleasure. The latter statement admits an ideal, summum bonum — namely, pleasure. The second confusion is the tacit assumption that the pleasure of the hedonist is necessarily or characteristically of a purely physical kind; this assumption is in the case of some hedonistic theories a pure perversion of the facts. Practically all hedonists have argued that what are known as the " lower " pleasures are not only ephemeral in themselves but also pro- ductive of so great an amount of consequent pain that the wise man cannot regard them as truly pleasurable; the sane hedonist will, therefore, seek those so-called " higher " pleasures which are at once more lasting and less likely to be discounted by consequent pain. It should be observed, however, that this choice of pleasures by a hedonist is conditioned not by " moral " (absolute) but by prudential (relative) considerations. The earliest and the most extreme type of hedonism is that of the Cyrenaic School as stated by Aristippus, who argued that the only good for man is the sentient pleasure of the moment. Since (following Protagoras) knowledge is solely of momentary sensations, it is useless to try, as Socrates recommended, to make calculations as to future pleasures, and to balance present enjoy- ment with disagreeable consequences. The true art of life is to crowd as much enjoyment as possible into every moment. This extreme or " pure " hedonism regarded as a definite philosophic theory practically died with the Cyrenaics, though the same spirit has frequently found expression in ancient and modern, especially poetical, literature. The confusion already alluded to between " pure " and " rational " hedonism is nowhere more clearly exemplified than in the misconceptions which have arisen as to the doctrine oi i98 HEEL— HEEMSKERK, J. VAN the Epicureans. To identify Epicureanism with Cyrenaicism is a complete misunderstanding. It is true that pleasure is the summum bonum of Epicurus, but his conception of that pleasure is profoundly modified by the Socratic doctrine of prudence and the eudaemonism of Aristotle. The true hedonist will aim at a life of enduring rational happiness; pleasure is the end of life, but true pleasure can be obtained only under the guidance of reason. Self-control in the choice of pleasures with a view to reducing pain to a minimum is indispensable. " Of all this, the beginning, and the greatest good, is prudence." The negative side of Epicurean hedonism was developed to such an extent by some members of the school (see HEGESIAS) that the ideal life is held to be rather indifference to pain than positive enjoyment. This pessimistic attitude is far removed from the positive hedonism of Aristippus. Between the hedonism of the ancients and that of modern philosophers there lies a great gulf. Practically speaking ancient hedonism advocated the happiness of the individual: the modern hedonism of Hume, Bentham and Mill is based on a wider conception of life. The only real happiness is the happiness of the community, or at least of the majority: the criterion is society, not the individual. Thus we pass from Egoistic to Universalistic hedonism, Utilitarianism, Social Ethics, more especially in relation to the still broader theories of evolution. These theories are confronted by the problem of reconciling and adjusting the claims of the individual with those of society. One of the most important contributions to the discussion is that of Sir Leslie Stephen (Science of Ethics), who elaborated a theory of the " social organism " in relation to the individual. The end ot the evolution process is the production of a " social tissue " which will be " vitally efficient." Instead, therefore, of the criterion of " the greatest happiness of the greatest number," Stephen has that of the " health of the organism." Life is not " a series of detached acts, in each of which a man can calculate the sum of happiness or misery attainable by different courses." Each action must be regarded as directly bearing upon the structure of society. A criticism of the various hedonistic theories will be found in the article ETHICS (ad fin.). See also, beside works quoted under CYRENAICS, EPICURUS, &c., and the general histories of philosophy, J. S. Mackenzie, Manual of Ethics (3rd ed., 1897) ; J. H. Muirhead, Elements of Ethics (1892); J. Watson, Hedonistic Theories (1895), J. Martineau, Types of Ethical Theory (2nd ed., 1886) ; F. H. Bradley, Ethical Studies (1876); H. Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics |(6th ed., 1901); Jas. Seth, Ethical Principles (3rd ed., 1898); other works quoted under ETHICS. HEEL, (i) (O. Eng. hela, cf. Dutch hid; a derivative of O. Eng. hoh, hough, hock), that part of the foot in man which is situated below and behind the ankle; by analogy, the calcaneal part of the tarsus in other vertebrates. The heel proper in digitigrades and ungulates is raised off the ground and is commonly known as the "knee" or "hock," while the term "heel" is applied to the hind hoofs. (2) (A variant of the earlier hield; cf. Dutch hellen, for helderi), to turn over to one side, especially of a ship. It is this word probably, in the sense of " tip-up," used particularly of the tilting or tipping of a cask or barrel of liquor, that explains the origin of the expression " no heel-taps," a direction to the drinkers of a toast to drain their glasses and leave no dregs remaining. " Tap " is a common word for liquor, and a cask is said to be " heeled " when it is tipped and only dregs or muddy liquor are left. This suits the actual sense of the phrase better than the explanations which connect it with tapping the " heel " or bottom of the glass (see Notes and Queries, 4th series, vols. xi.-xii., and sth series, vol. i.). HEEM, JAN DAVIDSZ VAN (or JOHANNES DE),'(C. i6oo-c.i683), Dutch painter. He was, if not the first, certainly the greatest painter of still life in Holland; no artist of his class combined more successfully perfect reality of form and colour with brilliancy and harmony of tints. No object of stone or silver, no flower humble or gorgeous, no fruit of Europe or the tropics, no twig or leaf, with which he was not familiar. Sometimes he merely represented a festoon or a nosegay. More frequently he worked with a purpose to point a moral or illustrate a motto. Here the snake lies coiled under the grass, there a skull rests on blooming plants. Gold and silver tankards or cups suggest the vanity of earthly possessions; salvation is allegorized in a chalice amidst blossoms, death as a crucifix inside a wreath. Sometimes de Heem painted alone, sometimes in company with men of his school, Madonnas or portraits surrounded by festoons of fruit or flowers. At one time he signed with initials, at others with Johannes, at others again with the name of his father joined to his own. At rare intervals he condescended to a date, and when he did the work was certainly of the best. De Heem entered the gild of Antwerp in 1635-1636, and became a burgher of that city in 1637. He steadily maintained his residence till 1667, when he moved to Utrecht, where traces of his presence are preserved in records of 1668, 1669 and 1670. It is not known when he finally returned to Antwerp, but his death is recorded in the gild books of that place. A very early picture, dated 1628, in the gallery of Gotha, bearing the signature of Johannes in full, shows that de Heem at that time was familiar with the technical habits of execution peculiar to the youth of Albert Cuyp. In later years he completely shook off dependence, and appears in all the vigour of his own originality. Out of 100 pictures or more to be met with in European galleries scarcely eighteen are dated. The earliest after that of Gotha is a chased tankard, with a bottle, a silver cup, and a lemon on a marble table, dated 1640, in the museum of Amsterdam. A similar work of 1645, with the addition of fruit and flowers and a distant landscape, is in Lord Radnor's collection at Longford. A chalice in a wreath, with the radiant host amidst wheatsheaves; grapes and flowers, is a masterpiece of 1648 in the Belvedere of Vienna. A wreath round a Madonna of life size, dated 1650, in the museum of Berlin, shows that de Heem could paint brightly and harmoniously on a large scale. In the Pinakothek at Munich is the celebrated composition of 1653, in which creepers, beautifully commingled with gourds and blackberries, twigs of orange, myrtle and peach, are enlivened by butterflies, moths and beetles. A landscape with a blooming rose tree, a jug of strawberries, a selection of fruit, and a marble bust of Pan, dated 1655, is in the Hermitage at St Petersburg; an allegory of abundance in a medallion wreathed with fruit and flowers, in the gallery of Brussels, is inscribed with de Heem's monogram, the date of 1668, and the name of an obscure artist called Lambrechts. All these pieces exhibit the master in full possession of his artistic faculties. CORNEIIUS DE HEEM, the son of Johannes, was in practice as a flower painter at Utrecht in 1658, and was still active in his profession in 1671 at the Hague. His pictures are not equal to those of his father, but they are all well authenticated, and most of them in the galleries of the Hague, Dresden, Cassel, Vienna and Berlin. In the Staedel at Frankfort is a fruit piece, with pot-herbs and a porcelain jug, dated 1658; another, dated 1671, is in the museum of Brussels. DAVID DE HEEM, another member of the family, entered the gild of Utrecht in 1668 and that of Antwerp in 1693. The best piece assigned to him is a table with a lobster, fruit and glasses, in the gallery of Amsterdam; others bear his signature in the museums of Florence, St Petersburg and Brunswick. It is well to guard against the fallacy that David de Heem above mentioned is the father of Jan de Heem. We should also be careful not to make two persons of the first artist, who sometimes signs Johannes, sometimes Jan Davidsz or J. D. Heem. HEEMSKERK, JOHAN VAN (1597-1656), Dutch poet, was born at Amsterdam in 1597. He was educated as a child at Bayonne, and entered the university of Leiden in 1617. In 1621 he went abroad on the grand tour, leaving behind him his first volume of poems, Minnekunst (The Art of Love), which appeared in 1622. He was absent from Holland four years. He was made master of arts at Bourges in 1623, and in 1624 visited Hugo Grotius in Paris. On his return in 1625 he published Minnepligt (The Duty of Love), and began to practise as an advocate in the Hague. In 1628 he was sent to England in his legal capacity by the Dutch East India Company, to settle the dispute respecting Amboyna. In the same year he published HEEMSKERK, M. J.— HEEREN the poem entitled Minnekunde, or the Science of Love. He proceeded to Amsterdam in 1640, where he married Alida, sister of the statesman Van Beuningen. In 1641 he published a Dutch version of Corneille's The Cid, a tragi-comedy, and in 1647 his most famous work, the pastoral romance of Batavische Arcadia, which he had written ten years before. During the last twelve years of his life Heemskerk sat in the upper chamber of the states-general. He died at Amsterdam on the 27th of February 1656. The poetry of Heemskerk, which fell into oblivion during the i8th century, is once more read and valued. His famous pastoral, the Batavische Arcadia, which was founded on the Astree of Honor6 d'Urfd, enjoyed a great popularity for more than a century, and passed through twelve editions. It provoked a host of more or less able imitations, of which the most distinguished were the Dor- drechtsche Arcadia (1663) of Lambert van den Bos (1610-1698), the Saanlandsche Arcadia (1658) of Hendrik Sooteboom (1616-1678) and the Rotterdamsche Arcadia (1703) of Willem den Elger (d. 1703). But the original work of Heemskerk, in which a party of nymphs and shepherds go out from the Hague to Katwijk, and there indulge in polite and pastoral discourse, surpasses all these in brightness and versatility. HEEMSKERK, MARTIN JACOBSZ (1498-1574), Dutch painter, sometimes called Van Veen, was born at Heemskerk in Holland in 1498, and apprenticed by his father, a small farmer, to Cornelisz Willemsz, a painter at Haarlem. Recalled after a time to the paternal homestead and put to the plough or the milking of cows, young Heemskerk took the first opportunity that offered to run away, and demonstrated his wish to leave home for ever by walking in a single day the 50 miles which separate his native hamlet from the town of Delft. There he studied under a local master whom he soon deserted for John Schoreel of Haarlem. At Haarlem he formed what is known as his first manner, which is but a quaint and gauche imitation of the florid style brought from Italy by Mabuse and others. He then started on a wandering tour, during which he visited the whole of northern and central Italy, stopping at Rome, where he had letters for a cardinal. It is evidence of the facility with which he acquired the rapid execution of a scene-painter that he was selected to co-operate with Antonio da San Gallo, Battista Franco and Francesco Salviati to decorate the triumphal arches erected at Rome in April 1536 in honour of Charles V. Vasari, who saw the battle-pieces which Heemskerk then produced, says they were well composed and boldly executed. On his return to the Netherlands he settled at Haarlem, where he soon (1540) became president of his gild, married twice, and secured a large and lucrative practice. In 1572 he left Haarlem for Amsterdam, to avoid the siege which the Spaniards laid to the place, and there he made a will which has been preserved, and shows that he had lived long enough and prosperously enough to make a fortune. At his death, which took place on the ist of October 1574, he left money and land in trust to the orphanage of Haarlem, with interest to be paid yearly to any couple who should be willing to perform the marriage ceremony on the slab of his tomb in the cathedral of Haarlem. It was a superstition which still exists in Catholic Holland that a marriage so celebrated would secure the peace of the dead within the tomb. The works of Heemskerk are still very numerous. " Adam and Eve," and " St Luke painting the Likeness of the Virgin and Child " in presence of a poet crowned with ivy leaves, and a parrot in a cage — an altar-piece in the gallery of Haarlem, and the "Ecce Homo" in the museum of Ghent, are characteristic works of the period preceding Heemskerk's visit to Italy. An altar-piece executed for St Laurence of Alkmaar in 1538-1 541, and composed of at least a dozen large panels, would, if preserved, have given us a clue to his style after his return from the south. In its absence we have a " Crucifixion " executed for the Riches Claires at Ghent (now in the Ghent Museum) in 1543, and the altar-piece of the Drapers Company at Haarlem, now in the gallery of the Hague, and finished in 1 546. In these we observe that Heems- kerk studied and repeated the forms which he had seen at Rome in the works of Michelangelo and Raphael, and in Lombardy in the frescoes of Mantegna and Giulio Romano. But he never forgot the while his Dutch origin or the models first presented to him by 199 Schoreel and Mabuse. As late as 1551 his memory still served him to produce a copy from Raphael's " Madonna di Loretto " (gallery of Haarlem). A " Judgment of Momus," dated 1561, in the Berlin Museum, proves him to have been well acquainted with anatomy, but incapable of selection and insensible of grace, bold of hand and prone to daring though tawdry contrasts of colour, and fond of florid architecture. Two altar-pieces which he finished for churches at Delft in 1551 and 1559, one complete, the other a fragment, in the museum of Haarlem, a third of 1551 in the Brussels Museum, representing "Golgotha," the "Crucifixion," the " Flight into Egypt," " Christen the Mount," and scenes from the lives of St Bernard and St Benedict, are all fairly representa- tive of his style. Besides these we have the " Crucifixion " in the Hermitage of St Petersburg, and two " Triumphsof Silenus " in the gallery of Vienna, in which the same relation to Giulio Romano may be noted as we mark in the canvases of Rinaldo of Mantua. Other pieces of varying importance are in the galleries of Rotterdam, Munich, Cassel, Brunswick, Karlsruhe, Mainz and Copenhagen. In England the master is best known by his drawings. A comparatively feeble picture by him is the " Last Judgment " in the palace of Hampton Court. HEER, OSWALD (1809-1883), Swiss geologist and naturalist, was born at Nieder-Utzwyl in Canton St Gallen on the sist of August 1809. He was educated as a clergyman and took holy orders, and he also graduated as doctor of philosophy and medicine. ' Early in life his interest was aroused in entomology, on which subject he acquired special knowledge, and later he took up the study of plants and became one of the pioneers in palaeo- botany, distinguished for his researches on the Miocene flora. In 1851 he became professor of botany in the university of Zurich, and he directed his attention to the Tertiary plants and insects of Switzerland. For some time he was director of the botanic garden at Zurich. In 1863 (with W. Pengelly, Phil. Trans., 1862) he investigated the plant-remains from the lignite-deposits of Bovey Tracey in Devonshire, regarding them as of Miocene age; but they are now classed as Eocene. Heer also reported on the Miocene flora of Arctic regions, on the plants of the Pleistocene lignites of Durnten on lake Zurich, and on the cereals of some of the lake-dwellings (Die Pflanzen der Pfahlbauten, 1866). During a great part of his career he was hampered by slender means and ill-health, but his services to science were acknowledged in 1873 when the Geological Society of London awarded to him the Wollaston medal. Dr Heer died at Lausanne on the 27th of September 1883. He published Flora Tertiaria Hehetiae (3 vols., 1855-1859) ; Die Urwelt der Schweiz (1865), and Flora fossttis Arctica (1868-1883). HEEREN, ARNOLD HERMANN LUDWIG (1760-1842), German historian, was born on the 25th of October 1760 at Arbergen, near Bremen. He studied philosophy, theology and history at Gottingen, and thereafter travelled in France, Italy and the Netherlands. In 1787 he was appointed one of the professors of philosophy, and then of history at Gottingen, and he afterwards was chosen aulic councillor, privy councillor, &c., the usual rewards of successful German scholars. He died at Gottingen on the 6th of March 1842. Heeren's great merit as an historian was that he regarded the states of antiquity from an altogether fresh point of view. Instead of limiting himself to a narration of their political events, he examined their economic relations, their constitutions, their financial systems, and thus was enabled to throw a new light on the development of the old world. He possessed vast and varied learning, perfect calmness and impartiality, and great power of historical insight, and is now looked back to as the pioneer in the movement for the economic interpretation of history. Heeren's chief works are : Ideen iiber Politik, den Verkehr, und den Handel der vornehmsten Volker der alien Welt (2 vols., Gottingen, 1793-1796; 4th ed., 6 vols., 1824-1826; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1833); Geschichte des Studiums der klassischen Litteratur seit dem Wiederaufleben der Wissenschaften (2 vols., Gottingen, 1797-1802; new ed., 1822); Geschichte der Staaten des Altertums (Gottingen, 1799; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1840); Geschichte des europdischen Staalensyslems (Gottingen, 1800; 5th ed., 1830; Eng. trans., 1834); Versuch einer Entwickelung der Foleen der Kreuzzuge (G6t- tingen, 1808; French trans., Paris, 1808), a prize essay of the 200 HEFELE— HEGEL Institute of France. Besides these, Heeren wrote brief biographical sketches of Johann von M tiller (Leipzig, 1809); Ludwig Spittler (Berlin, 1812); and Christian Heyne (Gottingen, 1813). With Friedrich August Ukert (1780-1851) he founded the famous historical collection, Geschichte der europdischen Staaten (Gotha, 1819 seq.), and contributed many papers to learned periodicals. A collection of his historical works, with autobiographical notice, was published in 15 volumes (Gottingen, 1821-1830). HEFELE, KARL JOSEF VON (1809-1893), German theologian, was born at Unterkochen in Wurttemberg on the i sth of March 1809, and was educated at Tubingen, where in 1839 he became professor-ordinary of Church history and patristics in the Roman Catholic faculty of theology. From 1842 to 1845 ne sat in the National Assembly of Wurttemberg. In December 1869 he was enthroned bishop of Rottenburg. His literary activity, which had been considerable, was in no way diminished by his elevation to the episcopate. Among his numerous theological works may be mentioned his well-known edition of the Apostolic Fathers, issued in 1839; his Life of Cardinal Ximenes, published in 1844 (Eng. trans., 1860); and his still more celebrated History of the Councils of the Church, in seven volumes, which appeared between 1855 and 1874 (Eng. trans., 1871, 1882). Hefele's theological opinions inclined towards the more liberal school in the Roman Catholic Church, but he nevertheless received considerable signs of favour from its authorities, and was a member of the com- mission that made preparations for the Vatican Council of 1870. On the eve of that council he published at Naples his Causa Honorii Papae, which aimed at demonstrating the moral and historical impossibility of papal infallibility. About the same time he brought out a work in German on the same subject. He took rather a prominent part in the discussions at the council, associating himself with Felix Dupanloup and with Georges Darboy, archbishop of Paris, in his opposition to the doctrine of Infallibility, and supporting their arguments from his vast knowledge of ecclesiastical history. In the preliminary discussions he voted against the promulgation of the dogma. He was absent from the important sitting of the i8th of June 1870, and did not send in his submission to the decrees until 1871, when he explained in a pastoral letter that the dogma " referred only to doctrine given forth ex cathedra, and therein to the definitions proper only, but not to its proofs or explanations." In 1872 he took part in the congress summoned by the Ultramontanes at Fulda, and by his judicious use of minimizing tactics he kept his diocese free from any participation in the Old Catholic schism. The last four volumes of the second edition of his History of the Councils have been described as skilfully adapted to the new situation created by the Vatican decrees. During the later years of his life he undertook no further literary efforts on behalf of his church, but retired into comparative privacy. He died on the 6th of June 1893. See Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie, vii. 525. HEGEL, GEOR6 WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831), German philosopher, was born at Stuttgart on the 27th of August 1770. His father, an official in the fiscal service of Wurttemberg, is not otherwise known to fame; and of his mother we hear only that she had scholarship enough to teach him the elements of Latin. He had one sister, Christiana, who died unmarried, and a brother Ludwig, who served in the campaigns of Napoleon. At the grammar school of Stuttgart, where Hegel was educated between the ages of seven and eighteen, he was not remarkable. His main productions were a diary kept at intervals during eighteen months (1785-1787), and translations of the Antigone, the Manual of Epictetus, &c. But the characteristic feature of his studies was the copious extracts which from this time onward he unremittingly made and preserved. This collection, alphabetically arranged, comprised annotations on classical authors, passages from newspapers, treatises on morals and mathematics from the standard works of the period. In this way he absorbed in their integrity the raw materials for elaboration. Yet as evidence that he was not merely receptive we have essays already breathing that admiration of the classical world which he never lost. His chief amusement was cards, and he began the habit of taking snuff. In the autumn of 1788 he entered at Tubingen as a student of theology; but he showed no interest in theology: his sermons were a failure, and he found more congenial reading in the classics, on the advantages of studying which his first essay was written. After two years he took the degree of Ph.D., and in the autumn of 1793 received his theological certificate, stating him to be of good abilities, but of middling industry and knowledge, and especially deficient in philosophy. As a student, his elderly appearance gained him the title " Old man," but he took part in the walks, beer-drinking and love-making of his fellows. He gained most from intellectual intercourse with his contemporaries, the two best known of whom were J. C. F. Holderlin and Schelling. With Holderlin Hegel learned to feel for the old Greeks a love which grew stronger as the semi-Kantianized theology of his teachers more and more failed to interest him. With Schelling like sympathies bound him. They both protested against the political and ecclesiastical inertia of their native state, and adopted the doctrines of freedom and reason. The story which tells how the two went out one morning to dance round a tree of liberty in a meadow is an anachronism, though in keeping with their opinions. On leaving college, he became a private tutor at Bern and lived in intellectual isolation. He was, however, far from inactive. He compiled a systematic account of the fiscal system of the canton Bern, but the main factor in his mental growth came from his study of Christianity. Under the impulse given by Lessing and Kant he turned to the original records of Chris- tianity, and attempted to construe for himself the real significance of Christ. He wrote a life of Jesus, in which Jesus was simply the son of Joseph and Mary. He did not stop to criticize as a philologist, and ignored the miraculous. He asked for the secret contained in the conduct and sayings of this man which made him the hope of the human race. Jesus appeared as revealing the unity with God in which the Greeks in their best days unwittingly rejoiced, and as lifting the eyes of the Jews from a lawgiver who metes out punishment on the transgressor, to the destiny which in the Greek conception falls on the just no less than on the unjust. The interest of these ideas is twofold. In Jesus Hegel finds the expression for something higher than mere morality: he finds a noble spirit which rises above the contrasts of virtue and vice into the concrete life, seeing the infinite always embracing our finitude, and proclaiming the divine which is in man and cannot be overcome by error and evil, unless the man close his eyes and ears to the godlike presence within him. In religious life, in short, he finds the principle which reconciles the opposition of the temporal mind. But, secondly, the general source of the doctrine that life is higher than all its incidents is of interest. He does not free himself from the current theology either by rational moralizing like Kant, or by bold speculative synthesis like Fichte and Schelling. He finds his panacea in the concrete life of humanity. But although he goes to the Scriptures, and tastes the mystical spirit of the medieval saints, the Christ of his conception has traits that seem borrowed from Socrates and from the heroes of Attic tragedy, who suffer much and yet smile gently on a destiny to which they were reconciled. Instead of the Hebraic doctrine of a Jesus punished for our sins, we have the Hellenic idea of a man who is calmly tranquil in the. consciousness of his unity with God. During these years Hegel kept up a slack correspondence with Schelling and Holderlin. Schelling, already on the way to fame, kept Hegel abreast with German speculation. Both of them were intent on forcing the theologians into the daylight, and grudged them any aid they might expect from Kant's postulation of God and immortality to crown the edifice of ethics. Meanwhile, Holderlin in Jena had been following Fichte's career with an enthusiasm with which he infected Hegel. It is pleasing to turn from these vehement struggles of thought to a tour which Hegel in company with three other tutors made through the Bernese Oberland in July and August 1796. Of this tour he left a minute diary. He was delighted with the varied play of the waterfalls, but no glamour blinded him to the squalor of Swiss peasant life. The glaciers and the rocks called forth no HEGEL 2OI raptures. " The spectacle of these eternally dead masses gave me nothing but the monotonous and at last tedious idea, ' Es ist so.'" Towards the close of his engagement at Bern, Hegel had received hopes from Schelling of a post at Jena. Fortunately his friend Holderlin, now tutor in Frankfort, secured a similar situation there for Hegel in the family of Herr Gogol, a merchant (January 1797). The new post gave him more leisure and the society he needed. About this time he turned to questions of economics and government. He had studied Gibbon, Hume and Montesquieu in Switzerland. We now find him making extracts from the English newspapers on the Poor-Law Bill of 1796; criticising the Prussian land laws, promulgated about the same time; and writing a commentary on Sir James Steuart's Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy. Here, as in contemporaneous criticisms of Kant's ethical writings, Hegel aims at correcting the abstract discussion of a topic by treating it in its systematic interconnexions. Church and state, law and morality, com- merce and art are reduced to factors in the totality of human life, from which the specialists had isolated them. But the best evidence of Hegel's attention to contemporary politics is two unpublished essays — one of them written in 1798, " On the Internal Condition of Wurttemberg in Recent Times, particularly on the Defects in the Magistracy," the other a criticism on the constitution of Germany, written, probably, not long after the peace of Luneville (1801). Both essays are critical rather than constructive. In the first Hegel showed how the supineness of the committee of estates in Wurttemberg had favoured the usurpations of the superior officials in whom the court had found compliant servants. And though he perceived the advantages of change in the constitution of the estates, he still doubted if an improved system could work in the actual conditions of his native province. The main feature in the pamphlet is the recognition that a spirit of reform is abroad. If Wurttemberg suffered from a bureaucracy tempered by despotism, the Fatherland in general suffered no less. " Ger- many," so begins the second of these unpublished papers, " is no longer a state." Referring the collapse of the empire to the retention of feudal forms and to the action of religious animosities, Hegel looked forward to reorganization by a central power (Austria) wielding the imperial army, and by a representa- tive body elected by the geographical districts of the empire. But such an issue, he saw well, could only be the outcome of violence — of " blood and iron. " The philosopher did not pose as a practical statesman. He described the German empire in its nullity as a conception without existence in fact. In such a state of things it was the business of the philosopher to set forth the outlines of the coming epoch, as they were already moulding themselves into shape, amidst what the ordinary eye saw only as the disintegration of the old forms of social life. His old interest in the religious question reappears, but in a more philosophical form. Starting with the contrast between a natural and a positive religion, he regards a positive religion as one imposed upon the mind from without, not a natural growth crowning the round of human life. A natural religion, on the other hand, was not, he thought, the one universal religion of every clime and age, but rather the spontaneous development of the national conscience varying in varying circumstances. A people's religion completes and consecrates their whole activity: in it the people rises above its finite life in limited spheres to an infinite life where it feels itself all at one. Even philosophy with Hegel at this epoch was subordinate to religion; for philosophy must never abandon the finite in the search for the infinite. Soon, however, Hegel adopted a view according to which philosophy is a higher mode of apprehending the infinite than even religion. At Frankfort, meanwhile, the philosophic ideas of Hegel first assumed the proper philosophic form. In a MS. of 102 quarto sheets, of which the first three and the seventh are wanting, there is preserved the original sketch of the Hegelian system, so far as the logic and metaphysics and part of the philosophy of nature are concerned. The third part of the system — the ethical theory — seems to have been composed afterwards; it is contained in its first draft in another MS. of 30 sheets. Even these had been preceded by earlier Pytha- gorean constructions envisaging the divine life in divine triangles. Circumstances soon put Hegel in the way to complete these outlines. His father died in January 1799; and the slender sum which Hegel received as his inheritance, 3154 gulden (about £260), enabled him to think once more of a studious life. At the close of 1800 we find him asking Schelling for letters of introduction to Bamberg, where with cheap living and good beer he hoped to prepare himself for the intellectual excitement of Jena. The upshot was that Hegel arrived at Jena in January 1801. An end had already come to the brilliant epoch at Jena, when the romantic poets, Tieck, Novalis and the Schlegels made it the headquarters of their fantastic mysticism, and Fichte turned the results of Kant into the banner of revolutionary ideas. Schelling was the main philosophical lion of the time; and in some quarters Hegel was spoken of as a new champion summoned to help him in his struggle with the more prosaic continuators of Kant. Hegel's first performance seemed to justify the rumour. It was an essay on the difference between the philosophic systems of Fichte and Schelling, tending in the main to support the latter. Still more striking was the agreement shown in the Critical Journal of Philosophy, which Schelling and Hegel wrof.e conjointly during the years 1802-1803. So latent was the difference between them at this epoch that in one or two cases it is not possible to determine by whom the essay was written. Even at a later period foreign critics like Cousin saw much that was alike in the two doctrines, and did not hesitate to regard Hegel as a disciple of Schelling. The disserta- tion by which Hegel qualified for the position of Privatdozent (De orbitis planelarum) was probably chosen under the influence of Schilling's philosophy of nature. It was an unfortunate subject. For while Hegel, depending on a numerical proportion suggested by Plato, hinted in a single sentence that it might be a mistake to look for a planet between Mars and Jupiter, Giuseppe Piazzi (q.v.) had already discovered the first of the asteroids (Ceres) on the ist of January 1801. Apparently in August, when Hegel qualified, the news of the discovery had not yet reached him, but critics have made this luckless suggestion the ground of attack on a priori philosophy. Hegel's lectures, in the winter of 1801-1802, on logic and metaphysics were attended by about eleven students. Later, in 1804, we find him with a class of about thirty, lecturing on his whole system; but his average attendance was rather less. Besides philosophy, he once at least lectured on mathematics. As he taught, he was led to modify his original system, and notice after notice of his lectures promised a text-book of philosophy — which, however, failed to appear. Meanwhile, after the departure of Schelling from Jena in the middle of 1803, Hegel was left to work out his own views. Besides philosophical studies, where he now added Aristotle to Plato, he read Homer and the Greek tragedians, made extracts from books, attended lectures on physiology, and dabbled in other sciences. On his own representation at Weimar, he was in February 1805 made a professor extraordinarius, and in July 1806 drew his first and only stipend — 100 thalers. At Jena, though some of his hearers became attached t<5 him, Hegel was not a popular lecturer any more than K. C. F. Krause (q.v.). The ordinary student found J. F. Fries (q.v.) more intelligible. Of the lectures of that period there still remain considerable notes. The language often had a theological tinge (never entirely absent), as when the " idea " was spoken of, or " the night of the divine mystery," or the dialectic of the absolute called the " course of the divine life. " Still his view was growing clearer, and his difference from Schelling more palpable. Both Schelling and Hegel stand in a relation to art, but while the aesthetic model of Schelling was found in the contemporary world, where art was a special sphere and the artist a separate profession in no intimate connexion with the age and nation, the model of Hegel was found rather in those works of national 202 HEGEL art in which art is not a part but an aspect of the common life, and the artist is not a mere individual but a concentration of the passion and power of beauty in the whole community. " Such art," says Hegel, " is the common good and the work of all. Each generation hands it on beautified to the next; each has done something to give utterance to the universal thought. Those who are said to have genius have acquired some special aptitude by which they render the general shapes of the nation their own work, one in one point, another in another. What they produce is not their invention, but the invention of the whole nation; or rather, what they find is that the whole nation has found its true nature. Each, as it were, piles up his stone. So too does the artist. Somehow he has the good fortune to come last, and when he places his stone the arch stands self- supported." Hegel, as we have already seen, was fully aware of the change that was coming over the world. " A new epoch," he says, " has arisen. It seems as if the world-spirit had now succeeded in freeing itself from all foreign objective existence, and finally apprehending itself as absolute mind." These words come from lectures on the history of philosophy, which laid the foundation for his Phanomenologie des Geistes (Bamberg, 1807). On the 1 4th of October 1806 Napoleon was at Jena. Hegel, like Goethe, felt no patriotic shudder at the national disaster, and in Prussia he saw only a corrupt and conceited bureaucracy. Writing to his friend F. J. Niethammer (1766-1848) on the day before the battle, he speaks with admiration of the " world-soul," the emperor, and with satisfaction of the probable overthrow of the Prussians. The scholar's wish was to see the clouds of war pass away, and leave thinkers to their peaceful work. His manuscripts were his main care; and doubtful of the safety of his last despatch to Bamberg, and disturbed by the French soldiers in his lodgings, he hurried off, with the last pages of the Phanomenologie, to take refuge in the pro-rector's house. Hegel's fortunes were now at the lowest ebb. Without means, and obliged to borrow from Niethammer, he had no further hopes from the impoverished university. He had already tried to get away from Jena. In 1805, when several lecturers left in con- sequence of diminished classes, he had written to Johann Heinrich Voss (a./rij from his fondness for lentils. Hardly anything is known of him, except that he nourished during the Pelopon- nesian War. According to Aristotle (Poetics, ii. 5) he was the inventor of a kind of parody; by slightly altering the wording in well-known poems he transformed the sublime into the ridiculous. When the news of the disaster in Sicily reached Athens, his parody of the Gigantomachia was being performed; it is said that the audience were so .amused by it that, instead of leaving to show their grief, they remained in their seats. He 208 HEGEMONY— HEIBERG was also the author of a comedy called Philinne (Pkiline), written in the manner of Eupolis and Cratinus, in which he attacked a well-known courtesan. Athenaeus (p. 698), who preserves some parodic hexameters of his, relates other anecdotes concerning him (pp. 5, 108, 407). Fragments in T. Kock, Comicorum Atticprum fragmenta, i. (1880) ; B. J. Peltzer, De parodied Graecorum poesi (1855). HEGEMONY (Gr. ^yejuoi/ta, leadership, from fryeio-Qai, to lead, the leadership especially of one particular state in a group of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in Greek history to the position claimed by different individual city-states, e.g. by Athens and Sparta, at different times to a position of predominance (primus inter pares) among other equal states, coupled with individual autonomy. The reversion of this position was claimed by Macedon (see GREECE: Ancient History, and DELIAN LEAGUE). HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA (in Lydia), Greek rhetorician and historian, flourished about 300 B.C. Strabo (xiv. 648), speaks of him as the founder of the florid style of composition known as "Asiatic" (cf. TIMAEUS). Agatharchides, Dionysius of Hali- carnassus and Cicero all speak of him in disparaging terms, although Varro seems to have approved of his work. He pro- fessed to imitate the simple style of Lysias, avoiding long periods, and expressing himself in short, jerky sentences, without modula- tion or finish. His vulgar affectation and bombast made his writings a mere caricature of the old Attic. Dionysius describes his composition as tinselled, ignoble and effeminate. It is generally supposed, from the fragment quoted as a specimen by Dionysius, that Hegesias is to be classed among the writers of lives of Alexander the Great. This fragment describes the treatment of Gaza and its inhabitants by Alexander after its conquest, but it is possible that it is only part of an epideictic or show-speech, not of an historical work. This view is supported by a remark of Agatharchides in Photius (cod. 250) that the only aim of Hegesias was to exhibit his skill in describing sensational events. See Cicero, Brutus 83, Orator 67, 69, with J. E. Sandys's note, ad AU. xii. 6; Dion. Halic. De verborum comp. iv. ; Aulus Gellius ix. 4; Plutarch, Alexander, 3; C. W. Miiller, Scriptores rerum Alexandra Magni, p. 138 (appendix to Didot ed. of Arrian, 1846); Norden, Die antike Kunstprosa (1898); J. B. Bury, Ancient Greek Historians (1909), pp. 169-172, on origin and development of " Asiatic " style, with example from Hegesias. HEGESIPPUS, Athenian orator and statesman, nicknamed KpobjSuXos (" knot "), probably from the way in which he wore his hair. He lived in the time of Demosthenes, of whose anti- Macedonian policy he was an enthusiastic supporter. In 343 B.C. he was one of the ambassadors sent to Macedonia to dis- cuss, amongst other matters, the restoration of the island of Halonnesus, which had been seized by Philip. The mission was unsuccessful, but soon afterwards Philip wrote to Athens, offering to resign possession of the island or to submit to arbitration the question of ownership. In reply to this letter the oration De Halonneso was delivered, which, although included among the speeches of Demosthenes, is generally considered to be by Hegesippus. Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, however, favour the authorship of Demosthenes. See Demosthenes, De falsa legatione 364, 447, De corona 250, Philippica iii. 129; Plutarch, Demosthenes 17, Apophthegmata, 1870; Dionysius Halic. ad Ammaeum, i. ; Grote, History of Greece, ch. 90. HEGESIPPUS (fl. A.D. 150-180), early Christian writer, was of Palestinian origin, and lived under the Emperors Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Like Aristo of Pella he belonged to that group of Judaistic Christians which, while keeping the law themselves, did not attempt to impose on others the requirements of circumcision and Sabbath observance. He was the author of a treatise (inrofivfi fiord) in five books dealing with such subjects as Christian literature, the unity of church doctrine, paganism, heresy and Jewish Christianity, fragments of which are found in Eusebius, who obtained much of his information concerning early Palestinian church history and chronology from this source. Hegesippus was also a great traveller, and like many other leaders of his time came to Rome (having visited Corinth on the way) about the middle of the 2nd century. His journeyings impressed him with the idea that the continuity of the church in the cities he visited was a guarantee of its fidelity to apostolic orthodoxy: " in each succession and in every city, the doctrine is in accordance with that which the Law and the Prophets and the Lord [i.e the Old Testament and the evangelical tradition] proclaim." To illustrate this opinion he drew up a list of the Roman bishops. Hegesippus is thus a significant figure both for the type of Christianity taught in the circle to which he belonged, and as accentuating the point of view which the church began to assume in the presence of a developing gnosticism. HEGESIPPUS, the supposed author of a free Latin adaptation of the Jewish War of Josephus under the title De hello Judaico et excidio urbis Hierosolymitanae. The seven books of Josephus are compressed into five, but much has been added from the Antiquities and from the works of Roman historians, while several entirely new speeches are introduced to suit the occasion. Internal evidence shows that the work could not have been written before the 4th century A.D. The author, who is undoubtedly a Christian, describes it in his preface as a kind of revised edition of Josephus. Some authorities attribute it to Ambrose, bishop of Milan (340- 397), but there is nothing to settle the authorship definitely. The name Hegesippus itself appears to be a corruption of Josephus, through the stages 'IOJOTJTTOS, losippus, Egesippus, Hegesippus, unless it was purposely adopted as reminiscent of Hegesippus, the father of ecclesiastical history (2nd century). Best edition by C. F. Weber and J. Caesar (1864); authorities in E. Schurer, History of the Jewish People (Eng. trans.), i. 99 seq. ; F. Vogel, De Hegesippo, qui dicitur, Josephi interprete (Erlangen, 1881). HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER (c. 1433-1498), German humanist, so called from his birthplace Heek in Westphalia. In his youth he was a pupil of Thomas a Kempis, at that time canon of the convent of St Agnes at Zwolle. In 1474 he settled down at Deventer in Holland, where he either founded or succeeded to the headship of a school, which became famous for the number of its distinguished alumni. First and foremost of these was Erasmus; others were Hermann von dem Busche, the missionary of humanism, Conrad Goclenius (Gockelen), Conrad Mutianus (Muth von Mudt) and pope Adrian VI. Hegius died at Deventer on the 7th of December 1498. His writings, consisting of short poems, philosophical essays, grammatical notes and letters, were published after his death by his pupil Jacob Faber. They display considerable knowledge of Latin, but less of Greek, on the value of which he strongly insisted. Hegius's chief claim to be remembered rests not upon his published works, but upon his services in the cause of humanism. He succeeded in abolishing the old-fashioned medieval textbooks and methods of instruction, and led his pupils to the study of the classical authors themselves. His generosity in assisting poor students exhausted a considerable fortune, and at his death he left nothing but his books and clothes. See D. Reichling, " Beitrage zur Charakteristik des Alex. Hegius," in the Monatsschrift fur Westdeutschland (1877) ; H. Hamelmann, Opera genealogico-historica (1711); H. A. Erhard, Geschichte des Wiederaufbluhens wissenschaftticher Bildung (1826); C. Krafft ancl W. Crecelius, " Alexander Hegius und seine Schiller," from the works of Johannes Butzbach, one of Hegius's pupils, in Zeitschrift des bergischen Geschichtsvereins, vii. (Bonn, 1871). HEIBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG (1791-1860), Danish poet and critic, son of the political writer Peter Andreas Heiberg (1758- 1841), and of the famous novelist, afterwards the Baroness Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard, was born at Copenhagen on the i4th of December 1791. In 1800 his father was exiled and settled in Paris, where he was employed in the French foreign office, retir- ing in 1817 with a pension. His political and satirical writings continued to exercise great influence over his fellow-countrymen. Johan Ludvig Heiberg was taken by K. L. Rahbek and his wife into their house at Bakkehuset. He was educated at the uni- versity of Copenhagen, and his first publication, entitled The Theatre for Marionettes (1814), included two romantic dramas. This was followed by Christmas Jokes and New Year's Tricks HEIDE— HEIDELBERG 209 (1816), The Initiation of Psyche (1817), and The Prophecy of Tycho Brahe, a satire on the eccentricities of the Romantic writers, especially on the sentimentality of Ingemann. These works attracted attention at a time when Baggesen, Ohlen- schlager and Ingemann possessed the. popular ear, and were understood at once to be the opening of a great career. In 1817 Heiberg took his degree, and in 1819 went abroad with a grant from government. He proceeded to Paris, and spent the next three years there with his father. In 1822 he published his drama of Nina, and was made professor of the Danish language at the university of Kiel, where he delivered a course of lectures, com- paring the Scandinavian mythology as found in the Edda with the poems of Ohlenschlager. These lectures were published in German in 1827. In 1825 Heiberg came back to Copenhagen for the purpose of introducing the vaudeville on the Danish stage. He composed a great number of these vaudevilles, of which the best known are King Solomon and George the Hatmaker (1825); April Fools (1826); A Story in Rosenberg Garden (1827); Kjoge Huskors (1831); The Danes in Paris (1833); No (1836); and Yes (1839). He took his models from the French theatre, but showed extraordinary skill in blending the words and the music; but the subjects and the humour were essentially Danish and even topical. Meanwhile he was producing dramatic work of a more serious kind; in 1828 he brought out the national drama of Eltierhoi; in 1830 The Inseparables; in 1835 the fairy comedy of The Elves, a dramatic version of Tieck's Elfin; and in 1838 Fata Morgana, In 1841 Heiberg published a volume of New Poems containing " A Soul after Death," a comedy which is perhaps his master- piece, " The Newly Wedded Pair," and other pieces. He edited from 1827 to 1830 the famous weekly, the Flyvende Post (The Flying Post), and subsequently the Interimsblade (1834-1837) and the Intelligensblade (1842-1843). In his journalism he carried on his warfare against the excessive pretensions of the Romanticists, and produced much valuable and penetrating criticism of art and literature. In 1831 he married the actress Johanne Louise Paetges (1812-1890), herself the author of some popular vaudevilles. Heiberg's scathing satires, however, made him very unpopular; and this antagonism reached its height when, in 1845, he published his malicious little drama of The Nut Crackers. Nevertheless he became in 1847 director of the national theatre. He filled the post for seven years, working with great zeal and conscientiousness, but was forced by intrigues from without to resign it in 1854. Heiberg died at Bonderup, near Ringsted, on the 25th of August 1860. His influence upon taste and critical opinion was greater than that of any writer of his time, and can only be compared with that of Holberg in the 1 8th century. Most of the poets of the Romantic movement in Denmark were very grave and serious; Heiberg added the element of humour, elegance and irony. He had the genius of good taste, and his witty and delicate productions stand almost unique in the literature of his country. The poetical works of Heiberg were collected, in n vols., in 1861— 1862, and his prose writings (n vols.) in the same year. The last volume of his prose works contains some fragments of autobio- graphy. See also G. Brandes, Essays (1889). For the elder Heiberg see monographs by Thaarup (1883) and by Schwanenflugel (1891). HEIDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, on a small plateau which stands between the marshes and moors bordering the North Sea, 35 m. N.N.W. of Gliickstadt, at the junction of the railways Elmshorn- Hvidding and Neumiinster-Tonning. Pop. (1905), 8758. Ithasan Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a high-grade school, and tobacco and cigar manufactories and breweries. Heide in 1447 became the capital of the Ditmarsh peasant republic, but on the i3th of June 1559 it was the scene of the complete defeat of the peasant forces by the Danes. HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH (1633-1698), Swiss theologian, was born at Barentschweil, in the canton of Zurich. Switzerland, on the ist of July 1633. He studied at Marburg and at Heidelberg, where he became the friend of J. L. Fabricius (1632-1696), and was appointed professor extraordinarily of Hebrew and later of philosophy. In 1659 he was called to Steinfurt to fill the chair of dogmatics and ecclesiastical history, and in the same year he became doctor of theology of Heidelberg. In 1660 he revisited Switzerland; and, after marrying, he travelled in the following year to Holland, where he made the acquaintance of Johannes Cocceius. He returned in 1665 to Zurich, where he was elected professor of moral philosophy. Two years later he succeeded J. H. Hottinger (1620-1667) in the chair of theology, which he occupied till his death on the 1 8th of January 1698, having declined an invitation in 1669 to succeed J. Cocceius at Leiden, as well as a call to Groningen. Heidegger was the principal author of the Formula Consensus Helvetica in 1675, which wasdesigned to unite the SwissReformed churches, but had an opposite effect. W. Gass describes him as the most notable of the Swiss theologians of the time. His writings are largely controversial, though without being bitter, and are in great part levelled against the Roman Catholic Church. The chief are De historia sacra patriarcharum exercita- tiones selectae (1667-1671); Dissertatio de Peregrinationibus religiosis (1670); De ratione studiorum, opuscula aurea, &c. (1670); Historia papatus (1684; under the name Nicander von Hohenegg); Manuductio in mam concordiae Protestantium ecclesiasticae (1686); Tumulus concilii Tridentini (1690); Exercitationes biblicae (1700), with a lifeof the author prefixed; Corpus theologiae Christianae (1700, edited by J. H. Schweizer); Ethicae Christianae elementa (1711); and lives of J. H. Hottinger (1667) and J. L. Fabricius (1698). His autobiography appeared in 1698, under the title Historia vitae J. H, Heideggeri. See the articles in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie and the Allgemeine deulsche Biographic ; and cf. W. Gass, Geschichte der protestantischen Dogmatik, ii. 353 ff. HEIDELBERG, a town of Germany, on the south bank of the Neckar, 12 m. above its confluence with the Rhine, 13 m. S.E. from Mannheim and 54 m. from Frankfort-on-Main by rail. The situation of the town, lying between lofty hills covered with vineyards and forests, at the spot where the rapid Neckar leaves the gorge and enters the plain of the Rhine, is one of great natural beauty. The town itself consists practically of one long, narrow street — the Hauptstrasse — running parallel to the river, from the railway station on the west to the Karlstor on the east (where there is also a local station) for a distance of 2 m. To the south of this is the Anlage, a pleasant promenade flanked by handsome villas and gardens, leading directly to the centre of the place. A number of smaller streets intersect the Haupt- strasse at right angles and run down to the river, which is crossed by two fine bridges. Of these, the old bridge on the east, built in 1788, has a fine gateway and is adorned with statues of Minerva and the elector Charles Theodore of the Palatinate; the other, the lower bridge, on the west, built in 1877, connects Heidelberg with the important suburbs of Neuenheim and Handschuchsheim. Of recent years the town has grown largely towards the west on both sides of the river; but the additions have been almost entirely of the better class of residences. Heidelberg is an important railway centre, and is connected by trunk lines with Frankfort, Mannheim, Karlsruhe, Spires and WUrzburg. Electric trams provide for local traffic, and there are also several light railways joining it with the neighbouring villages. Of the churches the chief are the Protestant Peters- kirche dating from the isth century and restored in 1873, to the door of which Jerome of Prague in 1460 nailed his theses; the Heilige Geist Kirche (Church of the Holy Ghost), an imposing Gothic edifice of the i5th century; the Jesuitenkirche (Roman Catholic), with a sumptuously decorated interior, and the new Evangelical Christuskirche. The town hall and the university buildings, dating from 1712 and restored in 1886, are common- place erections; but to the south of the Ludwigsplatz, upon which most of the academical buildings lie, stands the new university library, a handsome structure of pink sandstone in German Renaissance style. In addition to the Ludwigsplatz with its equestrian statue of the emperor William I. there are other squares in the town, among them being the Bismarckplatz with a statue of Bismarck, and the Jubilaumsplatz. 210 HEIDELBERG The chief attraction of Heidelberg is the castle, which over- hangs the east part of the town. It stands on the Jettenbiihl, a spur of the Konigsstuhl (1800 ft.), at a height of 330 ft. above the Neckar. Though now a ruin, yet its extent, its magnificence, its beautiful situation and its interesting history render it by far the most noteworthy, as it certainly is the grandest and largest, of the old castles of Germany. The building was begun early in the i3th century. The elector palatine and German king Rupert III. (d. 1410) greatly improved it, and built the wing, Ruprechtsbau or Rupert's building, that bears his name. Succeeding electors further extended and embellished it (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate VII., figs. 78-80); notably Otto Henry " the Magnanimous " (d. 1559), who built the beautiful early Renaissance wing known as the Otto-Heinrichsbau (1556-1559); Frederick IV., for whom the fine late Renaissance wing called the Friedrichsbau was built (1601-1607); and Frederick V., the unfortunate " winter king " of Bohemia, who on the west side added the Elisabethenbau or Englischebau (1618), named after his wife, the daughter of James I. of Great Britain and ancestress of the present English reigning family. In 1648, at the peace of Westphalia, Heidelberg was given back to Frederick V.'s son, Charles Louis, who restored the castle to its former splendour. In 1688, during Louis XIV. 's invasion of the Palatinate, the castle was taken, after a long siege, by the French, who blew part of it up when they found they could not hope to hold it (March 2, 1689). In 1693 it was again captured by them and still further wrecked. Finally, in 1764, it was struck by lightning and reduced to its present ruinous condition. Apart from the outworks, the castle forms an irregular square with round towers at the angles, the principal buildings being grouped round a central courtyard, the entrance to which is from the south through a series of gateways. In this courtyard, besides the buildings already mentioned, are the oldest parts of the castle, the so-called Alte Bau (old building) and the Bandhaus. The Friedrichsbau, which is decorated with statues of the rulers of the Palatinate, was elaborately restored and rendered habitable between 1897 and 1903. Other noteworthy objects in the castle are the fountain in the courtyard, decorated with four granite columns from Charlemagne's palace at Ingel- heim; the Elisabethentor, a beautiful gateway named after the English princess; the beautiful octagonal bell-tower at the N.E. angle; the ruins of the Krautturm, now known as the Gesprengte Turm, or blown-up tower, and the castle chapel and the museum of antiquities in the Friedrichsbau. In a cellar entered from the courtyard is the famous Great Tun of Heidelberg. This vast vat was built in 1751, but has only been used on one or two occasions. Its capacity is 49,000 gallons, and it is 20 ft. high and 31 ft. long. Behind the Friedrichsbau is the Allan (1610), or castle balcony, from which is obtained a view of great beauty, extending from .the town beneath to the heights across the Neckar and over the broad luxuriant plain of the Rhine to Mannheim and the dim contours of the Hardt Mountains behind. On the terrace of the beautiful grounds is a statue of Victor von Scheffel, the poet of Heidelberg. The university of Heidelberg was founded by the elector Rupert I., in 1385, the bull of foundation being issued by Pope Urban VI. in that year. It was constructed after the type of Paris, had four faculties, and possessed numerous privileges. Marselius von Inghen was its first rector. The electors Frederick I., the Victorious, Philip the Upright and Louis V. respectively cherished it. Otto Henry gave it a new organization, further endowed it and founded the library. At the Reformation it became a stronghold of Protestant learning, the Heidelberg catechism being drawn up by its theologians. Then the tide turned. Damaged by the Thirty Years' War, it led a struggling existence for a century and a half. A large portion of its remain- ing endowments was cut off by the peace of Luneville (1801). In 1803, however, Charles Frederick, grand-duke of Baden, raised it anew and reconstituted it under the name of " Ruperto- Carola." The number of professors and teachers is at present about 150 and of students 1700. The library was first kept in the choir of the Heilige Geist Kirche, and then consisted of 3500 MSS. In 1623 it was sent to Rome by Maximilian I., duke of Bavaria, and stored as the Bibliotheca Palatina in the Vatican. It was afterwards taken to Paris, and in 1815 was restored to Heidelberg. It has more than 500,000 volumes, besides 4000 MSS. Among the other university institutions are the academic hospital, the maternity hospital, the physio- logical institution, the chemical laboratory, the zoological museum, the botanical garden and the observatory on the Konigsstuhl. The other educational foundations are a gymnasium, a modern and a technical school. There is a small theatre, an art and several other scientific societies. The manufactures of Heidelberg include cigars, leather, cement, surgical instruments and beer, but the inhabitants chiefly support themselves by supplying the wants of a large and increasing body of foreign permanent residents, of the considerable number of tourists who during the summer pass through the town, and of the university students. A funicular railway runs from the Korn-Markt up to the level of the castle and thence to the Molkenkur (700 ft. above the town). The town is well lighted and is supplied with excellent water from the Wolfsbrunnen. Pop. (1885), 29,304; (1905), 49,527. At an early period Heidelberg was a fief of the bishop of Worms, who entrusted it about 1225 to the count palatine of the Rhine, Louis I. It soon became a town and the chief residence of the counts palatine. Heidelberg was one of the great centres of the reformed teaching and was the headquarters of the Calvinists. On this account it suffered much during the Thirty Years' War, being captured and plundered by Count Tilly in 1622, by the Swedes in 1633 and again by the imperialists in 1635. By the peace of Westphalia it was restored to the elector Charles Louis. In 1688 and again in 1693 Heidelberg was sacked by the French. On the latter occasion the work of destruction was carried out so thoroughly that only one house escaped; this being a quaintly decorated erection in the Markt- platz, which is now the H&tel zum Ritter. In 1720 the elector Charles II. removed his court to Mannheim, and in 1803 the town became part of the grand-duchy of Baden. On the 5th of March 1848 the Heidelberg assembly was held here, and at this meeting the steps were taken which led to the revolution in Germany in that year. See Oncken, Stadt, SMoss und Hochschule Heidelberg; Bilder aus ihrer Vergangenheit (Heidelberg, 1885); Ochelhauser, Das Heidelberger SMoss, ban- und kunstgeschichtlicher Fiihrer (Heidel- berg, 1902); Pfaff, Heidelberg und Umgebung (Heidelberg, 1902); HEIDELBERG— HEIDENHEIM Lorcntzen, Heidelberg und Umgebung (Stuttgart, 1902); Durm, Das Heidelberger Schloss, eine Studie (Berlin, 1884) ; Koch and Seitz, Das Heidelberger Schloss (Darmstadt, 1887-1891); J. F. Hautz, Geschichte der Universitdt Heidelberg (1863-1864); A. Thorbecke, Geschichte der Universitdt Heidelberg (Stuttgart, 1886); the Urkunden- bitch der Universitdt Heidelberg, edited by Winkelmann (Heidelberg, 1886); Bahr, Die Entfuhrung der Heidelberger Bibliothek nach Rom (Leipzig, 1 845) ; and G. Weber, Heidelberger Erinnerungen (Stuttgart, 1886). HEIDELBERG, a town and district of the Transvaal. The district is bounded S. by the Vaal river and includes the south- eastern part of the Witwatersrand gold-fields. The town of Heidelberg is 42 m. S.E. of Johannesburg and 441 m. N.W. of Durban by rail. Pop. (1904), 3220, of whom 1837 were white. It was founded in 1865, is built on the slopes of the Rand at an elevation of 5029 ft., and is reputed the best sanatorium in the colony. It is the centre of the eastern Rand gold- mines. HEIDELBERG CATECHISM, THE, the most attractive of all the catechisms of the Reformation, was drawn up at the bidding of Frederick III., elector of the Palatinate, and published on Tuesday the igth of January 1563. The new religion in the Palatinate had been largely under the guidance of Philip Melanchthon, who had revived the old university of Heidelberg and staffed it with sympathetic teachers. One of these.Tillemann, Heshusius, who became general superintendent in 1558, held extreme Lutheran views on the Real Presence, and in his desire to force the community into his own position excommunicated his colleague Klebitz, who held Zwinglian views. When the breach was widening Frederick, " der fromme Kurfurst," came to the succession, dismissed the two chief combatants and referred the trouble to Melanchthon, whose guarded verdict was distinctly Swiss rather than Lutheran. In a decree of August 1 560 the elector declared for Calvin and Zwingli, and soon after he resolved to issue a new and unambiguous catechism of the evangelical faith. He entrusted the task to two young men who have won deserved remembrance by their learning and their character alike. Zacharias Ursinus was born at Breslau in July 1534 and attained high honour in the university of Wittenberg. In 1558 he was made rector of the gymnasium in his native town, but the incessant strife with the extreme Lutherans drove him to Zurich, whence Frederick, on the advice of Peter Martyr, summoned him to be professor of theology at Heidelberg and superintendent of the Sapientiae Collegium. He was a man of modest and gentle spirit, not endowed with great preaching gifts, but unwearied in study and consummately able to impart his learning to others. Deposed from his chair by the elector Louis in 1576, he lived with John Casimir at Neustadt and found a congenial sphere in the new seminary there, dying in his 49th year, in March 1583. Caspar Olevianus was born at Treves in 1536. He gave up law for theology, studied under Calvin in Geneva, Peter Martyr in Zurich, and Beza in Lausanne. Urged by William Farel he preached the new faith in his native city, and when banished therefrom found a home with Frederick of Heidelberg, where he gained high renown as preacher and administrator. His ardour and enthusiasm made him the happy complement of Ursinus. When the reaction came under Louis he was befriended by Ludwig von Sain, prince of Wittgenstein, and John, count of Nassau, in whose city of Herborn he did notable work at the high school until his death on the isth of March 1587. The elector could have chosen no better men, young as they were, for the task in hand. As a first step each drew up a catechism of his own composition, that of Ursinus being naturally of a more grave and academic turn than the freer production of Olevianus, while each made full use of the earlier catechisms already in use. But when the union was effected it was found that the spirits of the two authors were most happily and harmoniously wedded, the exactness and erudition of the one being blended with the fervency and grace of the other. Thus the Heidelberg Catechism , which was completed within a year of its inception, has an individuality that marks it out from all its predecessors and successors. The Heidelberg synod unanimously approved of it, 211 it was published in January 1563, and in the same year officially turned into Latin by Jos. Lagus and Lambert Pithopoeus. The ultra-Lutherans attacked the catechism with great bitterness, the assault being led by Heshusius and Flacius Illyricus. Maximilian II. remonstrated against it as an infringe- ment of the peace of Augsburg. A conference was held at Maulbronn in April 1564, and a personal attack was made on the elector at the diet of Augsburg in 1566, but the defence was well sustained, and the Heidelberg book rapidly passed beyond the bounds of the Palatinate (where indeed it suffered eclipse from 1576 to 1583, during the electorate of Louis), and gained an abundant success not only in Germany (Hesse, Anhalt, Brandenburg and Bremen) but also in the Netherlands (1588), and in the Reformed churches of Hungary, Transylvania and Poland. It was officially recognized by the synod of Dort in 1619, passed into France, Britain and America, and probably shares with the De imitatione Christi and The Pilgrim's Progress the honour of coming next to the Bible in the number of tongues into which it has been translated. This wide acceptance and high esteem are due largely to an avoidance of polemical and controversial subjects, and even mose to an absence of the controversial spirit. There is no mistake about its Protestantism, even when we omit the unhappy addition made to answer 80 by Frederick himself (in indignant reply to the ban pronounced by the Council of Trent), in which the Mass is described as " nothing else than a denial of the one sacrifice and passion of Jesus Christ, and an accursed idolatry " — an addition which is the one blot on the errwtma of the catechism. The work is the product of the best qualities of head and heart, and its prose is frequently marked by all the beauty of a lyric. It follows the plan of the epistle to the Romans (excepting chapters ix.-xi.) and falls into three parts: Sin, Redemption and the New Life. This arrangement alone would mark it out from the normal reformation catechism, which runs along the stereotyped lines of Decalogue, Creed, Lord's Prayer, Church and Sacraments. These themes are included, but are shown as organically related. The Commandments, e.g. " belong to the first part so far as they are a mirror of our sin and misery, but also to the third part, as being the rule of our new obedience and Christian life." The Creed — a panorama of the sublime facts of redemption — and the sacraments find their place in the second part; the Lord's Prayer (with the Decalogue) in the third. See The Heidelberg Catechism, the German Text, with a Revised Translation and Introduction, edited by A. Smellie (London, 1900). HEIDELOFF, KARL ALEXANDER VON (1788-1865), German architect, the son of Victor Peter Heideloff, a painter, was born at Stuttgart. He studied at the art academy of his native town, and after following the profession of an architect for some time at Coburg was in 1818 appointed city architect at Nurem- berg. In 1822 he became professor at the polytechnic school, holding his post until 1854, and some years later he was chosen conservator of the monuments of art. Heideloff devoted his chief attention to the Gothic style of architecture, and the buildings restored and erected by him at Nuremberg and in its neighbourhood attest both his original skill and his purity of taste. He also achieved some success as a painter in water- colour. He died at Hassfurt on the 28th of September 1865. Among his architectural works should be mentioned the castle of Reinhardsbrunn, the Hall of the Knights in the fortress at Coburg, the castle of Landsberg,the mortuary chapel in Meiningen, the little castle of Rosenburg near Bonn, the chapel of the castle of Rheinstein near Bingen^ and the Catholic church in Leipzig. His powers in restoration are shown in the castle of Lichtenstein, the cathedral of Bamberg, and the Knights' Chapel (Ritter Kapelle) at Hassfurt. Among his writings on architecture are Die Lehre von den Sdulen- ordnungen (1827); Der Kleine Vignola (1832); Niirnberes Baudenk- maler der Vorzeit (1838-1843, complete edition 1854); and Die Ornamentik des Mittelalters (1838-1842). HEIDENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, 31 m. by rail north by east of Ulm. Pop. (1005), 12,173. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, 212 HEIFER— HEILSBRONN and several schools. Its industrial establishments include cotton, woollen, tobacco, machinery and chemical factories, bleach-works, dye-works and breweries, and corn and cattle markets. The town, which received municipal privileges in 1356, is overlooked by the ruins of the castle of Hellenstein, standing on a hill 1985 ft. high. Heidenheim is also the name of a small place in Bavaria famous on account of the Benedictine abbey which formerly stood therein. Founded in 748 by Wilibald, bishop of Eichstatt, this was plundered by the peasantry in 1525 and was closed in 1537. HEIFER, a young cow that has not calved. The O. Eng. heah- fore or heafru, from which the word is derived, is of obscure origin. It is found in Bede's History (A.D. 900) as heahfore, and has passed through many forms. It is possibly derived from heah, high, and faren (fare), to go, meaning " high-stepper." It has also been suggested that the derivation is from hea, a stall, and fore, a cow. HEIGEL, KARL AUGUST VON (1835-1905), German novelist, was born, the son of a regisseur or stage-manager of the court theatre, on the 25th of March 1835 at Munich. In this city he received his early schooling and studied (1854-1858) philosophy at the university. He was then appointed librarian to Prince Heinrich zu Carolath-Beuthen in Lower Silesia, and accompanied the nephew of the prince on travels. In 1863 he settled in Berlin, where from 1865 to 1875 he was engaged in journalism. He next resided at Munich, employed in literary work for the king, Ludwig II., who in 1881 conferred upon him a title of nobility. On the death of the king in 1886 he removed to Riva on the Lago di Garda, where he died on the 6th of September 1905. Karl von Heigel attained some popularity with his novels: Wohin ? (1873), Die Dame ohne Herz (1873), Das Geheimnis des Konigs (1891), Der Roman einer Stadt (1898), Der Maha- radschah (1900), Die nervose Frau (1900), Die neuen Heiligen (1901), and Bromels Glilck und Ende (1902). He also wrote some plays, notably Josephine Bonaparte (1892) and Die Zarin (1883) ; and several collections of short stories, Neue Erziihlungen (1876), Neueste Novellen (1878), and Heitere Erziihlungen (1893). HEIJERMANS, HERMANN (1864- ), Dutch writer, of Jewish origin, was born on the 3rd of December 1864 at Rotter- dam. In the Amsterdam Handelsblad he published a series of sketches of Jewish family life under the pseudonym of " Samuel Falkland," which were collected in volume form. His novels and tales include Trinette (1892), Fles (1893), Kamertjeszonde (2 vols., 1896), Interieurs (1897), Diamantstadt (2 vols., 1903). He created great interest by his play Op Hoop van Zegen (1900), represented at the Theatre Antoine in Paris, and in English by the Stage Society as The Good Hope. His other plays are: Dora Kremer (1893), Ghetto (1898), Hel zevende Gebot (1899), Het Pantser (1901), Ora et labora (1901), and numerous one-act pieces. A Case of Arson, an English version of the one-act play Brand in de Jonge Jan, was notable for the impersonation (1904 and 1905) by Henri de Vries of all the seven witnesses who appear as characters. HEILBRONN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttem- berg, situated in a pleasant and fruitful valley on the Neckar, 33 m. by rail N. of Stuttgart, and at the junction of lines to Jagdsfeld, Crailsheim and Eppingen. Pop. (1905), 40,026. In the older part of the town the streets are narrow, and contain a number of high turreted houses with quaintly adorned gables. The old fortifications have now been demolished, and their site is occupied by promenades, outside of which are the more modern parts of the town with wide streets and many handsome buildings. The principal public buildings are the church of St Kilian (restored 1886-1895) in the Gothic and Renaissance styles, begun about 1019 and completed in 1529, with an elegant tower 210 ft. high, a beautiful choir, and a finely carved altar; the town hall (Rathaus), founded in 1540, and possessing a curious clock made in 1580, and a collection of interesting letters and other docu- ments; the house of the Teutonic knights (Deutsches Haus), now used as a court of law; the Roman Catholic church of St Joseph, formerly the church of the Teutonic Order; the tower (Diebsturm or Gotzens Turm) on the Neckar, in which Gotz von Berlichingen was confined in 1519; a fine synagogue; an historical museum and several monuments, among them those to the emperors William I. and Frederick I., to Bismarck, to Schiller and to Robert von Mayer (1814-1878), a native of the town, famous for his discoveries concerning heat. The educa- tional establishments include a gymnasium, a commercial school and an agricultural academy. The town in a commercial point of view is the most important in Wiirttemberg, and possesses an immense variety of manufactures, of which the principal are gold, silver, steel and iron wares, machines, sugar of lead, white lead, vinegar, beer, sugar, tobacco, soap, oil, cement, chemicals, artificial manure, glue, soda, tapestry, paper and cloth. Grapes, fruit, vegetables and flowering shrubs are largely grown in the neighbourhood, and there are large quarries for sandstone and gypsum and extensive salt-works. By means of the Neckar a considerable trade is carried on in wood, bark, leather, agricultural produce, fruit and cattle. Heilbronn occupies the site of an old Roman settlement; it is first mentioned in 741, and the Carolingian princes had a palace here. It owes its name — originally Heiligbronn, or holy spring — to a spring of water which until 1857 was to be seen issuing from under the high altar of the church of St Kilian. Heilbronn obtained privileges from Henry IV. and from Rudolph I. and became a free imperial city in 1360. It was frequently besieged during the middle ages, and it suffered greatly during the Peasants' War, the Thirty Years' War, and the various wars with France. In April 1633 a convention was entered into here between Oxenstierna, the Swabian and Prankish estates and the French, English and Dutch ambassadors, as a result of which the Heilbronn treaty, for the prosecution of the Thirty Years' War, was concluded. In 1802 Heilbronn was annexed by Wiirttem- berg. See Jager, Geschichte von Heilbronn (Heilbronn, 1828) ; Kuttler, Heilbronn, seine Umgebungen und seine Geschichte (Heilbronn, 1859) ; Diirr, Heilbronner Chronik (Halle, 1896); Schliz, Die Entstehung der Stadtgemeinde Heilbronn (Leipzig, 1903); and A. Kiisel, Der Heilbronner Konvent (Halle, 1878). HEILIGENSTADT, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the Leine, 32 m. E.N.E. of Cassel, on the railway to Halle. Pop. (1905), 7955. It possesses an old castle, formerly belonging to the electors of Mainz, one Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, several educational establishments, and an infirmary. The principal manufactures are cotton goods, cigars, paper, cement and needles. Heiligenstadt is said to have been built by the Frankish king Dagobert and was formerly the capital of the principality of Eichsfeld. In 1022 it was acquired by the archbishop of Mainz, and in 1103 it came into the possession of Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony, but when his son Henry the Lion was placed under the ban of the Empire, it again came to Mainz. It was destroyed by fire in 1333, and was captured in 1525 by Duke Henry of Brunswick. In 1803 it came into possession of Prussia. The Jesuits had a celebrated college here from 1581 to 1773. • '; HEILSBERG, a town of Germany, in the province of East Prussia, at the junction of the Simser and Alle, 38 m. S. of Konigsberg. Pop. (1905), 6042. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and an old castle formerly the seat of the prince-bishops of Ermeland, but now used as an infirmary. The principal industries are tanning, dyeing and brewing, and there is considerable trade in grain. The castle founded at Heilsberg by the Teutonic order in 1240 became in 1306 the seat of the bishops of Ermeland, an honour which it retained for 500 years. On the loth of June 1807 a battle took place at Heilsberg between the French under Soult and Murat, and the Russians and Prussians under Bennigsen. HEILSBRONN (or KLOSTER-HEILSBRONN), a village of Germany, in the Bavarian province of Middle Franconia, with a station on the railway between Nuremberg and Ansbach, has 1 200 inhabitants. In the middle ages it was the seat of one of the great monasteries of Germany. This foundation, which belonged to the Cistercian order, owed its origin to Bishop Otto HEIM— HEINE 213 of Bamberg in 1132, and continued to exist till 1555. Its sepulchral monuments, many of which are figured by Hocker, Hetisbronnischer Antiquitatenschatz (Ansbach, 1731-1740), are of exceptionally high artistic interest. It was the hereditary burial-place of the Hohenzollern family and ten burgraves of Nuremberg, five margraves and three electors of Brandenburg, and many other persons of note are buried within its walls. The buildings of the monastery have mostly disappeared, with the exception of the fine church, a Romanesque basilica, restored between 1851 and 1866, and possessing paintings by Albert Dttrer. The " Monk of Heilsbronn " is the ordinary appellation of a didactic poet of the i4th century, whose Sieben Graden, Tochter Syon and Leben des heiligen Alexius were published by J. F. L. T. Merzdorf at Berlin in 1870. See Rehm, Ein Gang durch und um die Miinster-Kirche zu Kloster- Heilsbronn (Ansbach, 1875); Stillfried, Kloster-Heilsbronn, ein Beitrag zu den Hohenzollr.rnschen Forschungen (Berlin, 1877); Muck, Geschichte von Kloster-Heilsbronn (Nordlingen, 1879-1880); J. Meyer, Die Hohenzollerndenkmale in Heilsbronn (Ansbach, 1891); and A. Wagner, Vber den Monch von Heilsbronn (Strassburg, 1876). HEIM, ALBERT VON ST GALLEN (1849- ), Swiss geologist, was born at Zurich on the i2th of April 1849. He was educated at Zurich and Berlin universities. Very early in life he became interested in the physical features of the Alps, and at the age of sixteen he made a model of the Todi group. This came under the notice of Arnold Escher von der Linth, to whom Heim was indebted for much encouragement and geological instruction in the field. In 1873 he became professor of geology in the polytechnic school at Zurich, and in 1875 professor of geology in the university. In 1882 he was appointed director of the Geological Survey of Switzerland, and in 1884 the hon. degree of Ph.D. was conferred upon him at Berne. He is especially distinguished for his researches on the structure of the Alps and for the light thereby thrown on the structure of mountain masses in general. He traced the plications from minor to major stages, and illustrated the remarkable foldings and overthrust faultings in numerous sections and with the aid of pictorial drawings. His magnificent work, Mechanismus der Gebirgs- biidung ( 1 878) , is now regarded as a classic, and it served to inspire Professor C. Lapworth in his brilliant researches on the Scottish Highlands (see Geol. Mag. 1883). Heim also devoted consider- able attention to the glacial phenomena of the Alpine regions. The Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1904 by the Geological Society of London. HEIM, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1787-1865), French painter, was born at Belfort on the i6th of December 1787. He early distinguished himself at the Ecole Centrale of Strassburg, and in 1803 entered the studio of Vincent at Paris. In 1807 he obtained the first prize, and in 1812 his picture of "The Return of Jacob " (Musee de Bordeaux) won for him a gold medal of the first class, which he again obtained in 1817, when he exhibited, together with other works, a St John — bought by Vivant Denon. In 1819 the " Resurrection of Lazarus " (Cathedral Autun), the " Martyrdom of St Cyr " (St Gervais), and two scenes from the life of Vespasian (ordered by the king) attracted attention. In 1823 the " Re-erection of the Royal Tombs at St Denis," the " Martyrdom of St Laurence " (Notre Dame) and several full-length portraits increased the painter's popularity; and in 1824, when he exhibited his great canvas, the " Massacre of the Jews " (Louvre), Heim was rewarded with the legion of honour. In 1827 appeared the " King giving away Prizes at the Salon of 1824 " (Louvre — engraved by Jazet) — the picture by which Heim is best known — and " Saint Hyacinthe." Heim was now commissioned to decorate the Gallery Charles X. (Louvre). Though ridiculed by theromantists, Heim succeeded Regnault at the Institute in 1834, shortly after which he commenced a series of drawings of the celebrities of his day, which are of much interest. His decorations of the Conference room of the Chamber of Deputies were completed in 1844; and in 1847 his works at the Salon — "Champ de Mai " and " Reading a Play at the Theatre Francais " — were the signal for violent criticisms. Yet something like a turn of opinion in his favour took place at the exhibition of 1851; his powers as a draughtsman and the occasional merits of his composition were recognized, and toleration extended even to his colour. Heim was awarded the great gold medal, and in 1855 — having sent to the Salon no less than sixteen portraits, amongst which may be cited those of " Cuvier," " Geoffroy de St Hilaire," and " Madame Hersent "—he was made officer of the legion of honour. In 1859 he again exhibited a curious collection of portraits, sixty-four members of the Institute arranged in groups of four. He died on the 29th of September 1865. Besides the paintings already mentioned, there is to be seen in Notre Dame de Lorette (Paris) a work executed on the spot; and the museum of Strassburg contains an excellent example of his easel pictures, the subject of which is a " Shepherd Drinking from a Spring." HEIMDAL, or HEIMDALL, in Scandinavian mythology, • the keeper of the gates of Heaven and the guardian of the rainbow bridge Bifrost. He is the son of Odin by nine virgins, all sisters. He is called " the god with the golden teeth." He lives in the stronghold of Himinsbiorg at the end of Bifrost. His chief attribute is a vigilance which nothing can escape. He sleeps less than a bird; sees at night and even in his sleep; can hear the grass, and even the wool on a lamb's back grow. He is armed with Gjallar, the magic horn, with which he will summon the gods on the day of judgment. HEINE, HEINRICH (1797-1856), German poet and journalist, was born at Diisseldorf, of Jewish parents, on the i3th of December 1 797. His father, after various vicissitudes in business, had finally settled in Diisseldorf, and his mother, who possessed much energy of character, was the daughter of a physician of the same place. Heinrich (or, more exactly, Harry) was the eldest of four children, and received his education, first in private schools, then in the Lyceum of his native town; although not an especially apt or diligent pupil, he acquired a knowledge of French and English, as well as some tincture of the classics and Hebrew. His early years coincided with the most brilliant period of Napoleon's career, and the boundless veneration which he is never tired of expressing for the emperor throughout his writings shows that his true schoolmasters were rather the drummers and troopers of a victorious army than the masters of the Lyceum. By freeing the Jews from many of the political disabilities under which they had hitherto suffered, Napoleon became, it may be noted, the object of particular enthusiasm in the circles amidst which Heine grew up. When he left school in 1815, an attempt was made to engage him in business in Frankfort, but without success. In the following year his uncle, Solomon Heine, a wealthy banker in Hamburg, took him into his office. A passion for his cousin Amalie Heine seems to have made the young man more contented with his lot in Hamburg, and his success was such that his uncle decided to set him up in business for himself. This, however, proved too bold a step; in a very few months the firm of " Harry Heine & Co." was insolvent. His uncle now generously provided him with money to enable him to study at a university, with the view to entering the legal profession, and in the spring of 1819 Heine became a student of the university of Bonn. During his stay there he devoted himself rather to the study of literature and history than to that of law; amongst his teachers A. W. von Schlegel, who took a kindly interest in Heine's poetic essays, exerted the most lasting influence on him. In the autumn of 1820 Heine left Bonn for Gottingen, where he proposed to devote himself more assiduously to professional studies, but in February of the following year he challenged to a pistol duel a fellow-student who had insulted him, and was, in consequence, rusticated for six months. The pedantic atmosphere of the university of Gottingen was, however, little to his taste; the news of his cousin's marriage unsettled him still more; and he was glad of the opportunity to seek distraction in Berlin. In the Prussian capital a new world opened up to him; a very different life from that of Gottingen was stirring in the new university there, and Heine, like all his contemporaries, sat at the feet of Hegel and imbibed from him, doubtless, those views which in later years made the poet the apostle of an outlook upon life more modern than that of his romantic predecessors. 214 HEINE Heine was also fortunate in having access to the chief literary circles of the capital; he was on terms of intimacy with Varnhagen von Ense and his wife, the celebrated Rahel, at whose house he frequently met such men as the Humboldts, Hegel himself and Schleiermacher; he made the acquaintance of leading men of letters like Fouque and Chamisso, and was on a still more familiar footing with the most distinguished of his co-religionists in Berlin. Under such favourable circum- stances his own gifts were soon displayed. He contributed poems to the Berliner Gesellschafter, many of which were subse- quently incorporated in the Buck der Lieder, and in December 1821 a little volume came from the press entitled Gedichle, his first avowed act of authorship. He was also employed at this time as correspondent of a Rhenish newspaper, as well as in completing his tragedies Almansor and William Raicliff, which were published in 1823 with small success. In that same year Heine, not in the most hopeful spirits, returned to his family, who had meanwhile moved to Liineburg. He had plans of settling in Paris, but as he was still dependent on his uncle, the latter's consent had to be obtained. As was to be expected, Solomon Heine did not favour the new plan, but promised to continue his support on the condition that Harry completed his course of legal study. He sent the young student for a six weeks' holiday at Cuxhaven, which opened the poet's eyes to the wonders of the sea; and three weeks spent subsequently at his uncle's county seat near Hamburg were sufficient to awaken a new passion in Heine's breast — this time for Amalie's sister, Therese. In January 1824 Heine returned to Gottingen, where, with the exception of a visit to Berlin and the excursion to the Hartz mountains in the autumn of 1824, which is immortal- ized in the first volume of the Reisebilder, he remained until his graduation in the summer of the followirfg year. It was on the latter of these journeys that he had the interview with Goethe which was so amusingly described by him in later years. A few weeks before obtaining his degree, he took a step which he had long meditated; he formally embraced Christianity. This " act of apostasy," which has been dwelt upon at unnecessary length both by Heine's enemies and admirers, was actuated wholly by practical considerations, and did not arise from any wish on the 'poet's part to deny his race. The summer months which followed his examination Heine spent by his beloved sea in the island of Norderney, his uncle having again generously supplied the means for this purpose. The question of his future now became pressing, and for a time he seriously considered the plan of settling as a solicitor in Hamburg, a plan which was associated in his mind with the hope of marrying his cousin Therese. Meanwhile he had made arrangements for the publica- tion of the Reisebilder, the first volume of which, Die Harzreise, appeared in May 1826. The success of the book was instan- taneous. Its lyric outbursts and flashes of wit; its rapid changes from grave to gay; its flexibility of thought and style, came as a revelation to a generation which had grown weary of the lumbering literary methods of the later Romanticists. In the spring of the following year Heine paid a long planned visit to England, where he was deeply impressed by the free and vigorous public life, by the size and bustle of London ; above all, he was filled with admiration for Canning, whose policy had realized many a dream of the young German idealists of that age. But the picture had also its reverse; the sordidly commercial spirit of English life, and brutal egotism of the ordinary Englishman, grated on Heine's sensitive nature; he missed the finer literary and artistic tastes of the continent and was repelled by the austerity of English religious sentiment and observance. Unfortunately the latter aspects of English life left a deeper mark on his memory than the bright side. In October Baron Cotta, the well-known publisher, offered Heine — the second volume of whose Reisebilder and the Buck der Lieder had meanwhile appeared and won him fresh laurels — the joint-editorship of the Neue allgemeine polilische Annalen. He gladly accepted the offer and betook himself to Munich. Heine did his best to adapt himself and his political opinions to the new surroundings, in the hope of coming in for a share of the good things which Ludwig I. of Bavaria was so generously distributing among artists and men of letters. But the stings of the Reisebilder were not so easily forgotten; the clerical party in particular did not leave him long in peace. In July 1828, the professorship on which he had set his hopes being still not forthcoming, he left Munich for Italy, where he remained until the following November, a holiday which provided material for the third and part of the fourth volumes of the Reisebilder. A blow more serious than the Bavarian king's refusal to establish him in Munich awaited him on his return to Germany— the death of his father. In the beginning of 1829 Heine took up his abode in Berlin, where he resumed old acquaintanceships; in summer he was again at the sea, and in autumn he returned to the city he now loathed above all others, Hamburg, where he virtually remained until May 1831. These years were not a happy period of the poet's life; his efforts to obtain a position, apart from that which he owed to his literary work, met with rebuffs on every side; his relations with his uncle were un- satisfactory and disturbed by constant friction, and for a time he was even seriously ill. His only consolation in these months of discontent was the completion and publication of the Reise- bilder. When in 1830 the news of the July Revolution in the streets of Paris reached him, Heine hailed it as the beginning of a new era of freedom, and his thoughts reverted once more to his early plan of settling in Paris. All through the following winter the plan ripened, and in May 1831 he finally said farewell to his native land. Heine's first impressions of the " New Jerusalem of Liberalism " were jubilantly favourable; Paris, he proclaimed, was the capital of the civilized world, to be a citizen of Paris the highest of honours. He was soon on friendly terms with many of the notabilities of the capital, and there was every prospect of a congenial and lucrative journalistic activity as correspondent for German newspapers. Two series of his articles were subse- quently collected and published under the titles Franzosische Zustande (1832) and Lutezia (written 1840-1843, published in the Vermischte Schriften, 1854). In December 1835, however, the German Bund, incited by W. Menzel's attacks on " Young Germany," issued its notorious decree, forbidding the publication of any writings by the members of that coterie; the name of Heine, who had been stigmatized as the leader of the movement headed the list. This was the beginning of a series of literary feuds in which Heine was, from now on, involved; but a more serious and immediate effect of the decree was to curtail consider- ably his sources of income. His uncle, it is true, had allowed him 4000 francs a year when he settled in Paris, but at this moment he was not on the best of terms with his Hamburg relatives. Under these circumstances he was induced to take a step which his fellow-countrymen have found it hard to forgive ; he applied to the French government for support from a secret fund formed for the benefit of " political refugees " who were willing to place themselves at the service of France. From 1836 or 1837 until the Revolution of 1848 Heine was in receipt of 4800 francs annually from this source. In October 1834 Heine made the acquaintance of a young Frenchwoman, Eugenie Mirat, a saleswoman in a boot-shop in Paris, and before long had fallen passionately in love with her. Although ill-educated, vain and extravagant, she inspired the poet with a deep and lasting affection, and in 1841, on the eve of a duel in which he had become involved, he made her his wife. " Mathilde," as Heine called her, was not the comrade to help the poet in days of adversity, or to raise him to better things, but, in spite of passing storms, he seems to have been happy with her, and she nursed him faithfully in his last illness. Her death occurred in 1883. His relations with Mathilde undoubtedly helped to weaken his ties with Germany; and notwithstanding the affection he professed to cherish for his native land, he only revisited it twice, in the autumn of 1843 and the summer of 1847. In 1845 appeared the first unmistakable signs of the terrible spinal disease, which, for eight years, from the spring of 1848 till his death, condemned him to a " mattress grave." These years of suffering — suffering which left his HEINECCIUS— HEINECKEN 215 intellect as clear and vivacious as ever — seem to have effected what might be called a spiritual purification in Heine's nature, and to have brought out all the good sides of his character, whereas adversity in earlier years only intensified his cynicism. The lyrics of the Romanzero (1851) and the collection of Neueste Gedichte (1853-1854) surpass in imaginative depth and sincerity of purpose the poetry of the Buck der Lieder. Most wonderful of all are the poems inspired by Heine's strange mystic passion for the lady he called Die Mouche, a countrywoman of his own — her real name was Elise von Krienitz, but she had written in French under the nom de plume of Camille Selden — who helped to brighten the last months of the poet's life. He died on the 1 7th of February 1856, and lies buried in the cemetery of Montmartre. Besides the purely journalistic work of Heine's Paris years, to which reference has already been made, he published a collec- tion of more serious prose writings under the title Der Salon (1833-1839). In this collection will be found, besides papers on French art and the French stage, the essays " Zur Geschichte der Religion und Philosophie in Deutschland," which he had written for the Reoue des deux mond.es. Here, too, are the more character- istic productions of Heine's genius, Aus den Memoiren des Herrn von Schnabelewopski, ' Der Rabbi von Bacherach and Florentinische Nachte. Die romantische Schule (1836), with its unpardonable personal attack on the elder Schlegel, is a less creditable essay in literary criticism. In 1839 appeared Shakespeares Mddchen und Frauen, which, however, was merely the text to a series of illustrations; and in 1840, the witty and trenchant satire on a writer, who, in spite of many personal disagreements, had been Heine's fellow-fighter in the liberal cause, Ludwig Borne. Of Heine's poetical work in these years, his most important publications were, besides the Romanzero, the two admirable satires, Deutschland, ein Wintermarchen (1844), the result of his visit to Germany, and A Ita Troll, ein Sommernachtstraum (1876), an attack on the political Tendenz- literatur of the 'forties. In the case of no other of the greater German poets is it so hard to arrive at a final judgment as in that of Heinrich Heine. In his Buck der Lieder he unquestionably struck a new lyric note, not merely for Germany but for Europe. No singer before him had been so daring in the use of nature-symbolism as he, none had given such concrete and plastic expression to the spiritual forces of heart and soul; in this respect Heine was clearly the descendant of the Hebrew poets of the Old Testament. At times, it is true, his imagery is exaggerated to the degree of absurdity, but it exercised, none the less, a fascination over his generation. Heine combined with a spiritual delicacy, a fineness of perception, that firm hold on reality which is so essential to the satirist. His lyric appealed with particular force to foreign peoples, who had little understanding for the intangible, undefinable spirituality which the German people regard as an indispensable element in their national lyric poetry. Thus his fame has always stood higher in England and France than in Germany itself, where his lyric method, his self-consciousness, his cynicism in season and out of season, were little in harmony with the literary traditions. As far, indeed, as the development of the German lyric is concerned, Heine's influence has been of questionable value. But he introduced at least one new and refreshing element into German poetry with his lyrics of the North Sea; no other German poet has felt and expressed so well as Heine the charm of sea and coast. As a prose writer, Heine's merits were very great. His work was, in the main, journalism, but it was journalism of a high order, and, after all, the best literature of the." Young German " school to which he belonged was of this character. Heine's light fancy, his agile intellect, his straightforward, clear style stood him here in excellent stead. The prose writings of his French period mark, together with Borne's Briefe aus Paris, the beginning of a new era in German journalism and a healthy revolt against the unwieldly prose of the Romantic period. Above all things, Heine was great as a wit and a satirist. His lyric may not be able to assert itself beside that of the very greatest German singers, but as a satirist he had powers of the highest order. He combined the holy zeal and passionate earnestness of the " soldier of humanity " with the withering scorn and ineradicable sense of justice common to the leaders of the Jewish race. It was Heine's real mission to be a reformer, to restore with instruments of war rather than of peace " the interrupted order of the world." The more's the pity that his magnificent Aristophanic genius should have had so little room for its exercise, and have been frittered away in the petty squabbles of an exiled journalist. The first collected edition of Heine's works was edited by A. Strodtmann in 21 vols. (1861-1866), the best critical edition is the Sdmtliche Werke, edited by E. Elster (7 vols., 1887-1890). Heine has been more translated into other tongues than any other German writer of his time. Mention may here be made of the French translation of his (Euvres completes (14 vols., 1852-1868), and the English translation (by C. G. Leland and others) recently completed, The Works of Heinrich Heine (13 vols., 1892-1905). For biography and criticism see the following works : A. Strodtmann, Heines Leben und Werke (3rd ed., 1884); H. Hueffer, Aus dent Leben H. Heines (1878); and by the same author, H. Heine: Gesammelte Aufsdtze (1906); G. Karpeles, H. Heine und seine Zeitgenossen (1888), and by the same author, H. Heine: aus seinem Leben und aus seiner Zeit (1900); W. Bqlsche, //. Heine: Versuch einer asthetisch- kritiscken Analyse seiner Werke und seiner Weltanschauung (1888); G. Brandes, Del unge Tyskland (1890; Eng. trans., 1905). An English biography by W. Stigand, Life, Works and Opinions of Heinrich Heine, appeared in 1875, but it has little value; there is also a short life by W. Sharp (1888). The essays on Heine by George Eliot and Matthew Arnold are well known. The best French contributions to Heine criticism are J. Legras, H. Heine, poete (1897), and H. Lichtenberger, H. Heine, penseur (1905). See also L.P. Betz, Heine in Frankreich (1895). (J. W. F.; J. G. R.) HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1681-1741), German jurist, was born on the nth of September 1681 at Eisenberg, Altenburg. He studied theology at Leipzig, and law at Halle; and at the latter university he was appointed in 1713 professor of philosophy, and in 1718 professor of jurisprudence. He subsequently filled legal chairs at Franeker in Holland and at Frankfort, but finally returned to Halle in 1733 as professor of philosophy and jurisprudence. He died there on the 3ist of August 1 741 . Heineccius belonged to the school of philosophical jurists. He endeavoured to treat law as a rational science, and not merely as an empirical art whose rules had no deeper source than expediency. Thus he continually refers to first principles, and he develops his legal doctrines as a system of philosophy. His chief works were Antiquitatum Romanarum juris prudentiam illustrantium syntagma (1718), Historia juris civilis Romani ac Germanici (1733), Elementa juris Germanici (1735), Elementa juris naturae et gentium (1737; Eng. trans, by Turnbull, 2 vols., London, 1763). Besides these works he wrote on purely philosophical sub- jects, and edited the works of several of the classical jurists. His Opera omnia (9 vols., Geneva, 1771, &c.) were edited by his son Johann Christian Gottlieb Heineccius (1718-1791). Heineccius's brother, JOHANN MICHAEL HEINECCIUS (1674- 1722), was a well-known preacher and theologian, but is re- membered more from the fact ,that he was the first to make a systematic study of seals, concerning which he left a book, De veteribus Germanorum aliarumque nationum sigillis (Leipzig, 1710; 2nd ed., 1719). HEINECKEN, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH (1721-1725), a child remarkable for precocity of intellect, was born on the 6th of February 1721 at Liibeck, where his father was a painter. Able to speak at the age of ten months, by the time he was one year old he knew by heart the principal incidents in the Pentateuch. At two years of age he had mastered sacred history; at three he was intimately acquainted with history and geography, ancient and modern, sacred and profane, besides being able to speak French and Latin; and in his fourth year he devoted himself to the study of religion and church history. This wonderful precocity was no mere feat of memory, for the youthful savant could reason on and discuss the knowledge he had acquired. Crowds of people flocked to Liibeck to see the wonderful child; and in 1724 he was taken to Copenhagen at the desire of the king of Denmark. On his return to Liibeck 2l6 HEINICKE— HEIR he began to learn writing, but his sickly constitution gave way, and he died on the 22nd of June 1725. The Life, Deeds, Travels and Death of the Child of Liibeck were published in the following year by his tutor Schoneich. See also Teutsche Bibliothek, xvii., and Memoires de Trevoux (Jan. 1731). HEINICKE, SAMUEL (1727-1790), the originator in Germany of systematic education for the deaf and dumb, was born on the loth of April 1727, at Nautschiitz, Germany. Entering the electoral bodyguard at Dresden, he subsequently supported himself by teaching. About 1754 his first deaf and dumb pupil was brought him. His success in teaching this pupil was so great that he determined to devote himself entirely to this work. The outbreak of the Seven Years' War upset his plans for a time. Taken prisoner at Pirna, he was brought to Dresden, but soon made his escape. In 1768, when living in Hamburg, he success- fully taught a deaf and dumb boy to talk, following the methods prescribed by Amman in his book Surdus loquens, but improving on them. Recalled to his own country by the elector of Saxony, he opened in Leipzig, in 1778, the first deaf and dumb institution in Germany. This school he directed till his death, which took place on the 3oth of April 1790. He was the author of a variety of books on the instruction of the deaf and dumb. HEINSE, JOHANN JAKOB WILHELM (1740-1803), German author, was born at Langewiesen near Ilmenau in Thuringia on the 1 6th of February 1749. After attending the gymnasium at Schleusingen he studied law at Jena and Erfurt. In Erfurt he became acquainted with Wieland and through him with " Father" Gleim who in 1772 procured him the post of tutor in a family at Quedlinburg. In 1774 he went to Diisseldorf, where he assisted the poet J. G. Jacobi to edit the periodical Iris. Here the famous picture gallery inspired him with a passion for art, to the study of which he devoted himself with so much zeal and insight that Jacobi furnished him with funds for a stay in Italy, where he remained for three years (i 780-1 783). He returned to Diissel- dorf in 1784, and in 1786 was appointed reader to the elector Frederick Charles Joseph, archbishop of Mainz, who subse- quently made him his librarian at Aschaffenburg, where he died on the 22nd of June 1803. The work upon which Heinse's fame mainly rests is Ardinghello und die gluckseligen Inseln (1787), a novel which forms the frame- work for the exposition of his views on art and life, the plot being laid in the Italy of the i6th century. This and his other novels Laidion, oder die eleusinischen Geheimnisse (1774) and Hildegard von Hohenthal (1796) combine the frank voluptuousness of Wieland with the enthusiasm of the " Sturm und Drang." Both as novelist and art critic, Heinse had considerable influence on the romantic school. Heinse's complete works (Samtliche Schriften) were published by H. Laube in 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1838). A new edition by C. Schudde- kopf is in course of publication (Leipzig, 1901 sqq.). See H. Prohle, Lessing, Wieland, Heinse (Berlin, 1877), and J. Schober, Johann Jacob Wilhelm Heinse, sein Leben und seine Werke (Leipzig, 1882); also K. D. Jessen, Heinses Stellung zur bildenden Kunst (Berlin, 1903)- HEINSIUS (or HEINS) DANIEL (1580-1655), one of the most famous scholars of the Dutch Renaissance, was born at Ghent on the 9th of June 1580. The troubles of the Spanish war drove his parents to settle first at Veere in Zeeland, then in England, next at Ryswick and lastly at Flushing. In 1594, being already remarkable for his attainments, he was sent to the university of Franeker to perfect himself in Greek under Henricus Schotanus. He stayed at Franeker half a year, and then settled at Leiden for the remaining sixty years of his life. There he studied under Joseph Scaliger, and there he found Marnix de St Aldegonde, Janus Douza, Paulus Merula and others, and was soon taken into the society of these celebrated men as their equal. His proficiency in the classic languages won the praise of all the best scholars of Europe, and offers were made to him, but in vain, to accept honourable positions outside Holland. He soon rose in dignity at the university of Leiden. In 1602 he was made professor of Latin, in 1605 professor of Greek, and at the death of Merula in 1607 he succeeded that illustrious scholar as librarian to the university. The remainder of his life is recorded in a list of his productions. He died at the Hague on the 25th of February 1655. The Dutch poetry of Heinsius is of the school of Roemer Visscher, but attains no very high excellence. It was, however, greatly admired by Martin Opitz, who was the pupil of Heinsius, and who, in translating the poetry of the latter, introduced the German public to the use of the rhyming alexandrine. He published his original Latin poems in three volumes — Iambi (1602), Elegiae (1603) and Po'emata (1605) ; his Emblemata amatoria, poems in Dutch and Latin, were first printed in 1604. In the same year he edited Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, having edited Hesiod in 1603. In 1609 he printed his Latin Orations. In 1610 he edited Horace, and in 1611 Aristotle and Seneca. In 1613 appeared in Dutch his tragedy of The Massacre of the Innocents; and in 1614 his treatise De politica sapientia. In 1616 he collected his original Dutch poems into a volume. He edited Terence in 1618, Livy in 1620, published his oration De contemptu mortis in 1621, and brought out the Epistles of Joseph Scaliger in 1627. HEINSIUS, NIKOLAES (1620-1681), Dutch scholar, son of Daniel Heinsius, was born at Leiden on the 2oth of July 1620. His boyish Latin poem of Breda expugnata was printed in 1637, and attracted much attention. In 1642 he began his wanderings with a visit to England in search of MSS. of the classics; but he met with little courtesy from the English scholars. In 1644 he was sent to Spa to drink the waters; his health restored, he set out once more in search of codices, passing through Louvain, Brussels, Mechlin, Antwerp and so back to Leiden, everywhere collating MSS. and taking philological and textual notes. Almost immediately he set out again, and arriving in Paris was welcomed with open arms by the French savants. After investigating all the classical texts he could lay hands on, he proceeded southwards, and visited on the same quest Lyons, Marseilles, Pisa, Florence (where he paused to issue a new edition of Ovid) and Rome. Next year, 1647, found him in Naples, from which he fled during the reign of Masaniello; he pursued his labours in Leghorn, Bologna, Venice and Padua, at which latter city he published in 1648 his volume of original Latin verse entitled Ilalica. He proceeded to Milan, and worked for a con- siderable time in the Ambrosian library; he was preparing to explore Switzerland in the same patient manner, when the news of his father's illness recalled him hurriedly to Leiden. He was soon called away to Stockholm at the invitation of Queen Christina, at whose court he waged war with Salmasius, who accused him of having supplied Milton with facts from the life of that great but irritable scholar. Heinsius paid a flying visit to Leiden in 1650, but immediately returned to Stockholm. In 1651 he once more visited Italy; the remainder of his life was divided between Upsala and Holland. He collected his Latin poems into a volume in 1653. His latest labours were the editing of Velleius Paterculus in 1678, and of Valerius Flaccus in 1680. Hedied at the Hague on the 7th of Octoberi68i. Nikolaes Heinsius was one of the purest and most elegant of Latinists, and if his scholarship was not quite so perfect as that of his father, he displayed higher gifts as an original writer. His illegitimate son, NIKOLAES HEINSIUS (b. 1655), was the author of The Delightful Adventures and Wonderful Life of Mirandor (1675), the single Dutch romance of the i7th century. He had to flee the country in 1677 for committing a murder in the streets of the Hague, and died in obscurity. HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in herus or erus, master of a house, Gr. \dp, hand, Sans, hat ana, hand), in law, technically one who succeeds, by descent, to an estate of inheritance, in contradistinction to one who succeeds to personal property, i.e. next of kin. The word is now used generally to denote the person who is entitled by law to inherit property, titles, &c.,of another. The rules regulating the descent of property to an heir will be found in the articles INHERITANCE, SUCCESSION, &c. An heir apparent (Lat. apparens, manifest) is he whose right of inheritance is indefeasible, provided he outlives the ancestor, e.g. an eldest or only son. Heir by custom, or customary heir, he who inherits by a particular and local custom, as in borough-English, whereby HEIRLOOM— HEJAZ the youngest son inherits, or in gavelkind, whereby all the sons inherit as parceners, and made but one heir. Heir general, or heir at law, he who after the death of his ancestor has, by law, the right to the inheritance. Heir presumptive, one who is next in succession, but whose right is defeasible by the birth of a nearer heir, e.g. a brother or nephew, whose presumptive right may be destroyed by the birth of a child, or a daughter, whose right may be defeated by the birth of a son. Special heir, one not heir at law (i.e. at common law), but by special custom. Ultimate heir, he to whom lands come by escheat on failure of proper heirs. In Scots law the technical use of the word " heir " is not confined to the succession to real property, but includes succession to personal property as well. HEIRLOOM, strictly so called in English law, a chattel {" loom " meaning originally a tool) which by immemorial usage is regarded as annexed by inheritance to a family estate. Any owner of such heirloom may dispose of it during his life- time, but he cannot bequeath it by will away from the estate. If he dies intestate it goes to his heir-at-law, and if he devises the estate it goes to the devisee. At the present time such heirlooms are almost unknown, and the word has acquired a secondary and popular meaning and is applied to furniture, pictures, &c., vested in trustees to hold on trust for the person for the time being entitled to the possession of a settled house. Such things are more properly called settled chattels. An heirloom in the strict sense is made by family custom, not by settlement. A settled chattel may, under the Settled Land Act 1882, be sold under the direction of the court, and the money arising under such sale is capital money. The court will only sanction such a sale if it be shown that it is to the benefit of all parties concerned; and if the article proposed to be sold is of unique or historical character, it will have regard to the intention of the settlor and the wishes of the remainder men (Re Hope, De Cello v. Hope, 1899, 2 ch. 679). HEJAZ (HIJAZ), a Turkish vilayet and a province of Western Arabia, extending along the Red Sea coast from the head of the Gulf of Akaba in 29° 30' N. to the south of Taif in 20° N. It is bounded N. by Syria, E. by the Nafud desert and by Nejd and S. by Asir. Its length is about 750 m. and its greatest breadth from the Harra east of Khaibar to the coast is 200 m. The name Hejaz, which signifies " separating," is sometimes limited to the region extending from Medina in the north to Taif in the south, which separates the island province «f Nejd from the Tehama (Tihama) or coastal district, but most authorities, both Arab and European, define it in the wider sense. Though physically the most desolate and uninviting province in Arabia, it has a special interest and importance as containing the two sacred cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina (q.v.), respectively the birthplace and burial-place of Mahomet, which are visited yearly by large numbers of Moslem pilgrims from all parts of the world. Hejaz is divided longitudinally by the Tehama, range of mountains into two zones, a narrow littoral and a broader upland. This range attains its greatest height in Jebel Shar, the Mount Seir of scripture, overlooking the Midian coast, which probably reaches 7000 ft., and Jebel Radhwa a little N.E. of Yambu rising to 6000 ft. It is broken through by several valleys which carry off the drainage of the inland zone; the principal of these is the Wadi Hamd, the main source of which is on the Harra east of Khaibar. Its northern tributary the Wadi Jizil drains the Harrat el Awerid and a southern branch comes from the neighbourhood of Medina.. Farther south the Wadi es Safra cuts through the mountains and affords the principal access to the valley of Medina from Yambu or Jidda. None of the Hejaz Wadis has a perennial stream, but they are liable to heavy floods after the winter rains, and thick groves of date- palms and occasional settlements are met with along their courses wherever permanent springs are found. The northern part of Hejaz contains but few inhabited sites. Muwela, Damgha and El Wijh are small ports used by coasting craft. The last 217 named was formerly an important station on the Egyptian pilgrim route, and in ancient days was a Roman settlement, and the port of the Nabataean towns of el Hajr 150 m. to the east. Inland the sandstone desert of El Hisma reaches from the Syrian border at Ma'an to Jebel Awerid, where the volcanic tracts known as harra begin, and extend southwards along the western borders of the Nejd plateau as far as the latitude of Mecca. East of Jebel Awerid lies the oasis of Tema, identified with the Biblical Teman, which belongs to the Shammar tribe; its fertility depends on the famous well, known as Bir el Hudaj. Farther south and on the main pilgrim route is El 'Ala, the principal settlement of El Hajr, the Egra of Ptolemy, to whom it was known as an oasis town on the gold and frankincense road. Higher up the same valley are the rock-cut tombs of Medina Salih, similar to those at Petra and shown by the Nabataean coins and inscriptions discovered there by Doughty and Huber to date from the beginning of the Christian era. To the south- east again is the oasis of Khaibar, with some 2500 inhabitants, chiefly negroes, the remnants of an earlier slave population. The citadel, known as the Kasr el Yahudi, preserves the tradition of its former Jewish ownership. With these exceptions there are no settled villages between Ma'an and Medina, the stations on the pilgrim road being merely small fortified posts with reservoirs, at intervals of 30 or 40 m., which are kept up by the Turkish government for the protection of the yearly caravan. The southern part of the province is more favoured by nature. Medina is a city of 25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, situated in a broad plain between the coast range and the low hills across which lies the road to Nejd. Its altitude above the sea is about 2500 ft. It is well supplied with water and is surrounded by gardens and plantations; barley and wheat are grown, but the staple produce, as in all the cultivated districts of Hejaz, is dates, of which 100 different sorts are said to grow. Yambu' has a certain importance as the port for Medina. The route follows for part of the way along the Wadi es Safra, which contains several small settlements with abundant date groves; from Badr Hunen, the last of these, the route usually taken from Medina to Mecca runs near the coast, passing villages with some cultivation at each stage. The eastern route though more direct is less used; it passes through a barren country described by Burton as a succession of low plains and basins surrounded by rolling hills and intersected by torrent beds; the predominant formation is basalt. Suwerikiya and Es Safina are the only villages of importance on this route. ' Mecca and the holy places in its vicinity are described in a separate article; it is about 48 m. from the port of Jidda, the most important trade centre of the Hejaz province. The great majority of pilgrims for Mecca arrive by sea at Jidda. Their transport and the supply of their wants is therefore the chief business of the place; in 1004 the number was 66,500, and the imports amounted in value to £1,400,000. From the hot lowland in which Mecca is situated the country rises steeply up to the Taif plateau, some 6000 ft. above sea- level, a district resembling in climate and physical character the highlands of Asir and Yemen. Jebel el Kura at the northern edge of the plateau is a fertile well-watered district, producing wheat and barley and fruit. Taif, a day's journey farther south, lies in a sandy plain, surrounded by low mountains. The houses, though small, are well built of stone; the gardens for which it is celebrated lie at a distance of a mile or more to the S.W. at the foot of the mountains. Hejaz, together with the other provinces of Arabia which on the overthrow of the Bagdad Caliphate in 1258 had fallen under Egyptian domination, became by the conquest of Egypt in 1517 a dependency of the Ottoman empire. Beyond assuming the title of Caliph, neither Salim I. nor his successors interfered much in the government, which remained in the hands of the sharifs of Mecca until the religious upheaval which culminated at the beginning of the igth century in the pillage of the holy cities by the Wahhabi fanatics. Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, was entrusted by the sultan with the task of establishing order, and after several arduous campaigns the Wahhabis were routed 218 HEJIRA— HELDENBUCH and their capital Deraiya in Nejd taken by Ibrahim Pasha in 1817. Hejaz remained in Egyptian occupation until 1845, when its administration was taken over directly by Constan- tinople, and it was constituted a vilayet under a vali or governor- general. The population is estimated at 300,000, about half of which are inhabitants of the towns and the remainder Bedouin, leading a nomad or pastoral life. The principal tribes are the Sherarat, Beni Atiya and Huwetat in the north; the Juhena between Yambu' and Medina, and the various sections of the Harb throughout the centre and south; the Ateba also touch the Mecca border on the south-east. All these tribes receive surra or money payments of large amount from the Turkish government to ensure the safe conduct of the annual pilgrimage, otherwise they are practically independent of the Turkish administration, which is limited to the large towns and garrisons. The troops occupying these latter belong to the i6th (Hejaz) division of the Turkish army. The difficulties of communication with his Arabian provinces, and of relieving or reinforcing the garrisons there, induced the sultan Abdul Hamid in 1900 to undertake the con- ™* struction of a railway directly connecting the Hejaz railway. cities with Damascus without the necessity of leaving Turkish territory at any point, as hitherto required by the Suez Canal. Actual construction was begun in May 1901 and on the ist of September 1904 the section Damascus-Ma'an (285 m.) was officially opened. The line has a narrow gauge of 1-05 metre= 41 in., the same gauge as that of the Damascus- Beirut line; it has a ruling gradient of i in 50 and follows gener- ally the pilgrim track, through a desert country presenting no serious engineering difficulties. The graver difficulties due to the scarcity of water, and the lack of fuel, supplies and labour were successfully overcome; in 1906 the line was completed to El Akhdar, 470 m. from Damascus and 350 from Medina, in time to be used by the pilgrim caravan of that year; and the section to Medina was opened in 1908. Its military value was shown in the previous year, when it conveyed 28 battalions from Damascus to Ma'an, from which station the troops marched to Akaba for embarkation en route to Hodeda.. The length of the line from Damascus to Medina is approximately 820 m., and from Medina to Mecca 280 m.; the highest level attained is about 4000 ft. at Dar el Hamra in the section Ma'an-Medina. AUTHORITIES. — J. L. Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia (London, 1829); 'Ali Bey, Travels (London, 1816); R. F. Burton, Pilgrimage to Medinah and Mecca (1893); Land of Midian (London, 1879); J. S. Hurgronje, Mekka (Hague, 1888); C. M. Doughty, Arabia Deserta (Cambridge, 1888); Auler Pasha, Die Hedschasbahn (Gotha, 1906). (R. A. W.) HEJIRA,1 or HEGIRA (Arab, kijra, flight, departure from one's country, from hajara, to go away) , the name of the Mahom- medan era. It dates from 622, the year in which Mahomet " fled " from Mecca to Medina to escape the persecution of his kinsmen of the Kpreish tribe. The years of this era are dis- tinguished by the initials " A.H." (anno hegirae). The Mahom- medan year is a lunar one, about n days shorter than the Christian; allowance must be made for this in translating Hegira dates into Christian dates; thus A.H. 1321 corresponds roughly to A.D. 1903. The actual date of the " flight " is fixed as 8 Rabia I., i.e. 2oth of September 622, by the tradition that Mahomet arrived at Kufa on the Hebrew Day of Atonement. Although Mahomet himself appears to have dated events by his flight, it was not till seventeen years later that the actual era was systematized by Omar, the second caliph(see CALIPHATE), as beginning from the ist day of Muharram (the first lunar month of the year) which in that year (639) corresponded to July 16. The term hejira is also applied in its more general sense to other " emigrations " of the faithful, e.g. to that to Abyssinia (see MAHOMET), and to that of Mahomet's followers to Medina before the capture of Mecca. These latter are known as Muhajirun. For the problems of Moslem chronology and comparative tables of dates see (beside the articles CALENDAR, CHRONOLOGY and 1 The i in the second syllable is short. MAHOMET),Wustenfeld, Vergleichungstabellen der muhammedanischen und christlichen Zeitrechnung (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1903); Mas Latric, Tresor de chronologie (Paris, 1889); Durbaneh, Universal Calendar (Cairo, 1896); Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen, ii. 326-350; D. Nielson, Die altarabische Mondreligion (Strassburg, 1904) ; Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, s.v. " Hijrah." HEL, or HELA, in Scandinavian mythology, the goddess of the dead. She was a child of Loki and the giantess Angurboda, and dwelt beneath the roots of the sacred ash, Yggdrasil. She was given dominion over the nine worlds of Helheim. In early myth all the dead went to her: in later legend only those who died of old age or sickness, and she then became synonymous with suffering and horror. Her dwelling was Elvidnir (dark clouds), her dish Hungr (hunger), her knife Sullt (starvation), her servants Ganglate (tardy feet), her bed Kor (sickness), and her bed-curtains Blikiandabol (splendid misery). HELDENBUCH, DAS, the title under which a large body of German epic poetry of the I3th century has come down to us. The subjects of the individual poems are taken from national German sagas which originated in the epoch of the Migrations (V olkenvanderung} , although doubtless here, as in all purely popular sagas, motives borrowed from the forces and phenomena of nature were, in course of time, woven into events originally historical. While the saga of the Nibelungs crystallized in the i3th century into the Nibelungenlied (q.v.), and the Low German Hilde-saga into the epic of Gtidrun (q.v.) the poems of the Heldenbuch, in the more restricted use of that term, belong almost exclusively to two cycles, (i) the Ostrogothic saga of Ermanrich, Dietrich von Bern (i.e. Dietrich of Verona,Theodorich the Great) and Etzel (Attila), and (2) the cycle of Hugdietrich, Wolfdietrich and Ortnit, which like the Nibelungen saga, was probably of Franconian origin. The romances of the Heldenbuch are of varying poetic value; only occasionally do they rise to the height of the two chief epics, the Nibelungenlied and Gudrun. Dietrich von Bern, the central figure of the first and more im- portant group, was the ideal type of German medieval hero, and, under more favourable literary conditions, he might have become the centre of an epic more nationally German than even the Nibelungenlied itself. Of the romances of this group, the chief are Biterolf und Dietlieb, evidently the work of an Austrian poet, who introduced many elements from the court epic of chivalry into a milieu and amongst characters familiar to us from the Nibelungenlied. Der Rosengarten tells of the conflicts which took place round Kriemhild's " rose garden " in Worms— conflicts from which Dietrich always emerges victor, even when he is confronted by Siegfried himself. In Laurin und der kleine Rosengarten, the Heldensage is mingled with elements of popular fairy-lore; it deals with the adventures of Dietrich and his henchman Witege with the wily dwarf Laurin, who watches over another rose garden, that of the Tyrol. Similar in character are the adventures of Dietrich with the giants Ecke (Eckenlied) and Sigenot, with the dwarf Goldemar, and the deeds of chivalry he performs for queen Virginal (Dietrichs erste Ausfahrt) — all of these romances being written in the fresh and popular tone characteristic of the wandering singers or Spielleute. Other elements of the Dietrich saga are represented by the poems Alpharts Tod, Dietrichs Flucht and Die Rabenschlacht (" Battle of Ravenna "). Of these, the first is much the finest poem of the entire cycle and worthy of a place beside the best popular poetry of the Middle High German epoch. Alphart, a young hero in Dietrich's army, goes out to fight single-handed with Witege and Heime, who had deserted to Ermanrich, and he falls, not in fair battle, but by the treachery of Witege whose life he had spared. The other two Dietrich epics belbng to a later period, the end of the i3th century — the author being an Austrian, Heinrich der Vogler — and show only too plainly the decay that had by this time set in in Middle High German poetry. The second cycle of sagas is represented by several long romances, all of them unmistakably " popular " in tone — conflicts with dragons, supernatural adventures, the wonderland of the East providing the chief features of interest. The epics of this group are Ortnit, Hugdietrich, Wolfdietrich, the latter with its HELDER— HELENA 219 pathetic episode of the unswerving loyalty of Wolfdietrich's vassal Duke Berchtung and his ten sons. Although many of the incidents and motives of this cycle are drawn from the best traditions of the Heldensage, its literary value is not very high. This collection of popular romances was one of the first German books to be printed. The date of the first edition is unknown, but the second edition appeared in the year 1491 and was followed by later reprints in 1509, 1545, 1560 and 1590. The last of these forms the basis of the text edited by A. von Keller for the Stuttgart Literarische Verein in 1867. In 1472 the Heldenbuch was adapted to the popular tastes of the time by being remodelled in rough Knittelvers or doggerel ; the author, or at least copyist, of the MS. was a certain Kaspar von der Roen, of Munnerstadt in Franconia. This version was printed by F. von der Hagen and S. Primisser in their Heldenbuch (1820-1825). Das Heldenbuch, which F. von der Hagen published in 2 vols. in 1855, was the first attempt to reproduce the original text by collating the MSS. A critical edition, based not merely on the oldest printed text— the only one which has any value for this purpose, as the others are all copies of it — but also on the MSS., was published in 5 vols. by O. Janicke, E. Martin, A. Amelung and J. Zupitza at Berlin (1866-1873). A selection, edited by E. Henrici, will be found in Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. 7 (1887). Recent editions have appeared of Der Rosengarten and Laurin, by G. Holz (1893 and 1897). All the poems have been translated into modern German by K. Simrock and others. See F. E. Sandbach, The Heroic Saga-Cycle of Dietrich of Bern (1906). The literature of the Heldensage is very extensive. See especially W. Grimm, Die deutsche Heldensage (3rd ed., 1889); L. Uhland, " Geschichte der deutschen Poesie im Mittelalter," Schriften, vol. i. (1866); O. L. Jiriczek, Deutsche Heldensage,- vol. i. (1898); and especially B. Symons, " Germanische Heldensage," in Paul's Grund- riss der germanischen Philologie (2nd ed., 1898). HELDER, a seaport town at the northern extremity of the province of North Holland, in the kingdom of Holland, 51 m. by rail N.N.W. of Amsterdam. Pop. (1900) 25,842. It is situated on the Marsdiep, the channel separating the island of Texel from the mainland, and the main entrance to the Zuider Zee, and besides being the terminus of the North Holland canal from Amsterdam, it is an important naval and military station. On the east side of the town, called the Nieuwe Diep, is situated the fine harbour, which formerly served, as Ymuiden now does, as the outer port of Amsterdam. In this neighbourhood are the naval wharves and magazines, wet and dry docks, and the naval cadet school of Holland, the name Willemsoord being given to the whole naval establishment. From Nieuwe Diep to Fort Erfprins on the west side of the town, a distance of about 5 m., stretches the great sea-dike which here takes the place of the dunes. This dike descends at an angle of 40° for a distance of 200 ft. into the sea, and is composed of Norwegian granite and Belgian limestone, strengthened at intervals by projecting jetties of piles and fascines. A circle of forts and batteries defends the town and coast, and there is a permanent garrison of 7000 to 9000 men, while 30,000 men can be accommodated within the lines, and the province flooded from this point. Besides several churches and a synagogue, there are a town hall (1836), a hospital, an orphan asylum, the " palace " of the board of marine, a meteorological observatory, a zoological station and a lighthouse. The industries of the town are sustained by the garrison and marine establishments. , HELEN, or HELENA (Gr. 'EXeirj), in Greek mythology, daughter of Zeus by Leda (wife of Tyndareus, king of Sparta),, sister of Castor, Pollux and Clytaemnestra, and wife of Menelaus. Other accounts make her the daughter of Zeus and Nemesis, or of Oceanus and Tethys. She was the most beautiful woman in Greece, and indirectly the cause of the Trojan war. When a child she was carried off from Sparta by Theseus to Attica, but was recovered and taken back by her brothers. When she grew up, the most famous of the princes of Greece sought her hand in marriage, and her father's choice fell upon Menelaus. During her husband's absence she was induced by Paris, son of Priam, with the connivance of Aphrodite, to flee with him to Troy. After the death of Paris she married his brother Delphobus, whom she is said to have betrayed into the hands of Menelaus at the capture of the city (Aeneid, vi. 517 ff.). Menelaus there- upon took her back, and they returned together to Sparta, where they lived happily till their death, and were buried at Therapnae in Laconia. According to another story, Helen survived her husband, and was driven out by her stepsons. She fled to Rhodes, where she was hanged on a tree by her former friend Polyxo, to avenge the loss of her husband Tlepolemus in the Trojan War (Pausanias iii. 19). After death, Helen was said to have married Achilles in his home in the island of Leuke. In another version, Paris, on his voyage to Troy with Helen, was driven ashore on the coast of Egypt, where King Proteus, upon learning the facts of the case, detained the real Helen in Egypt, while a phantom Helen was carried off to Troy. Menelaus on his way home was also driven by stress of winds to Egypt, where he found his wife and took her home (Herodotus ii. 112-120; Euripides, Helena). Helen was worshipped as the goddess of beauty at Therapnae in Laconia, where a festival was held in her honour. At Rhodes she was worshipped under the name of Dendritis (the tree goddess), where the inhabitants built a temple in her honour to expiate the crime of Polyxo. The Rhodian story probably contains a reference to the worship connected with her name (cf. Theocritus xviii. 48 akfiov n'., 'E\tvas vrov ei/w). She was the subject of a tragedy by Euripides and an epic by Colluthus. Originally, Helen was perhaps a goddess of light, a moon-goddess, who was gradually transformed into the beautiful heroine round whom the action of the Iliad revolves. Like her brothers, the Dioscuri, she was a patron deity of sailors. See E. Oswald, The Legend of Fair Helen (1905) ; J. A. Symonds, Studies of the Creek Poets, i. (1893); F. Decker, Die griechische Helena in Mythos und Epos (1894); Andrew Lang, Helen of Troy (1883); P. Paris in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des an- tiquites; the exhaustive article by R. Engelmann in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; and O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythplogie, i. 163, according to whom Helen originally represented, in the Helenephoria (a mystic festival of Artemis, Iphigeneia or Tauro- polos), the sacred basket (k\kvri) in which the holy objects were carried ; and hence, as the personification of the initiation ceremony, she was connected with or identified with the moon, the first appear- ance of which probably marked the beginning of the festivity. , HELENA, ST (c. 247-^. 327) the wife of the emperor Constantius I. Chlorus, and mother of Constantine the Great. She was a woman of humble origin, born probably at Drepanum, a town on the Gulf of Nicomedia, which Constantine named Helenopolis in her honour. Very little is known of her history. It is certain that, at an advanced age, she undertook a pilgrimage to Palestine, visited the holy places, and founded several churches. She was still living at the time of the murder of Crispus (326). Con- stantine had coins struck with the effigy of his mother. The name of Helena is intimately connected with the commonly received story of the discovery of the Cross. But the accounts which connect her with the discovery are much later than the date of the event. The Pilgrim of Bordeaux (333), Eusebius and Cyril of Jerusalem were unaware of this important episode in the life of the empress. It was only at the end of the 4th century and in the West that the legend appeared. The principal centre of the cult of St Helena in the West seems to be the abbey of Hautvilliers, near Reims, where since the pth century they have claimed to be in possession of her body. In England legends arose representing her as the daughter of a prince of Britain. Following these Geoffrey of Monmouth makes her the daughter of Coel, the king who is supposed to have given his name to the town of Colchester. These legends have doubt- less not been without influence on the cult of the saint in England, where a great number of churches are dedicated either to St Helena alone, or to St Cross and St Helena. Her festival is celebrated in the Latin Church on the i8th of August. The Greeks make no distinction between her festival and that of Constantine, the 2ist of May. See Acta sanctorum, August! iii. 548-580; Tixeront, Les Origines de I'eglise d'Edesse (Paris, 1888); F. Arnold-Forster, Studies in Church Dedications or England's Patron Saints, i. 181-189, "'• '6> 365-366 (1899). (H. DE.) HELENA, a city and the county-seat of Phillips county, Arkansas, U.S.A., situated on and at the foot of Crowly's Ridge, about 150 ft. above sea-level, in the alluvial bottoms of the Mississippi river, about 65 m. by rail S.W. of Memphis, Tennessee. Pop. (1890) 5189, (1900) 5550, of whom 3400 220 HELENA— HELGESEN werenegroes; (1910) 8772. It is served by the Yazoo& Mississippi Valley (Illinois Central), the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern (Missouri Pacific), the Arkansas Midland, and the Missouri & North Arkansas railways. Built in part upon " made land," well protected by levees, and lying within the richest cotton- producing region of the south, the rich timber country oi the St Francis river, and the Mississippi " bottom lands," Helena concentrates its economic interests in cotton-compressing and shipping, the manufacture of cotton-seed products, lumbering and wood- working. The city was founded about 1821, but so late as 1860 the population was only 800. During the Civil War the place was of considerable strategic importance. It was occupied in July 1862 by the Union forces, who strongly fortified it to guard their communications with the lower Mississippi; on the 4th of July 1863, when occupied by General Benjamin M. Prentiss (1819-1901) with 4500 men, it was attacked by a force of 9000 Confederates under General TheophilusH. Holmes (1804-1880), who hoped to raise the siege of Vicksburg or close the river to the Union forces. The attack was repulsed, with a loss to the Confederates of one-fifth their numbers, the Union loss being slight. HELENA, a city and the county-seat of Lewis and Clark county, Montana, U.S.A., and the capital of the state, at the E. base of the main range of the Rocky Mountains, 80 m. N.E. of Butte, at an altitude of about 4000 ft. Pop. (1880) 3624; (1890) 13,834; (1900) 10,770, of whom 2793 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,515. It is served by the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific railways. Helena is delightfully situated with Mt Helena as a background in the hollow of the Prickly Pear valley, a rich agricultural region surrounded by rolling hills and lofty mountains, and contains many fine buildings, including the state capitol, county court house, the Montana club house, high school, the cathedral of St Helena, a federal building, and the United States assay office. It is the seat of the Montana Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal), founded in 1890; St Aloysius College and St Vincent's Academy (Roman Catholic); and has a public library with about 35,000 volumes, the Montana state library with about 40,000 volumes, and the state law library with about 24,000 volumes. The city is the commercial and financial centre of the state (Butte being the mining centre), and is one of the richest cities in the United States in proportion to its population. It has large railway car-shops, extensive smelters and quartz crushers (at East Helena), and various manufacturing establishments; the value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,309,746, an increase of 68-7 % over that of 1900. The surrounding country abounds in gold- and silver-bearing quartz deposits, and it is estimated that from the famous Last Chance Gulch alone, which runs across the city, more than $40,000,000 in gold has been taken. The street railway and the lighting system of the city are run by power generated at a plant and 40 ft. dam at Canyon Ferry, on the Missouri river, 18 m. E. of Helena. There is another great power plant at Hauser Plant, 20 m. N. of Helena. Three miles W. of the city is the Broadwater Natatorium with swimming pool, 300 ft. long and 100 ft. wide, the water for which is furnished by hot springs with a temperature at the source of 160°. Fort Harrison, a United States army post, is situated 3 m. W. of the city. Helena was established as a placer mining camp in 1864 upon the discovery of gold in Last Chance Gulch. The town was laid out in the same year, and after the organization of Montana Territory it was designated as the capital. Helena was burned down in 1869 and in 1874. It was chartered as a city in 1881. HELENSBURGH, a municipal and police burgh and watering- place of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on the N. shore of the Firth of Clyde, opposite Greenock, 24 m. N.W. of Glasgow by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 8554. There is a station at Upper Helensburgh on the West Highland railway, and from the railway pier at Craigendoran there is steamer communication with Garelochhead, Dunoon and other pleasure resorts on the western coast. In 1776 the site began to be built upon, and in 1802 the town, named after Lady Helen, wife of Sir James Colquhoun of Luss, the ground landlord, was erected into a burgh of barony, under a provost and council. The public buildings include the burgh hall, municipal buildings, Hermitage schools and two hospitals. On the esplanade stands an obelisk to Henry Bell, the pioneer of steam navigation, who died at Helensburgh in 1830. HELENUS, in Greek legend, son of Priam and Hecuba, and twin-brother of Cassandra. He is said to have been originally called Scamandrius, and to have receive^} the name of Helenus from a Thracian soothsayer who instructed him in the prophetic art. In the Iliad he is described as the prince of augurs and a brave warrior; in the Odyssey he is not mentioned at all. Various details concerning him are added by later writers. It is related that he and his sister fell asleep in the temple of Apollo Thymbraeus and that snakes came and cleansed their ears, whereby they obtained the gift of prophecy and were able to understand the language of birds. After the death of Paris, Helenus and his brother Dei'phobus became rivals for the hand of Helen. Dei'phobus was preferred, and Helenus withdrew in indignation to Mount Ida, where he was captured by the Greeks, whom he advised to build the wooden horse and carry off the Palladium. According to other accounts, having been made prisoner by a stratagem of Odysseus, he declared that Philoctetes must be fetched from Lemnos before Troy could be taken; or he surrendered to Diomedes and Odysseus in the temple of Apollo, whither he had fled in disgust at the sacrilegious murder of Achilles by Paris in the sanctuary. After the capture of Troy, he and his sister-in-law Andromache accompanied Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus) as captives to Epirus, where Helenus persuaded him to settle. After the death of Neoptolemus, Helenus married Andromache and became ruler of the country. He was the reputed founder of Buthrotum and Chaonia, named after a brother or companion whom he had accidentally slain while hunting. He was said to have been buried at Argos, where his tomb was shown. When Aeneas, in the course of his wanderings, reached Epirus, he was hospitably received by Helenus, who predicted his future destiny. Homer, Iliad, vi. 76, vii. 44, xii. 94, xiii. 576; Sophocles, Philoc- tetes, 604, who probably follows the Little Iliad of Lesches; Pausanias i. ii, ii. 23; Conon, Narrationes, 34; Dictys Cretensis iv. 18; Virgil, Aeneid, ill. 294-490; Servius on Aeneid, ii. 166, iii. 334. HELGAUD, or HELGALDUS (d. c. 1048), French chronicler, was a monk of the Benedictine abbey of Fleury. Little else is known about him save that he was chaplain to the French king, Robert II. the Pious, whose life he wrote. This Epitoma •uitae Roberti regis, which is probably part of a history of the abbey of Fleury, deals rather with the private than with the public life of the king, and its value is not great either from the literary or from the historical point of view. The only existing manuscript is in the Vatican, and the Epitoma has been printed by J. P. Migne in the Patrologia Lalina, tome cxli. (Paris, 1844); and by M. Bouquet in the Recueil des historiens des Gaules, tome x. (Paris, 1760). See Histoire lilteraire de la France, tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869) ; and A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome ii. (Paris, 1902) HELGESEN, POVL,1 Danish humanist, was born at Varberg in Halland about 1480, of a Danish father and a Swedish mother. Helgesen was educated first at the Carmelite monastery of his native place and afterwards at another monastery at Elsinore, where he devoted himself to humanistic studies and adopted Erasmus as his model. None had a keener eye for the abuses of the Church; long before the appearance of Luther, he denounced the ignorance and immorality of the clergy, and, as lector at the university of Copenhagen, gathered round him a band of young enthusiasts, the future leaders of the Danish Reformation. But Helgesen desired an orderly, methodical, rational reformation, and denounced Luther, whose ablest opponent in Denmark he subsequently became, as a hot-headed revolutionist. Christian II. was also an object of Helgesen's detestation, and so boldly did he oppose that monarch's measures 1 He wrote his name Heliae or Eliae. HELIACAL— HELIAND 221 that, to save his life, he had to flet to Jutland. Under Frederick I. (1523-1533) he returned to Copenhagen and resumed his chair at the university, becoming soon afterwards provincial of the Carmelite Order for Scandinavia. But like all moderate men in a time of crisis, Helgesen could gain the confidence of neither party, and was frequently attacked as bitterly by the Catholics as by the Protestants. From 1 530 to 1 533 he and the Protestant champion Hans Tausen exhausted the whole vocabulary of vituperation in their fruitless polemics. In October 1534, however, Helgesen issued an eirenicon in which he attempted to reconcile the two contending confessions. After that every trace of him is lost. For a long time he was unjustly regarded as a turn-coat, but he was too superior to the prejudices of his age to be understood by his contemporaries. His ideal was a moral internal reformation of the Church on a rational basis, conducted not by ill-informed fanatics, but by an enlightened and well-educated clergy; and from this standpoint he never diverged. Helgesen was indisputably the greatest master of style of his age in Denmark, and as a historian he also occupies a prominent position. He always endeavours to probe down to the very soul of things, though his passionate nature made it very difficult for him to be impartial. His chief works are Danmark's Kongers Historic and Skibby Kroniken. See Ludwig Schmitt, Der Karmeliter Paulus Helia (Freiburg, 1893); Danmarks Riges Historic (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. iii. HELIACAL, relating to the sun (^Xtos), a term applied in the ancient astronomy to the first rising of a star which could be seen after it emerged from the rays of the sun, or the last setting that could be seen before it was lost from sight by proximity to the sun. HELIAND. The pth-century poem on the Gospel history, to which its first editor, J. A. Schmeller, gave the appropriate name of Heliand (the word used in the text for " Saviour," answering to the O. Eng. hadend and the Ger. Heiland), is, with the fragments of a version of the story of Genesis believed to be by the same author, all that remains of the poetical literature of the old Saxons, i.e. the Saxons who continued in their original home. It contained when entire about 6000 lines, and portions of it are preserved in four MSS. The Cotton MS. in the British Museum, written probably late in the loth century, is nearly complete, ending in the middle of the story of the journey to Emmaus. The Munich MS., formerly at Bamberg, begins at line 85, and has many lacunae, but continues the history down to the last verse of St Luke's Gospel, ending, however, in the middle of a sentence. A MS. discovered at Prague in 1881 contains lines 958-1106, and another, in the Vatican library, discovered by K. Zangemeister in 1894, contains lines 1279-1358. The poem is based, not directly on the New Testament, but on the oseudo-Tatian's harmony of the Gospels, and it shows acquaintance with the commentaries of Alcuin, Baada and Hrabanus Maurus. The questions relating to the Heliand cannot be adequately discussed without considering also the poem on the history of Genesis, which, on the grounds of similarity in style and vocabu- lary, and for other reasons afterwards to be mentioned, may with some confidence be referred to the same author. A part of this poem, as is mentioned in the article GEDMON, is extant only in an Old English translation. The portions that have been preserved in the original language are contained in the same Vatican MS. that includes the fragment of the Heliand referred to above. In the one language or the other, there are in existence the following three fragments: (i) The passage which appears as lines 235-851 in the so-called " Caedmon's Genesis," on the revolt of the angels and the temptation and fall of Adam and Eve. Of this the part corresponding to lines 790- 820 exists also in the original Old Saxon. (2) The story of Cain and Abel, in 124 lines. (3) The account of the destruction of Sodom, in 187 lines. The main source of the Genesis is the Bible, but Professor E. Sievers has shown that considerable use was made of the two Latin poems by Alcimus Avitus, De initio mundi and De peccato originali. The two poems give evidence of genius and trained skill, though the poet was no doubt hampered by the necessity of not deviating too widely from the sacred originals. Within the limits imposed by the nature of his task, his treatment of his sources is remarkably free, the details unsuited for poetic handling being passed over, or, in some instances, boldly altered. In many passages his work gives the impression of being not so much an imitation of the ancient Germanic epic, as a genuine example of it, though concerned with the deeds of other heroes than those of Germanic tradition. In the Heliand the Saviour and His Apostles are conceived as a king and his faithful warriors, and the use of the traditional epic phrases appears to be not, as with Cynewulf or the author of Andreas, a mere following of accepted models, but the spontaneous mode of expression of one accustomed to sing of heroic themes. The Genesis fragments have less of the heroic tone, except in the splendid passage describing the rebellion of Satan and his host. It is noteworthy that the poet, like Milton, sees in Satan no mere personification of evil, but the fallen archangel, whose awful guilt could not obliterate all traces of his native majesty. Somewhat curiously, but very naturally, Enoch the son of Cain is confused with the Enoch who was translated to heaven — an error which the author of the Old English Genesis avoids, though (according to the existing text) he confounds the names of Enoch and Enos. Such external evidence as exists bearing on the origin of the Heliand and the companion poem is contained in a Latin docu- ment printed by Flacius Illyricus in 1562. This is in two parts; the one in prose, entitled (perhaps only by Flacius himself) " Praefatio ad librum anliquum in lingua Saxonica conscriptum "; the other in verse, headed " Versus de poeta et Interpreta hujus codicis." The Praefalio begins by stating that the emperor Ludwig the Pious, desirous that his subjects should possess the word of God in their own tongue, commanded a certain Saxon, who was esteemed among his countrymen as an eminent poet, to translate poetically into the German language the Old and New Testaments. The poet willingly obeyed, all the more because he had previously received a divine command to under- take the task. He rendered into verse all the most important parts of the Bible with admirable skill, dividing his work into vitteas, a term which, the writer says, may be rendered by " lectiones " or " sententias." The Praefatio goes on to say that it was reported that the poet, till then knowing nothing oi the art of poetry, had been admonished in a dream to turn into verse the precepts of the divine law, which he did with so much skill that his work surpasses in beauty all other German poetry (ut cuncta Theudisca poemata suo vincat decor e}. The Versus practically reproduce in outline Baeda's account of Caedmon's dream, without mentioning the dream, but describing the poet as a herdsman, and adding that his poems, beginning with the creation, relate the history of the five ages of the world down to the coming of Christ. The suspicion of some earlier scholars that the Praefatio and the Versus might be a modern forgery is refuted by the occur- rence of the word vitteas, which is the Old Saxon fittea, cor- responding to the Old English fitt, which means a " canto " of a poem. It is impossible that a scholar of the i6th century could have been acquainted with this word, and internal evidence shows clearly that both the prose and the verse are of early origin. The Versus, considered in themselves, might very well be supposed to relate to Caedmon; but the mention of the five ages of the world in the concluding lines is obviously due to recollection of the opening of the Heliand (lines 46-47). It is therefore certain that the Versus, as well as the Praefatio, -attri- bute to the author of the Heliand a poetic rendering of the Old Testament. Their testimony, if accepted, confirms the ascription to him of the Genesis fragments, which is further supported by the fact that they occur in the same MS. with a portion of the Heliand. As the Praefatio speaks of the emperor Ludwig in the present tense, the former part of it at least was probably written in his reign, i.e. not later than A.D. 840. The general opinion of scholars is that the latter part, which represents the poet as having received his vocation in a dream, is by a later hand, and that the sentences in the earlier part which refer to the dream are 222 HELICON— HELIGOLAND interpolations by this second author. The date of these additions and of the Versus, is of no importance, as their statements ar incredible. That the author of the Heliand was, so to speak another Caedmon — an unlearned man who turned into poetrj what was read to him from the sacred writings — is impossible because in many passages the text of the sources is so closely followed that it is clear that the poet wrote with the Latin books before him. On the other hand, there is no reason for rejecting the almost contemporary testimony of the first part of the Praefatio that the author of the Heliand had won renown as a poet before he undertook his great task at the emperor1! command. It is certainly not impossible that a Christian Saxon sufficiently educated to read Latin easily, may have chosen to follow the calling of a scop or minstrel » instead of entering the priesthood or the cloister; and if such a person existed, it woulc be natural that he should be selected by the emperor to execute his design. As has been said above, the tone of many portions o the Heliand is that of a man who was no mere imitator of the ancient epic, but who had himself been accustomed to sing ol heroic themes. The commentary on the gospel of Matthew by Hrabanus Maurus was finished about 821, which is therefore the superior limit of date for the composition of the Heliand. It is usually maintained that this work was written before the Old Testament poems. The arguments for this view are that the Heliand con- tains no allusion to any foregoing poetical treatment of the ante- cedent history, and that the Genesis fragments exhibit a higher degree of poetic skill. This reasoning does not appear con- clusive, and if it be set aside, the limit of date for the beginning of the work is carried back to A.D. 814, the year of the accession of Ludwig. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— The first complete edition of the Heliand was published by J. A. Schmeller in 1830; the second volume, containing the glossary and grammar, appeared in 1840. The standard edition is that of E. Sievers (1877), m which the texts of the Cotton and Munich MSS. are printed side by side. It is not provided with a glossary, but contains an elaborate and most valuable analysis of the diction, synonymy and syntactical features of the poem. Other useful editions are those of M. Heyne (3rd ed., 1903), O. Behaghel (1882) and P. Piper (1897, containing also the Genesis fragments). The fragments of the Heliand and the Genesis contained in the Vatican MS. were edited in 1894 by K. Zangemeister and W. Braune under the title Bruchstucke der altsdchsischen Bibeldichtung. Among the works treating of the authorship, sources and place of origin of the poems, the most important are the following: E. Windisch Der Heliand und seine Quellen (1868) ; E. Sievers, Der Heliand und die angelsdchsische Genesis (1875); R- Kogel, Deutsche Literatur- geschichte, Bd. i. (1894) and Die altsachsische Genesis (1895)- R. Kogel and W. Bruckner, " Althoch- und altniederdeutsche Li- teratur, in Paul's Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, Bd. ii. (2nd ed., 1901), which contains references to many other works; Hermann Collitz, Zum Dialekte des Heliand (1901). (H. BR.) HELICON, a mountain range, of Boeotia in ancient Greece, celebrated in classical literature as the favourite haunt of the Muses, is situated between Lake Copals and the Gulf of Corinth. On the fertile eastern slopes stood a temple and grove sacred to the Muses, and adorned with beautiful statues, which, taken by Constantine the Great to beautify his new city, were consumed there by a fire in A.D. 404. Hard by were the famous fountains, Aganippe and Hippocrene, the latter fabled to have gushed from the earth at the tread of the winged horse Pegasus, whose favourite browsing place was there. At the neighbouring Ascra dwelt the poet Hesiod, a fact which probably enhanced the poetic fame of the region. Pausanias, who describes Helicon in his ninth book, asserts that it was the most fertile mountain in Greece, and that neither poisonous plant nor serpent was to be found on it, while many of its herbs possessed a miraculous healing virtue. The highest summit, the present Palaeovouni (old hill), rises to the height of about 5000 ft. Modern travellers, aided by ancient remains and inscriptions, and guided by the local descriptions of Pausanias, have succeeded in identifying many of the ancient classical spots, and the French excavators have discovered the temple of the Muses and a theatre. 1 The term Volkssanger, commonly used in German discussions of this question, is misleading; the audience for heroic poetry was not " tlie people " in the modern sense, but the nobles. See also Clarke, Travels in Various Countries (vol. vii 1818)- i,, , / I Musical and Topographical Tour through Greece (i8l8): W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece (vol. ii., 1835)- J G Frazer's edition of Pausanias, v. 150. HELICON (Fr. helicon, bombardon circulaire; Ger. Helikon), the circular form of the Bt> contrabass tuba used in military bands, worn round the body, with the enormous beH resting on the left shoulder and towering above the head of the performer. The pitch of the helicon is an octave below that of the euphonium. The idea of winding the long tube of the contrabass tuba and of wearing it round the shoulders was suggested by the ancient Roman buccina and cornu, represented in mosaics and on the sculptured reliefs surrounding Trajan's Column. The buccina and cornu2 differed in the diameter of their respective bores, the former having the narrow, almost cylindrical bore and harmonic series of the trumpet and trombone, whereas the cornu, having a bore in the form of a wide cone, was the prototype of the bugle and tubas. HELIGOLAND (Ger. Helgoland), an island of Germany, in the North Sea, lying off the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, 28 m. from the nearest point in the mainland. Pop. (1900) 2307. From 1807 to 1890 a British possession, it was ceded in 1890 to Germany, and since 1892 has formed part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. It consists of two islets, the smaller, the Dunen-Insel, a quarter of a mile E. of the main, or Rock Island, connected until 1720, when it was severed by a violent irruption of the sea, with the other by a neck of land, and the main, or Rock Island. The latter is nearly triangular in shape and is surrounded by steep red cliffs, the only beach being the sandy spit near the south-east point, where the landing-stage is situated. The rocks composing the cliffs are worn into caves, and around the island are many fantastic arches and columns. The impression made by the red cliffs, fringed by a white beach and supporting the green Oberland, is commonly believed to have suggested the national colours, red, white and green, or, as the old Frisian rhyme goes: — " Gron is dat Land, Rood is de Kant, Witt is de Sand, Dat is de Flagg vun't hillige Land." The lower town of Unterland, on the spit, and the upper town, or Oberland, situated on the cliff above, are connected by a wooden stair and a lift. There is a powerful lighthouse, and since its cession by Great Britain to Germany, the main island has been strongly fortified, the old English batteries being replaced by armoured turrets mounting guns of heavy calibre. Inside the Dunen-Insel the largest ships can ride safely at anchor, and take in coal and other supplies. The greatest length of the main island, which slopes somewhat from west to east, is just a mile, and the greatest breadth less than a third of a mile, its average height 198 ft., and the highest point, crowned by the church, with a conspicuous spire, 216 ft. The Dunen-Insel is a sand-bank irotected by groines. It is only about 200 ft. above the sea at its highest point, but the drifting sands make the height rather variable. The sea-bathing establishment is situated here; a shelving beach of white sand presenting excellent facilities for jathing. Most of the houses are built of brick, but some are of wood. There are a theatre, a Kurhaus, and a number of hotels and restaurants. In 1892 a biological institute, with a marine museum and aquarium (1900) attached, was opened. During the summer some 20,000 people visit the island for sea-bathing. German is the official language, though among hemselves the natives speak a dialect of Frisian, barely in- elligible to the other islands of the group. There is regular communication with Bremen and Hamburg. The winters are stormy. May and the early part of June are wet and foggy, so that few visitors arrive before the middle of he latter month. 1 For illustrations of the cornu see the altar of Julius Victor ex 'ollegio, reproduced in Bartoli, Pict. Ant, p. 76; Bellori, Pict. ntiq. crypt, rom. p. 76, pi. viii.; in Daremberg and Saglio, Did. des antiq. grecques et romaines, under " Cornu," the buccina and cornu lave not been distinguished. HELIOCENTRIC— HELIOGRAPH 223 The generally accepted derivation of Heligoland (or Helgoland) from Heiligeland, i.e. " Holy Land," seems doubtful. According to northern mythology, Forseti, a son of Balder and Nanna, the god of justice, had a temple on the island, which was sub- sequently destroyed by St Ludger. This legend may have given rise to the derivation " Holy Land." The more probable etymology, however, is that of Hallaglun, or Halligland, i.e. " land of banks, which cover and uncover." Here Hertha, according to tradition, had her great temple, and hither came from the mainland the Angles to worship at her shrine. Here also lived King Radbod, a pagan, and on this isle St Willibrord in the 7th century first preached Christianity; and for its owner- ship, before and after that date, many sea-rovers have fought. Finally it became a fief of the dukes of Schleswig-Holstein, though often hypothecated for loans advanced to these princes by the free city of Hamburg. The island was a Danish possession in 1807, when the English seized and held it until it was formally ceded to them in 1814. In the picturesque old church there are still traces of a painted Dannebrog. In 1890 the island was ceded to Germany, and in 1892 it was incorporated with Prussia, when it was provided that natives born before the year 1880 should be allowed to elect either for British or German nationality, and until 1901 no additional import duties were imposed. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Von der Decken, Philosophisch-historisch-geo- nhische Untersuchungen iiber die Insel Helgoland, oder Heilige- , und ihre Bewohner (Hanover, 1826); Wiebel, Die Insel Helgo- land, Untersuchungen iiber deren Grosse in Vorzeit und Gegenwart vom Standpunkte der Geschichte und Geologie (Hamburg, 1848); J. M. Lappenberg, Uberdenehemaligen Umfang und die alte Geschichte Helgoland! (Hamburg, 1831); F. Otker, Helgoland. Schilderungen und Erorterungen (Berlin, 1855); E. Hallier, Helgoland, Nordsee- studien (Hamburg, 1893) ; A. W. F. M oiler, Rechtsgeschichle der Insel Helgoland (Weimar, 1904) ; W. G. Black, Heligoland and the Islands of the North Sea (Glasgow, 1888); E. Lindermann, Die Nordseeinsel Helgoland in topographischer, geschichtlicher, sanitarer Beziehung (Berlin, 1889) ; and Tittel, Die natiirlichen Verdnderungen Helgoland; (Leipzig, 1894). HELIOCENTRIC, i.e. referred to the centre of the sun (iJXios) as an origin, a term designating especially co-ordinates or heavenly bodies referred to that origin. HELIODORUS, of Emesa in Syria, Greek writer of romance. According to his own statement his father's name was Theodosius, and he belonged to a family of priests of the sun. He was the author of the Aethiopica, the oldest and best of the Greek romances that have come down to us. It was first brought to light in modern times in a MS. from the library of Matthias Corvinus, found at the sack of Buda (Ofen) in 1526, and printed at Basel in 1534. Other codices have since been discovered. The title is taken from the fact that the action of the beginning and end of the story takes place in Aethiopia. The daughter of Persine, wife of Hydaspes, king of Aethiopia, was born white through the effect of the sight of a marble statue upon the queen during pregnancy. Fearing an accusation of adultery, the mother gives the babe to the care of Sisimithras, a gymnosophist, who carries her to Egypt and places her in charge of ,Charicles, a Pythian priest. The child is taken to Delphi, and made a priestess of Apollo under the name of Chariclea. Theagenes, a noble Thessalian, comes to Delphi and the two fall in love with each other. He carries off the priestess with the help of Calasiris, an Egyptian, employed by Persine to seek for her daughter. Then follow many perils from sea-rovers and others, but the chief personages ultimately meet at Meroe at the very moment when Chariclea is about to be sacrificed to the gods by her own father. Her birth is made known, and the lovers are happily married. The rapid succession of events, the variety of the characters, the graphic descriptions of manners and of natural scenery, the simplicity and elegance of the style, give the Aelhiopica great charm. As a whole it offends less against good taste and morality than others of the same class. Homer and Euripides were the favourite authors of Heliodorus, who in his turn was imitated by French, Italian and Spanish writers. The early life of Clorinda in Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered (canto xii. 2 1 sqq.)is almost identical with that of Chariclea; Racine meditated a drama on the same subject; and it formed the model of the Persiles y Sigismunda of Cervantes. According to the ecclesiastical historian Socrates (Hist, cedes, v. 22), the author of the Aethiopica was a certain Heliodorus, bishop of Tricca in Thessaly. It is supposed that the work was written in his early years before he became a Christian, and that, when confronted with the alternative of disowning it or resigning his bishopric, he preferred resignation. But it is now generally agreed that the real author was a sophist of the 3rd century A.D. The best editions are: A. Coraes (1804), G. A. Hirschig (1856); see also M. Oeftering, H. und seine Bedeutung fur die Lileratur, with full bibliographies (1901); J. C. Dunlop, History of Prose Fiction (1888); and especially E. Rohde, Der griechische Roman (1900). There are translations in almost all European languages: in English, in Bohn's Classical Library and the " Tudor " series (v., 1895, containing the old translation by T. Underdowne, 1587, with introduction by C. Whibley) ; in French by Amyot and Zevort. HELIOGABALUS (ELAGABALUS), Roman emperor (A.D. 218-222), was born at Emesa about 205. His real name was Varius Avitus. On the murder of Caracalla (217), Julia Maesa, Varius's grandmother and Caracalla's aunt, left Rome and retired to Emesa, accompanied by her grandsons (Varius and Alexander Severus). Varius, though still only a boy, was ap- pointed high priest of the Syrian sun-god Elagabalus, one of the chief seats of whose worship was Emesa (Horns) . His beauty, and the splendid ceremonials at which he presided, made him a great favourite with the troops stationed in that part of Syria, and Maesa increased his popularity by spreading reports that he was in reality the illegitimate son of Caracalla. Macrinus, the successor and instigator of the murder of Caracalla, was very unpopular with the army; an insurrection was easily set on foot, and on the i6th of May 218 Varius was proclaimed emperor as Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. The troops sent to quell the revolt went over to him, and Macrinus was defeated near Antioch on the 8th of June. Heliogabalus was at once recognized by the senate as emperor. After spending the winter in Nicomedia, he proceeded in 219 to Rome, where he made it his business to exalt the deity whose priest he was and whose name he assumed. The Syrian god was proclaimed the chief deity in Rome, and all other gods his servants; splendid ceremonies in his honour were celebrated, at which Heliogabalus danced in public, and it was believed that secret rites accompanied by human sacrifice were performed in his honour. In addition to these affronts upon the state religion, he insulted the intelli- gence of the community by horseplay of the wildest description and by childish practical joking. The shameless profligacy of the emperor's life was such as to shock even a Roman public. His popularity with the army declined, and Maesa, perceiving that the soldiers were in favour of Alexander Severus, persuaded Heliogabalus to raise his cousin to the dignity of Caesar (221), a step of which he soon repented. An attempt to murder Alexander was frustrated by the watchful Maesa. Another attempt in 2 2 2 produced a mutiny among the praetorians, in which Heliogabalus and his mother Soemias (Soaemias) were slain (probably in the first half of March). AUTHORITIES.— Life by Aelius Lampridius in Scriptores historiae Augustac; Hcrodian v. 3-8; Dio Cassius Ixxviii. 30 sqq., Ixxix. 1-21 ; monograph by G. Duviquet, Heliogabale (1903), containing a trans- lation of the various accounts of Heliogabalus in Greek and Latin authors, notes, bibliography and illustrations; O. F. Butler, Studies in the Life of Heliogabalus (New York, 1908); Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 6; H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, i. pt. ii. (1883), p. 759 ff. On the Syrian god see F. Cumont in Pauly- Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, v. pt. ii. (1905). HELIOGRAPH (from Gr. i;Xios, sun, and yp&friv to write), an instrument for reflecting the rays of the sun (or the light obtained from any other source) over a considerable distance. Its main application is in military signalling (see SIGNAL). A similar instrument is the heliotrope, used principally for defining distant points in geodetic surveys, such as in the triangulation of India, and in the verification of the African arcof the meridian. It is necessary to distinguish the method of signalling termed heliography from the photographic process of the same name (see PHOTOGRAPHY). 224 HELIOMETER FIG. i. FIG. 3. HELIOMETER (from Gr. fjAios, sun, and nerpov, a measure), an instrument originally designed for measuring the variation of the sun's diameter at different seasons of the year, but applied now to the modern form of the instrument which is capable of much wider use. The present article also deals with other forms of double-image micrometer. The discovery of the method of making measures by double images is stated to have been first suggested by O. Roemer about 1768. But no such suggestion occurs in the Basis Astronomiae ol Peter Horrebow (Copenhagen, 1735), which contains the only works of Roemer that re- main to us. It would appear that to Ser- vington Savary is due the first invention of a micrometer for measurement by double image. His heliometer (described in a paper communi- cated to the Royal Society in 1743, and printed, along with a letter from James Short, in Phil. Trans., 1753, p. 156) was constructed by cutting from a complete lens abed the equal portions aghc and acfe (fig. i). The segments gbh and efd so formed were then attached to the end of a tube having an internal diameter represented by the dotted circle (fig. 2). The width of each of the portions aghc and acfe cut away from the lens was made slightly greater than the focal length of lens X tangent of sun's greatest diameter. Thus at the focus two images of the sun were formed nearly in contact as in fig. 3. The small interval between the adjacent limbs was then measured with a wire micrometer. Savary also describes another form of helio- meter, on the same principle, in which the seg- ments aghc and acfe are utilized by cementing their edges gh and ef together (fig. 4), and covering all except the portion indicated by the unshaded circle. Savary expresses preference for this second plan, and makes the pertinent remark that in both these models " the rays of red light in the two solar images will be next to each other, which will render the sun's disk more easy to be observed than the violet ones." This he mentions " because the glasses in these two sorts are somewhat prismatical, but mostly those of the first model, which could there- fore bear no great charge (magnifying power)." A third model proposed by Savary consists of two complete lenses of equal focal length, mounted in cylinders side by side, and attached to a strong brass plate (fig. 5). Here, in order to fulfil the purposes of the previous models, the distance of the centres of the lenses from each other should only slightly exceed the tangent of sun's diameter X focal length of lenses. Savary dwells on the difficulty both of procuring lenses sufficiently equal in focus and of accurately adjusting and centring them. In the Mem. Acad. de Paris (1748), Pierre Bouguer describes an instrument which he calls a heliometer. Lalande in his Astronomie (vol. ii. p. 639) mentions such a helio- meter which had been in his possession from the year 1753, and of which he gives a representation on Plate XXVIII., fig. 186, of the same volume. Bouguer's heliometer was in fact similar to that of Savary's third model, with the important difference that, instead of both object-glasses being fixed, one of them is movable by a screw provided with a divided head. No auxiliary filar micrometer was required, as in Savary's heliometer, to measure the interval between the limbs of two adjacent images of the sun, it being only necessary to turn the screw with the divided head to change the distance between the object-glasses till the two images of the sun are in contact as in fig. 6. The differences of the readings of the screw, when converted into arc, afford the means of measuring the variations of the sun's apparent diameter. On the 4th of April 1754 John Dollond com- municated a paper to the Royal Society of /"" ~^\ / \ London (Phil. Trans., vol. xlviii. p. 551) in i which he shows that a micrometer can be I much more easily constructed by dividing a single object-glass through its axis than by the employment of two object-glasses. He FIG. 6. points out — (i) that a telescope with an object- glass so divided still produces a single image of any object to which it may be directed, provided that the optical centres of the segments are in coincidence (i.e. provided the segments retain the same relative positions to each other as before the glass FIG. 5. oo: ^—/ V_^ ; was cut); (2) that if the segments are separated in any direction two images of the object viewed will be produced ; (3) that the most convenient direction of separation for micrometric purposes is to slide these straight edges one along the other as the figure on the margin (fig. 7) represents them: "for thus they may be moved without suffering any false light to come in between them; and by this way of removing them the distance between their centres may be very conveniently measured, viz. by having a vernier's division fixed to the brass work that holds one segment, so as to slide along a scale on the plate to which the other part of the glass is fitted." Dollond then points out three different types in which a glass so divided and mounted may jr be used as a micrometer: — tlG- 7- " i. It may be fixed at the end of a tube, of a suitable length to its focal distance, as an object-glass, — the other end of the tube having an^eye-glass fitted as usual in astronomical telescopes. " ?• J1 may De applied to the end of a tube much shorter than its focal distance, by having another convex glass within the tube, to shorten the focal distance of that which is cut in two. " 3. It may be applied to the open end of a reflecting telescope, either of the Newtonian or the Cassegrain construction. Dollond adds his opinion that the third type is " much the best and most convenient of the three"; yet it is the first type that has survived the test of time and experience, and which is in fact the modern heliometer. It must be remembered, however, that when Dollond expressed preference for this third type he had not then in- vented the achromatic object-glass. Some excellent instruments of the second type were subsequently made by Dollond's eldest son Peter, in which for the " convex glass within the tube " was substituted an achromatic object-glass, and outside that a divided negative achromatic combination of long focus. In the fine example of this instrument at the Cape Observatory the movable negative lenses consist of segments of the shape gach and acfe (fig. i) cut from a complete negative achromatic combination of 8t in. aperture and about 41 ft. focal length, composed of a double concave flint lens and a double convex crown. This was applied to an excellent achromatic telescope of 3^ in. aperture and 42 in. focal length. In this instrument a considerable linear relative movement of the divided lens corresponds with a comparatively small separation of the double image, so that simple verniers reading to T^Vo in. are sufficient for measurement. With one of these instruments of somewhat smaller dimensions (telescope 2% in. aperture and 35 ft. focus), Franz von Paula Tries- necker made a series of measurements at the observatory of Vienna which has been reduced by Dr Wilhelm Schur of Strasburg (Nova Ada der Ksl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der Natursforscher, 1882, xlv. No. 3). The angle between the stars f and g Ursae maj. (?o8"-55) was measured on four nights; the probable error of a measure on one night was ±o'-44. Jupiter was measured on eleven nights in the months of June and July 1794; from these measures Schur derives the values 35 "-39 and 37 "-94 for the polar and equa- torial diameter respectively, at mean distance, corresponding with a compression 1/14-44. These agree satisfactorily with the correspond- ing values 35"'2i, 37*'6o, 1/15-59 afterwards obtained by F. W. Bessel (Konigsberger Beobachtungen, xix. 102). From a series of measures of the angle between Jupiter's satellites and the planet, made in June and July 1794 and in August and September 1795, Schur finds the mass of Jupiter = 1/1048-55 ±1-45, a result which accords well within the limits of its probable error with the received value of the mass derived from modern researches. The probable errors for the measures of one night are ±o"-577, ±o"-889, ±o"-542, i "-096, for Satellites I., II., III. and IV. respectively. Considering the accuracy of these measures (an accuracy far sur- passing that of any other contemporary observations), it is somewhat surprising that this form of micrometer was never systematically used in any sustained or important astronomical researches, although a number of instruments of the kind were made by Dollond. Prob- ably the last example of its employment is an observation of the transit of Mercury (November 4, 1868) by Mann, at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope (Monthly Notices R.A.S. vol. xxix. p. 197-209). The most important part, however, which this type of instrument seems to have played in the history of astronomy arises from the fact that one of them was in the possession of Bessel at Konigsberg during the time when his new observatory there was being built. In 1812 Bessel measured with it the angle between the components of the double star 61 Cygni and observed the great comet of 1811. He also observed the eclipse of the sun on May 4, 1818. In the discussion of these observations (Konigsberger Beo- bacht, Abt. 5, p. iv.) he found that the index error of the scale changed systematically in different position angles by quantities which were independent of the direction of gravity relative to the josition angle under measurement, but which depended solely on :he direction of the measured position angle relative to a fixed radius of the object-glass. Bessel attributed this to non-homogeneity n the object-glass, and determined with great care the necessary corrections. But he was so delighted with the general performance >f the instrument, with the sharpness of the images and the possi- nlities which a kindred construction offered for the measurement of HELIOMETER 225 considerable angles with micrometric accuracy, that he resolved, when he should have the choice of a new telescope for the observatory, to secure some form of heliometer. Nor is it difficult to imagine the probable course of reasoning which led Bessel to select the model of his new heliometer. Why, he might ask, should he not select the simple form of Dollond's first type ? Given the achromatic object-glass, why should not it be divided ? This construction would give all the advantage of the younger Dollond's object-glass micrometer, and more than its sharp- ness of definition, without liability to the systematic errors which may be due to want of homogeneity of the object-glass; for the lenses will not be turned with respect to each other, but, in measurement, will always have the same relation in position angle to the line joining the objects under observation. It is true that the scale will require to be capable of being read with much greater accuracy than •j-j'jjjth of an inch — for that, even in a telescope of 10 ft. focus, would correspond with 2' of arc. But, after all, this is no practical diffi- culty, for screws can be used to separate the lenses, and, by these screws, as in a Gascoigne micrometer, the separation of the lenses can be measured; or we can have scales for this purpose, read by microscopes, like the Troughton l circles of Piazzi or Pond, or those of the Carey circle, with almost any required accuracy. Whether Bessel communicated such a course of reasoning to Fraunhofer, or whether that great artist arrived independently at like conclusions, we have been unable to ascertain with certainty. The fact remains that before 1820" Fraunhofer had completed one or more of the five helipmeters (3 in. aperture and 39 in. focus) which have since become historical instruments. In 1824 the great Konigsberg heliometer was commenced, and it was completed in 1 829. To sum up briefly the history of the development of the heliometer. The first application of the divided object-glass and the employment of double images in astronomical measures is due to Savary in 1743. To Bouguer in 1748 is due the true conception of measurement by double image without the auxiliary aid of a filar micrometer, viz. by changing the distance between two object-glasses of equal focus. To Dollond in 1754 we owe the combination of Savary's idea of the divided object-glass with Bouguer's method of measurement, and the construction of the first really practical heliometers. To Fraunhofer, some time not long previous to 1820, is due, so far as we can ascertain, the construction of the first heliometer with an achromatic divided object-glass, i.e. the first heliometer of the modern type. The Modern Heliometer. The Konigsberg heliometer is represented in fig. 8. No part of the equatorial mounting is shown in the figure, as it resembles in every respect the usual Fraunhofer mounting. An adapter h is fixed on a telescope-tube, made of wood, in Fraunhpfer's usual fashion. To this adapter is attached a flat circular flange h. The slides carrying the segments of the divided object-glass are mounted on a plate, which is fitted and ground to rotate smoothly on the flange h. Rotation is communi- cated by a pinion, turned FIG. 8. by the handle c (concealed in the figure), which works in teeth cut on the edge of the flange h. The counterpoise w balances the head about its axis of rotation. The slides are moved by the screws a and b, the divided heads of which serve to measure the separation of the segments. These screws are turned from the eye-end by bevelled wheels and pinions, the latter connected with the handles a', b'. The reading micrometers e, f also serve to measure, independently, the separation of the segments, by scales attached to the slides; such measurements can be employed as a check on thpse made by the screws. The measurement of position angles is provided for by a graduated circle attached to the head. There is also a position circle, attached at m to the eye-end, provided with a slide to move the eye-piece radially from the axis of the telescope, and with a micrometer to measure the distance of an object from that axis. The ring c, which carries the supports of the handles a', b', is capable of a certain amount of rotation on the tube. The weight of the handles and their supports is balanced by the counterpoise z. This ring is necessary in order to allow the rods to follow the micrometer heads when the position angle is changed. Complete rotation of the head is obviously impossible because of the interference of the declination axis with the rods, and therefore, in some angles, objects cannot be measured in two positions of the circle. The object-glass has an aperture of 6$ in. and 102 in. focal length. There are three methods in which this heliometer can be used. First Method. — One of the segments is fixed in the axis of the lescope, and the eye-piece is also placed in the axis. Measures ' The circles by Reichenbach, then almost exclusively used in Germany, were read by verniers only. * The diameter of Venus was measured with one of these helio- meters at the observatory of Breslau by Brandes in 1820 (Berlin Jahrbuch, 1824, p. 164). xni. 8 are made with the moving segment displaced alternately on opposite sides of the fixed segment. Second Method.— -One segment is fixed, and the measures are made as in the first method, excepting that the eye-piece is placed symmetrically with respect to the images under measurement. For this purpose the pos.tion angle of the eye-piece micrometer is set to that of the head, and the eye-piece is displaced from the axis of the tube (in the direction of the movable segment) by an amount equal to half the angle under measurement. Third Method. — The eye-piece is fixed in the axis, and the segments are symmetrically displaced from the axis each by an amount equal to half the angle measured. Of these methods Bessel generally employed the first because of its simplicity, notwithstanding that it involved a resetting of the right ascension and declination of the axis of the tube with each reversal of the segments. The chief objections to the method are that, as one star is in the axis of the telescope and the other dis- placed from it, the images are not both in focus of the eye-piece,1 and the rays from the two stars do not make the same angle with the optical axis of each segment. Thus the two images under measurement are not defined with equal sharpness and symmetry. The second method is free from the objection of non-coincidence in focus of the images, but is more troublesome in practice from the necessity for frequent readjustment of the position of the eye-piece. The third method is the most symmetrical of all, both in obser- vation and reduction; but it was not employed by Bessel, on the ground that it involved the determination of the errors of two screws instead of one. On the other hand it is not necessary to reset the telescope after each reversal of the segments.4 When Bessel ordered the Konigsberg heliometer, he was anxious to have the segments made to move in cylindrical slides, of which the radius should be equal to the focal length of the object-glass. Fraunhofer, however, did not execute this wish, on the ground that the mechanical difficulties were too great. M. L. G. Wichmann states (Konigsb. Beobach. xxx. 4) that Bessel had indicated, by notes in his handbooks, the following points which should be kept in mind in the construction of future heliometers: (i) The segments should move in cylindrical slides;6 (2) the screw should be protected from dust;6 (3) the zero of the position circle should not be so liable to change;7 (4) the distance of the optical centres of the segments should not change in different position angles or otherwise ; 8 (5) the points of the micrometer screws should rest on ivory plates; 9 (6) there should be an apparatus for changing the screen.10 Wilhelm Struve. in describing the Pulkowa heliometer,11 made * The distances of the optical centres ol the segments from the eye-piece are in this method as I ; secant of the angle under measure- ment. In Bessel's heliometer this would amount to a difference of T^nth of an inch when an angle of i° is measured. For 2° the difference would amount to nearly ^th of an inch. Bessel confined his measures to distances considerably less than i°. 4 In criticizing Bessel's choice of methods, and considering the loss of time involved in each, it must be remembered that Fraunhofer provided no means of reading the screws or even the heads from the eye-end. Bessel's practice was to unclamp in declination, lower and read off the head, and then restore the telescope to its former declina- tion reading, the clockwork meanwhile following the stars in right ascension. The setting of both lenses symmetrically would, under such circumstances, be very tedious. 6 This most important improvement would permit any two stars under measurement each to be viewed in the optical axis of each segment. The optical centres of the segments would also remain at the same distance from the eye-piece at all angles of separation. Thus, in measuring the largest as well as the smallest angles, the images of both stars would be equally symmetrical and equally well in focus. Modern heliometers made with cylindrical slides measure angles over 2°, the images remaining as sharp and perfect as when the smallest angles are measured. 6 Bessel found, in course of time, that the original corrections for the errors of his screw were no longer applicable. He considered that the changes were due to wear, which would be much lessened if the screws were protected from dust. 'The tube, being of wood, was probably liable to warp and twist in a very uncertain way. 8 We have been unable to find any published drawing showing how the segments are fitted in their cells. 9 We have been unable to ascertain the reasons which led Bessel to choose ivory planes for the end-bearings of his screws. He actually introduced them in the Konigsberg heliometer in 1840, and they were renewed in 1848 and 1850. 10 A screen of wire gauze, placed in front of the segment through which the fainter star is viewed, was employed by Bessel to equalize the brilliancy of the images under observation. An arrangement, afterwards described, has been fitted in modern heliometers for plac- ing the screen in front of either segment by a handle at the eye-end. 11 This heliometer resembles Bessel's, except that its foot is a solid block of granite instead of the ill-conceived wooden structure that supported his instrument. The object-glass is of 7-4 in. aperture and 123 in. focus. 226 HELIOMETER by Merz in 1839 on the model of Bessel's heliometer, submits the following suggestions for its improvement: l (l) to give automatic- ally to the two segments simultaneous equal and opposite move- ment ; 2 and (2) to make the tube of metal instead of wood ; to attach the heliometer head firmly to this tube; to place the eye-piece permanently in the axis of the telescope ; and to fix a strong cradle on the end of the declination axis, in which the tube, with the attached head and eye-piece, could rotate on its axis. Both suggestions are important. The first is originally the idea of Dollond; its advantages were overlooked by his son, and it seems to have been quite forgotten till resuggested by Struve. But the method is not available if the separation is to be measured by screws ; it is found, in that case, that the direction of the final motion of turn- ing of the screw must always be such as to produce motion of the segment against gravity, otherwise the " loss of time " is apt to be variable. Thus the simple connexion of the two screws by cog- wheels to give them automatic opposite motion is not an available method unless the separation of the segments is independently measured by scales. Struve's second suggestion has been adopted in nearly all succeed- ing heliometers. It permits complete rotation of the tube and measurement of all angles in reversed positions of the circle; the handles that move the slides can be brought down to. the eye-end, inside the tube, and consequently made to rotate with it; and the position circle may be placed at the end of the cradle next the eye- end where it is convenient of access. Struve also points out that by attaching a fine scale to the focusing slide of the eye-piece, and knowing the coefficient of expansion of the metal tube, the means would be provided for determining the absolute change of the focal length of the object-glass at any time by the simple process of focusing on a double star. This, with a knowledge of the tempera- ture of the screw or scale and its coefficient of expansion, would enable the change of screw-value to be determined at any instant. It is probable that the Bonn heliometer was in course of con- struction before these suggestions of Struve were published or discussed, since its construction resembles that of the Konigsberg and Pulkowa instruments. Its dimensions are similar to those of the former instrument. Bessel, having been consulted by the celebrated statesman, Sir Robert Peel, on behalf of the Radcliffe trustees, as to what instrument, added to the Radcliffe Observatory, would probably most promote the advancement of astronomy, strongly advised the selection of a heliometer. The order for the instrument was given to the Repsolds in 1840, but " various circum- stances, for which the makers are not responsible, contributed to delay the completion of the instrument, which was not delivered before the winter of 1848." 3 The building to receive it was com- menced in March 1849 and completed in the end of the same year. This instrument has a superb object- glass of 1\ in. aperture and 126 in. focal length. The makers availed themselves of Bessel's suggestion to make the segments move in cylindrical slides, and of Struve's to have the head attached to a brass tube; the eye-piece is set permanently in the axis, and the whole rotates in a cradle attached to the declination axis. They provided a splendid, rigidly mounted, equatorial stand, fitted with every luxury in the way of slow motion, and scales for measuring the displace- ment of the segments were read by powerful micro- meters from the eye-end.4 It is somewhat curious that, though Struve's second suggestion was adopted, his first was overlooked by the makers. But it is still more curious that it was not afterwards carried out, for the communication of automatic symmetrical motion to both segments only involves a simple alteration previously described. But, as it came from the hands of the makers in 1849, the Oxford heliometer was incomparably the most powerful and perfect instrument in the world for the highest order of micrometric research. It so remained, unrivalled in every respect, till 1873. As the transit of Venus of 1 874 approached, prepara- tions were set on foot by the German Government in good time; a commission of the most celebrated astronomers was appointed, and it was resolved that the heliometer should be the instrument chiefly relied on. The four long-neglected small heliometers made by Fraun- hofer were brought into requisition. Fundamental alterations were made upon them : their wooden tubes were replaced by tubes of metal ; means of measuring the focal point were provided; symmetrical motion was given to the slides; scales on each slide were provided instead of screws for measuring the separation of the segments, and both scales were read by the same micrometer microscope; a metallic thermometer was added to determine the temperature of the scales. These small instruments have since done admirable work in the hands of Schur, Hartwig, Kustner, Elkin, Auwers and others. The Russian Government ordered three new heliometers (each of 4 in. aperture and 5 ft. focal length) from the Repsolds, and the design for their construction was superintended by Struve, Auwers FIG. 9. and Winnecke, the last-named making the necessary experiments at Carlsruhe. Fig. 9 represents the resulting type of instrument which was finally designed and constructed by Repsolds. The brass tube, strengthened at the bearing points by strong truly turned collars, rotates in the cast iron cradle q attached to the declination axis. a is the eye-piece fixed in the optical axis, b the micrometer for reading both scales, c and d are telescopes for reading the position circle p, e the handle for quick motion in position angle, / the slow motion in position angle, g the handle for changing the separation of the segments by acting on the bevel-wheel g' (fig. 10). h is a milled head connected by a rod with h' (fig. 10), for the purpose of inter- posing at pleasure the prism ir in the axis of the reading micrometer; this enables the observer to view the graduations on the face of the metallic thermometer TT (composed of a rod of brass and a rod of zinc), i is a milled head connected with the wheel VV (fig, 10), and affords the means of placing the screen s (fig. 9), counterpoised by it) over either half of the object-glass, k clamps the telescope in declination, n clamps it in right ascension, and the handles m and / provide slow motion in declination and right ascension respectively. The details'of the interior mechanism of the " head " will be almost 1 Description de I' observatoire central de Pulkowa, p. 208. 1 Steinheil applied such motion to a double-image micrometer made for Struve. This instrument suggested to Struve the above- mentioned idea of employing a similar motion for the heliometer. 3 -Manuel Johnson, M.A., Radcliffe observer, Astronomical Obser- vations made at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, in the Year 1830, Introduction, p. iii. 4 The illumination of these scales is interesting as being the first application of electricity to the illumination of astronomical instru- ments. Thin platinum wire was rendered incandescent by a voltaic current; a small incandescent electric lamp would now be found more satisfactory. FIG. 10. evident from fig. 10 without description. The screw, turned by the wheels at g , acts in a toothed arc, whence, as shown in the figure, equal and opposite motion is communicated to the slides by the jointed rods v , v. The slides are kept firmly down to their bear- ings by the rollers r, r, r, r, attached to axes which are, in the middle, very strong springs. Side-shake is prevented by the screws and pieces k, k, k, k. The scales are at n, n; they are fastened only at the middle, and are kept down by the brass pieces /, t. A similar heliometer was made by the Repsolds to the order of Lord Lindsay for his Mauritius expedition in 1874. It differed only from the three Russian instruments in having a mounting by the Cookes in which the declination circle reads from the eye-end.6 This instrument was afterwards most generously lent by Lord Lindsay to Gill for his expedition to Ascension in 1877.' These four Repsold heliometers proved to be excellent instruments, 6 For a detailed description of this instrument see Dunecht Publi- cations, vol. ii. 6 Mem. Royal Astronomical Society, xlvi. 1-172. HELIOMETER 227 easy and convenient in use, and yielding results of very high accuracy in measuring distances. Their slow motion in position angle, how- ever, was not all that could be desired. When small movements FIG. n. were communicated to the handle e (fig. 9) by the tangent screw /, actin1" on a small toothed wheel clamped to the rod connected with the diving pinion, there was apt to be a torsion of the rod rather than . jerks instead of with the necessary smoothness and certainty. When the heliometer-part of Lord Lindsay's heliometer was acquired by Gill in 1879, he changed the manner of imparting the motion in question. A square toothed racked wheel was applied to the tube at r (fig. 9). This wheel is acted on by a tangent screw whose bear- ings are attached to the cradle; the screw is turned by means of a handle supported by bearings attached to the cradle, and coming within convenient reach of the observer's hand. The tube turns smoothly in the racked wheel, or can be clamped to it at the will of FlG. 13. the screw attached to the heads. Accordingly, in reading the scales A and B (attached to the slides which carry the two halves of the object-glass), it is only necessary to turn the screws until the fixed 1 The primary object was to have the object-glass mounted in steel cells, which more nearly correspond in expansion with glass. It became then desirable to make the head of steel for sake of uniformity of material, and the advantages of steel in lightness and rigidity for the tube then became evident. 228 HELIOMETER double web is pointed symmetrically on one of the divisions of scale A, then to move the other double web by the screw S until it is symmetrically pointed on the adjoining division of scale B. By turning the quick acting screw P (fig. 13) to the right, the cushion C (which is faced with india-rubber) presses the paper ribbon (shown in fig. 13) against the index-edge and type-wheels, and thus the beautifully cut divisions of the micrometer-head, the numbers marking the jjj parts of the head, the index and the total number of revolutions are all sharply embossed together upon the paper ribbon. Fig. 14 shows the record of several successive paintings on the same scale as that given by the micrometer. The reverse motion of P auto- matically moves the paper ribbon forward, ready to receive the next impression. It must be mentioned that the pressure of the cushion C on the type-wheels has no influence whatever upon the micrometer-screw, because the type-wheels are mounted on a hollow cylindrical axis, concentric with the axis of the screw, but entirely disconnected from the screw itself. The only connexion between the type-wheel and the screw- head S is by the pin p (which is screwed into S), the cylindrical end of which acts in a slot cut in the type- wheel. To remedy drawback (2) Repsolds provided for the Yale hehometer an additional handle for motion in position angle, intermediate in velocity between the original quick and slow motions. In the y-in. neliometer, completed in 1887 for the Royal Ob- servatory at the Cape of Good Hope, Repsolds, on Gill's suggestion, introduced the following improvements: (a) Four different speeds of motion in position angle were provided. The quickest movement is given by the hand-ring, 73 (fig. 15). This ring runs between friction wheels and is provided with teeth on its inner periphery, and these teeth transmit motion to a pinion on a spindle having at its other end another pinion which, through an intermediate wheel, rotates the heliometer tube. The transmission spindle, just men- tioned, carries at its end a head, 74, which, if turned directly, gives the second speed. The slowest speed is given by means of a tangent screw which is carried by a ball-bearing on the flange of the telescope- ~* 6 -3 § 3°; Vitruv. vii. 13). His court gave a welcome to the vagrant Greek philosopher (Diog. Laert. viii. 8, § 87). Even the Carian town of Mylasa now shows the forms of a Greek city and records its public decrees in Greek (C.I.G. 2691 c,d,e= Michel 471). In Lycia, which in spite of " the son of Harpagus " and King Pericles, had never been brought under one man's rule, the Greek influence is more limited. Here, for the most part in the in- scriptions, the native language maintains itself against Greek. The proper names are (if not native) mainly Persian. But the Greek language makes an occasional appearance; Greek names are borne by others beside Pericles. The coins are Greek in type. And above all the monumental remains of Lycia show strong Greek influence, especially the well-known " Nereid Monument " in the British Museum, whose date is held to go back to the 5th century (Gardner, Handbook of Gk. Sculp, p. 344). 4. South Russia. — Hellenic influences continued to penetrate the Scythian peoples from the Greek colonies of the Black Sea, at any rate in the matter of artistic fabrication. Our evidence is the actual objects recovered from the soil. (See SCYTHIA.) 5. Egypt. — From the time of Psammetichus (d. 610 B.C.) Greek mercenaries had been used to prop Pharaoh's throne. At the same time Greek merchants had begun to find their way up the Nile and even to the Oases. A Greek city Naucratis (q.v.) was allowed to arise at the Bolbitinic mouth of the Nile. But the racial repugnance to the Greek, which forbade an Egyptian even to eat an animal which had been carved with a Greek's knife (Hdt. ii. 41 ) , probably kept the soul of the people more shut against Hellenic influences than was that of the other races of the East. 6. Macedonia. — In Macedonia the native chiefs had been attracted by the rich Hellenic life at any rate from the beginning of the 5th century, when Alexander I., surnamed " Phil-hellen," persuaded the judges at Olympia that the Temenid house was of good Argive descent (Hdt. v. 22). And, although their enemies might stigmatize them as barbarians, the Macedonian kings maintained that they were not Macedonians, but Greeks (cf. avrjp "EXXiji' MaKfSoviav wrapxos, Hdt. v. 20). It was not probably till the reorganization of the kingdom by Archelaus (413-399) that Greek culture found any abundant entrance into Macedonia. Now all that was most brilliant in Greek literature and Greek art was concentrated in the court of Aegae; the palace was decorated by Zeuxis; Euripides spent there the end of his days. From that time, no doubt, a certain degree of literary culture was general among the Macedonian nobility; their names in the days of Philip are largely Greek; the Macedonian service was full of men from the Greek cities within Philip's dominions. The values recognized at the court would naturally be recognized in noble families generally, and Philip chose Aristotle to be the educator of his son. How far the country generally may be regarded as Hellenized is a problem which involves the vexed question what right the Macedonian people itself has to be classed among the Hellenes, and Macedonian to be considered a dialect of Greek.1 As the literary and official language, Greek alone would seem to have had any status. 1 See, among recent writers, on one side Kaerst, Gesch. des Hellenist. Zeitalters, pp. 97 f., and on the other Beloch, Griech. Gesch., iii. Ii.] 1-9; Kretschmer, Einleitung in die Gesch. d. griech. Sprache, p. 283 f . ; O. Hoffmann, Die Makedonen, ihre Sprache u. ihr Volkstum (1906). HELLENISM 7. In the West: the Native Races of Sicily. — Italy and the south of Gaul had not remained unaffected by the neighbourhood of the Greek colonies. Under the rule of the elder and younger Dionysius in the 4th century, the hellenization of the Sicels in the interior of Sicily seems to have become complete (Freeman, History of Sicily, ii. 387, 388, 422-424; Beloch, Griech. Gesch. iii. [i.] 261). The alphabets used by the various Italian races from the sth century were directly or indirectly learnt from the Greeks. The peoples of the south (Lucanians, Bruttians, Mamertines) show a Greek principle of nomenclature (Mommsen, Unterital. Dialekt, p. 240 f.). The Pythagorean philosophy, whose seat was in southern Italy, won adherents among the native chiefs (Cic. Desenec. 12, cf. Dio Chrys. Oral. Cor. 37, § 24). From the Greeks of southern Gaul Hellenic influences penetrated the Celtic races so far that imitations of Greek coins were struck even on the coasts of the Atlantic. II. AFTER ALEXANDER THE GREAT. — When we review generally the extent to which Hellenism had penetrated the outer world in the middle of the 4th century B.C., it must be admitted that it had not seriously affected any but the more primitive races which dwelt upon the borders of the Hellenic lands, and here it would seem, with the doubtful exception of the Macedonians, to have been an affair rather of the courts than of the life of the people. On the other hand it must be taken into account that Hellenism had as yet only been a very short while in the world. What would have happened had it continued to depend upon its spiritual force only for propagation we cannot say. Everything was changed when by the conquests of Alexander (334-323) it suddenly rose to material supremacy in all the East as far as India, and when cities of Greek speech and constitution were planted by the might of kings at all the cardinal points of intercourse within those lands. The values honoured by the rulers of the world must naturally impress themselves upon the subject multitudes. The Macedonian chiefs found their pride in being champions of Hellenism. Of Alexander there is no need to speak. The courts of his successors in Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt were Greek in language and atmosphere. All kings liked to win the good word of the Greeks by munificence bestowed upon Greek cities and Greek institutions. All of them in some degree patronized Greek art and letters, and some sought fame for themselves as authors. Even the barbarian courts, their neighbours or vassals, were swayed by the dominant fashion to imitation. 'But by the courts alone Hellenism could never have been propagated far. Greek culture had been the product of the city-state, and Hellenism could not be dissevered from the city. It was upon the system of Greek and Macedonian cities, planted by Alexander and his successors, that their work rested, and though their dynasties crumbled, their work remained. Rome, when it stepped into their place, did no more than safeguard its continuance; in the East Rome acted as a Hellenistic power, and if, when the legions had thundered past, the brooding East " plunged in thought again," that thought was largely directed by the Greek schoolmaster who followed in the legions' train. From our present point of view we may therefore regard this work of Hellenism as one continuous process, initiated by the Macedonians and carried on under Roman protection, and ask in the first place what the institution of a Greek city implied. The Character of the New Greek Cities. — The citizen bodies at the outset were really of Greek or Macedonian blood — soldiers who had served in the royal armies, or men attracted from the older Greek cities to the new lands thrown open to commerce. To fix their European soldiery upon the new soil was an obvious necessity for the Macedonian chiefs who had set up kingdoms among the barbarians, and the lots of the veterans (except in Egypt) were naturally attached to various urban centres. The cities, of course, drew in numbers beside of the people of the land; Alexander is specially said to have incorporated large bodies of natives in some of the new cities of the Eastern provinces (Arr. iv. 4, i; Diod. xvii. 83, 2; Curtius ix. 10, 7). It may generally be taken for granted that the lower strata of the city- populations was mainly native; to be included in the city population was not, however, to be included in the citizen body, and it remains a question how far the latter admitted members of other than European origin (Beloch iii. [i.] 414). The statements, for instance, of Josephus that the Jews were given full citizen rights in the new foundations are probably false (Willrich, Juden und Griechen vor der makkabaischen Erhebung, 1895, p. 19 f.). The social organization of the citizen-body conformed to the regular Hellenic type with a division into phylae and, in Egypt, at any rate, into demi (Liban. Or. xix. 62; Satyrus, frag. 2i=F.H.G. iii. 164; Sir W. M. Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics, i. 60; Kenyon, Archiv f. Papyr. ii. 74; Jonguet, Bull. corr. hell, xxi., 1897, 184 f.; Liebenam, Stddte- •aerwaltung, 220 f.). The cities appear equally Hellenic in their political organs and functions with boule and demos and popularly elected magistrates. Life was filled with the universal Hellenic interests, which centred in the gymnasium and the religious festivals, these last including, of course, not only athletic contests but performances of the classical dramas or later imitations of them. The wandering sophist and rhetorician would find a hearing no less than the musical artist. The language of the upper classes was Greek; and the material background of building and decoration, of dress and furniture, was of Greek design. A greater regularity in the street-plans seems to have distinguished the new cities from the older slowly grown cities of the Greek lands, just as it distinguishes the cities of the New World to-day from those of Europe. Alexandria and Antioch were both traversed from end to end by one long straight street, crossed by shorter ones at right angles; Nicaea was a square from the centre of which all the four gates could be seen at the ends of the intersecting thoroughfares (Strabo xii. 565); similar characteristics are noted in the rebuilt Smyrna (ib. xiv. 646). Sometimes the Greek city was not an absolutely new founda- tion, but an old Oriental city, re-colonized and transformed. And in such cases the old name was often replaced by a Greek one. Thus Celaenae in Phrygia became Apamea; Haleb (Aleppo) in Syria became Beroea; Nisibis in Mesopotamia, Antioch; Rhagae (Rai) in Media, Europus. In some cases the old name was left unchallenged, e.g. Thyatira, Damascus and Samaria. Even where there was no new foundation the older cities of Phoenicia and Syria became transformed from the overwhelming prestige of Hellenic culture. In Tyre and Sidon, no less than in Antioch or Alexandria, Greek literature and philosophy were seriously cultivated, as we may see by the great names which they contributed. The process by which Hellenism thus leavened an older city we may trace with peculiar vividness in the case of Jerusalem; we see there the younger generation captivated by its ideals, the appearance of gymnasium and theatre, the eager adoption of Greek political forms (i Mace. i. 13 f.; 2 Mace. 4., 10 f.). A. Characteristics of Hellenism after Alexander. — To the number of Greek city-states existing before Alexander were now therefore added those which extended Hellas as far as India. With the enormous extension of Greek territory a great shifting took place in the old centres of gravity. What changes in the character of Greek culture did the new conditions of the world bring about ? Hellenism had been the product of the free life of the Greek city-state, and after Chaeronea the great days of the city-state were past. Not that all liberty was everywhere a v „ extinguished. Under Alexander himself the Greek ment. states were restive, and Aetolia unsubdued; and, with the break-up of the empire at Alexander's death, there was once more scope for the action of the individual cities among the rival great powers. In the history of the next two or three centuries the cities are by no means ciphers. Rhodes takes a great part in Weltpolitik, as a sovereign ally of one or other of the royal courts. In Greece itself the overlordship to which the Macedonian king aspires is imperfect in extent and only maintained to that extent by continual wars. The Greek states on their side show that they are capable even of progressive HELLENISM 239 political development, the needs of the time being met by the federal system, by larger unions of equal members than the leading cities of the past would have tolerated, with their extreme unwillingness to forego the least shred of sovereign independence. The Achaean and Aetolian Leagues are inde- pendent powers, which the Macedonian can indeed check by garrisons in Corinth, Chalcis and elsewhere, but which keep a field clear for Hellenic freedom within their borders. Sparta also is a power which can cross swords with the Macedonian king, and Cleomenes III. aspires to unite the Peloponnesus under his headship. As to the cities outside Greece, within or around the royal realms, Seleucid, Ptolemaic or Attalid, their degree of freedom probably differed widely according to circum- stances. At one end of the scale, cities of old renown, e.g. Lampsacus or Smyrna, could still make good their independence against Antiochus III. at the beginning of the 2nd century B.C. At the other end of the scale the cities which were royal capitals, e.g. Alexandria, Antioch and Pergamum, were normally controlled altogether by royal nominees. At Pergamum indeed and (at any rate after Antiochus IV.) at Antioch, forms of self-govern- ment subsisted upon which, of course, the court had its hand, whilst at Alexandria even such forms were wanting. Between the two extremes there was variation not only between city and city, but, no doubt, in one and the same city at different times. In Syria the independent action of the cities greatly increased during the last weakness of the Seleucid monarchy. With the extension of the single strong rule of Rome over this Hellenistic world, the conditions were changed. Just as the Macedonian conquest, whilst increasing the domain of Greek culture, had straitened Greek liberty, so Rome, whilst bringing Hellenism finally into secure possession of the nearer East, extinguished Greek freedom altogether. Even now the old forms were long religiously respected. Formally, the most illustrious Greek states, Athens, for instance, or Marseilles, or Rhodes, were not subjects of Rome, but free allies. Even in the case of civitates stipendiariae (tribute-paying states) , municipal autonomy, subject indeed to interference on the part of the Roman governor, was allowed to go on. Boute and demos long continued to function. The old catchword, " autonomy of the Hellens," was still heard and indeed was solemnly proclaimed by Nero at the Isthmian games of A.D. 67. But during the first centuries of the Christian era, this municipal autonomy, by a process which can only be imperfectly traced in detail, decayed. The demos first sank into political annihilation and the council, no longer popularly elected but an aristocratic order, concen- trated the whole administration in its hands. By the end of the 2nd century A.D., claims made by the imperial government upon the municipal senate are more and more changing member- ship of the order from an honour into an intolerable burden; and financial disorganization is calling on imperial officials in one place after another to undertake the business of government. After Diocletian and under the Eastern Empire the Greek world is organized on the principles of a vast bureaucracy. With this long process of political decline from Alexander to Diocletian correspond the inner changes in the temper of the Hellenic and Hellenistic peoples. There were, of course, changes, marked differences between one region and another. But certain general characteristics distinguished at once Greek society after the Macedonian conquests from the society of the earlier age. When the vast field of the East was opened to Hellenic enterprise and the bullion of its treasuries flung abroad, fortunes were made on a scale before unparalleled. A new standard of sumptuousness and splendour was set up in the richest stratum of society. This material elaboration of life was furthered by the existence of Hellenistic courts, where the great ministers amassed fabulous riches (e.g. Dionysius, the state secretary of Antiochus IV., Polyb. xxxi. 3, 16; Hermias, the chief minister of Seleucus III., and Antiochus III., Polyb. v. 50. 2; cf. Plutarch, Agis o), and of huge cities like Alexandria, Antioch and the enlarged Ephesus. It is significant that whereas the earlier Greeks had used precious stones only as a medium for the engraver's art, unengraven gems, valuable for their 0.?ll and civic morality of less account than ever. New Sophy. guides of life were needed. The Stoic philosophy, with its cosmopolitan note, its fixed dogmas and plain ethical precepts, came into the world at the time of the Macedonian conquests to meet the needs of the new age. Its ideas became popular among ordinary men as the older philosophies had never been. The Stoic or Cynic preacher, attacking theways of society, in pungent, often coarse, phrase, became a familiar figure of the Greek market-place (P. Wendland, Beitrdge zur Gesch. d. griech. Philo- sophic, 1895). Although the cults of the old Greek deities in the new cities, with their splendid apparatus of festivals and sacrifice might still hold the multitude, men turned ever in large numbers to alien 240 HELLENISM religions, felt as more potent because strange, and the various gods of Egypt and the East began to find larger entrance in the Greek world. Even in the old Greek religion before Alexander there had been large elements of foreign origin, and that the Greeks should now do honour to the gods of the lands into which they came, as we find the Cilician and Syrian Greeks doing to Baal-tars and Baal- marcod and the Egyptian Greeks to the gods of Egypt, was only in accordance with the primitive way of thinking. But it was a sign of the times when Serapis and Isis, Osiris and Anubis began to take place among the popular deities in the old Greek lands. The origin of the cult of Serapis, which Ptolemy I. found, or established, in Egypt is disputed; the familiar type of the god is the invention of a Greek artist, but the name and religion came from somewhere in the East (see discussion under SERAPIS). Before the end of the and century B.C. there were temples of Serapis in Athens, Rhodes, Delos and Orchomenos in Boeotia. Under the Roman empire the cult of Isis, now furnished with an official priesthood and elaborate ritual, became really popular in the Hellenistic world. King Asoka in the 3rd century B.C. sent Buddhist missionaries from India to the Mediterranean lands; their preaching has, it is true, left little or no trace in our Western records. But other religions of Oriental origin penetrated far, the worship of the Phrygian Great Mother, and in the 2nd century A.D. the religion of the Mithras (Lafaye, Culte des divinites alexandrines, 1884; Roscher, articles " Anubis," " Isis," &c.; F. Cumont, Mysteres de Mithra, Eng. trans., 1903; Les Religions orientales dans le paganisme remain, 1906). The Jews, too, by the time of Christ were finding in many quarters an open door. Besides those who were ready to go the whole length and accept circumcision, numbers adopted particular Jewish practices, observing the Sabbath, for instance, or turned from polytheism to the doctrine of the One God. The synagogues in the Gentile cities had generally attached to them, in more or less close connexion a multitude of those " who feared God " and frequented the services (Schurer, Gesch. d. jiid. Volks, iii. 102- 135). Among the religions which penetrated the Hellenistic world from an Eastern source, one ultimately overpowered all the rest and made that world its own. The inter-action of Christianity and Hellenism opens large fields of inquiry. The teaching of Christ Himself contained, as it is given to us, no Hellenic element; so far as He built with older material, that material was exclusively the sacred tradition of Israel. So soon, however, as the Gospel was carried in Greek to Greeks, Hellenic elements began to enter into it, in the writings, for instance, of St Paul, the appeal to what " nature " teaches would be generally admitted to be the adoption of a Greek mode of thought. It was, of course, impossible that speaking in Greek and living among Greeks, Christians should not to some extent use current conceptions for the expression of their faith. There was, at the same time, in the early Church a powerful current of feeling hostile to Greek culture, to the wisdom of the world. What the attitude of the New People should be to it, whether it was all bad, or whether there were good things in it which Christians should appropriate, was a vital question that always confronted them. The great Christian School of Alexandria re- presented by Clement and Origen effected a durable alliance between Greek education and Christian doctrine. In proportion as the Christian Church had to go deeper into metaphysics in the formulation of its belief as to God, as to Christ, as to the soul, the Greek philosophical terminology, which was the only vehicle then available for precise thought, had to become more and more an essential part of Christianity. At the same time Christian ethics incorporated much of the current popular philosophy, especially large Stoical elements. In this way the Church itself, as we shall see, became a propagator of Hellenism (see Hatch, Hibbert Lectures, 1888; Wendland, " Christentum u. Hellenismus " in Neue Jahrb. f. kl. Alt. ix. 1902, p. i f.; and Die hellenistisch- romische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum u. Christentum, 1907). B. Effect upon non-Hellenic Peoples. — Hellenism secured by the Macedonian conquest points d'appui from the Mediterranean to Christi- anity. Greek cities. India, and brought the system of commerce and intercourse into Greek hands. What effect did it produce in these various countries? What effect again in the lands of the West which fell under the sway of Rome? (i.) India. — In India (including the valleys of the Kabul and its northern tributaries, then inhabited by an Indian, not, as now, by an Iranian, population) Alexander planted a number of Greek towns. Alexandria " under the Caucasus " commanded the road from Bactria over the Hindu-Kush; it lay somewhere among the hills to the north of Kabul, perhaps at Opian near Charikar (MacCrindle, Ancient India, p. 87, note 4); that it is the city meant by " Alasadda the capital of the Yona (Greek) country " in the Buddhist Mahavanso, as is generally affirmed, seems doubtful (Tarn, loc. cit. below, p. 269, note 7). We hear of a Nicaea in the Kabul valley itself (near Jalalabad?), another Nicaea on the Hydaspes (Jhelum) where Alexander crossed it, with Bucephala (see BUCEPHALUS) opposite, a city (unnamed) on the Acesines (Chenab) (Arr. vi. 29, 3), and a series of foundations strung along the Indus to the sea. Soon after 321, Macedonian supremacy beyond the Indus collapsed before the advance of the native Maurya dynasty, and about 303 even large districts west of the Indus were ceded by Seleucus. But the chapter of Greek rule in India was not yet closed. The Maurya dynasty broke up about 180 B.C., and at the same time the Greek rulers of Bactria began to lead expeditions across the Hindu-Kush. Menander in the middle of the 2nd century B.C. extended his rule from the Hindu- Kush to the Ganges. Then " Scythian " peoples from central Asia, Sakas and Yue-chi, having conquered Bactria, gradually squeezed within ever-narrowing limits the Greek power in India. The last Greek prince, Hermaeus, seems to have succumbed about 30 B.C. It was just at this time that the Graeco-Roman world of the West was consolidated as the Roman Empire, and, though Greek rule in India had disappeared, active commercial intercourse went on between India and the Hellenistic lands. How far, through these changes, did the Greek population settled by Alexander or his successors in India maintain their distinctive character? What influence did Hellenism during the centuries in which it was in contact with India exert upon the native mind? Only extremely qualified answers can be given to these questions. Capital data are possibly waiting there under ground — the Kabul valley for instance is almost virgin soil for the archaeologist — and any conclusion we can arrive at is merely provisional. If certain statements of classical authors were true, Hellenism in India flourished exceedingly. But the phil- hellenic Brahmins in Philostratus' life of Apollonius had no exist- ence outside the world of romance, and the statement of Dio Chrysostom that the Indians were familiar with Homer in their own tongue (Or. liii. 6) is a traveller's tale. India, the sceptical observe, has yielded no Greek inscription, except, of course, on the coins of the Greek kings and their Scythian rivals and suc- cessors. To what extent can it be inferred from legends on coins that Greek was a living speech in India ? Perhaps to no large extent outside the Greek courts. The fact, however, that the Greek character was still used on coins for two centuries after the last Greek dynasty had come to an end shows that the language had a prestige in India which any theory, to be plausible, must account for. If we argue by probability from what we know of the conditions, we have to consider that the Greek rule in India was all through fighting for existence, .and can have had " little time or energy left for such things as art, science and literature " (Tarn, loc. cit. p. 292), and it is pointed out that a casual reference to the Greeks in an Indian work contemporary with Menander characterizes them as " viciously valiant Yonas." How long is it probable that Greek colonies planted in the midst of alien races would have remained distinct? Mr Tarn builds much upon the fact that the descendants of the Greek Branchidae settled by Xerxes in central Asia had become bilingual in six generations (Curt. vii. 5, 29). But the Greek race before Alexander had not its later prestige, and we must consider such a sentiment as leads the Eurasian to-day to cling to his Western parentage, so that the instance of the Branchidae cannot be HELLENISM 241 Greek used straight away for the time after Alexander. Certainly, had the Greek colonies in India been active political bodies, we could hardly have failed to find some trace of them, in civic architecture or in inscriptions, by this time. Perhaps we should rather think of them as resembling the Greeks found to-day dispersed over the nearer East with interests mainly commercial, easily assimilating themselves to their environment. A notice derived from Agatharchides (about 140 B.C.) possibly refers to the activity of these Indian Greeks in the sea-borne trade of the Indian Ocean (Mtiller, Geog. Graeci min. i. p. 191; cf. Diod. iii. 47. 9). As to what India derived from Greece there has been a good deal of erudite debate. That the Indian drama took its origin from the Greek is still maintained by scime scholars, though hardly proved. There is no doubt that Indian astronomy shows marked Hellenic features, including actual Greek words borrowed. But by far the most signal borrowing is in the sphere of art. The stream of Buddhist art which went out eastwards across Asia had its rise in North-West India, and the remains of architecture and sculpture un- earthed in this region enable us to trace its development back to pure Greek types. It remains, of course, a question whether the tradition was transmitted by the Greek dynasties from Bactria or by intercourse with the Roman empire; the latter seems now almost certain; but the fact of the influence is equally striking on either theory. How far to the east the distinctive influence of Greece went is shown by the seal-impressions with Athena and Eros types found by Dr Stein in the buried cities of Khotan (Sand-buried Ruins of Khotan, p. 396), and according to Mr E. B. Havell, there exist " paintings treasured as the most precious relics and rarely shown to Europeans, which closely resemble the Graeco-Buddhist art of India " in some of the oldest temples of Japan (Studio, vol. xxvii. 1903, p. 26). See A. A. Macdonell, History of Sanskrit Literature (1900) p. 41 1 f., and the references on p. 452 ; V. A. Smith, Early History of India (1904); Griinwedel, Buddhist Art in India (Eng. trans., edited by Dr Burgess, 1901); W. W. Tarn, " Notes on Hellenism in Bactria and India" in Journ. of Hell. Studies, xxii. (1902); Foucher, L'Art greco-bouddhique du Gandhdra (1905). (ii.) Iran and Babylonia. — The colonizing activity of Alexander and his successors found a large field in Iran where, up till his time, hardly any walled towns seem to have existed. Cities now arose in all its provinces, superseding in many cases native market places and villages, and holding the vantage-points of commerce. Media, Polybius says, was defended by a chain of Greek cities from barbarian incursion (x. 27. 3); in the neighbourhood of Teheran seem to have stood Heraclea and Europus. In Eastern Iran the cities which are its chief places to-day then bore Greek names, and looked upon Alexander or some other Hellenic prince as their founder. Khojend, Herat, Kandahar were Alexandrias, Merv was an Alexandria till it changed that name for Antioch. When the farther provinces broke away under independent Greek kings, a Eucratidea and a Demetrias attested their glory. Even in a town definitely barbarian like Syrinca in 209 B.C. there was a resident mercantile community of Greeks (Polyb. x. 31). The bulk of Greek historical literature having perished, and in the absence of both archaeological data from Iran, we can only speculate on the inner life of these Greek cities under a strange sky. One precious document is the decree of Antioch in Persis (about 206 B.C.) cited in a recently discovered inscription (Kern, Insc/ir. v. Magnesia, No. 61; Dittenberger, Orient, gr. Inscr. i. No. 233). This shows us the normal organs of a Greek city, boule, ecclesia, prylaneis, &c., in full working, with the annual election of magistrates, and ordinary forms of public action. But more than this, it throws a remarkable light upon the solidarity of the Hellenic Dispersion. The citizen body had been increased some generations before by colonists from Magnesia-on- Meander sent at the invitation of Antiochus I. The Magnesians are instigated by pan-hellenic enthusiasm. And we see a brisk diplomatic intercourse between the scattered Greek cities going on. It is especially the local religious festivals which bind them together. Antioch in Persis, of course, sends athletes to the great games of Greece, but in this decree it determines to take part in Qnet cities. the new festival being started in honour of Artemis at Magnesia. The loyalty, too, expressed towards the Seleucid king implies a predominant interest in pan-hellenic unity, natural in colonies- isolated among barbarians. A list is given (fragmentary) of other Greek cities in Babylonia and beyond from which similar decrees had come. In the middle of the 3rd century B.C. Bactria and Sogdiana broke away from the Seleucid empire; independent Greek kings reigned there till the country was conquered by nomads from Central Asia (Sacae and Yue-chi) a century later. Alexander had settled large masses of Greeks in these regions (Greeks, it would seem, not Mace- donians), whose attempts to return home in 325 and 323 had been frustrated, and it may well be that a racial antagonism quickened the revolt against Macedonian rule in 250. The history of these Greek dynasties is for us almost a blank, and for estimating the amount and quality of Hellenism in Bactria during the 180 years or so of Macedonian and Greek rule, we are reduced to building hypotheses upon the scantiest data. Probably nothing important bearing on the subject has been left out of view in W. W. Tarn's learned discussion (Journ. of Hell. Stud, xxii., 1902, p. 268 f.), and his result is mainly negative, that palpable evidences of an active Hellenism have not been found; he inclines to think that the Greek kingdoms mainly took on the native Iranian colour. The coins, of course, are adduced on the other side, being not only Greek in type and legend, but (in many cases) of a peculiarly fine and vigorous execution; and excellence in one branch of art is thought to imply that other branches flourished in the same milieu. Tarn suggests that they may be a " sport," a spasmodic outbreak of genius (see BACTRIA and works there quoted). In these out- lying provinces the national Iranian sentiment seems to have been most intense, and it is interesting to see that under Alexander Hellenism appeared as " belligerent civilization," in the attempt to suppress practices like the exposure of the dying to the dogs (an exaggeration of Zoroastrianism) and, possibly also, abhorrent forms of marriage (Strabo xi. 517; Porphyr. De abstin. 4. 21; Plut. Defort. Al. 5). The west of Iran slipped from the Seleucids in the course of the and century B.C. to be joined to the Parthian kingdom, or fall under petty native dynasties. Soon after 130 Babylonia too was conquered by the Parthian, and Mesopotamia before 88. Then the reconquest of the nearer East by Oriental dynasties was checked by the advance of Rome. Asia Minor and Syria remained substantial parts of the Roman Empire till the Mahom- medan conquests of the 7th century A.D. began a new process of recoil on the part of the Hellenistic power. In Babylonia, also, in Susiana and Mesopotamia, Hellenism had been established in a system of cities for 200 years before the coming of the Parthian. The greatest of all of them stood here — almost on the site of Bagdad — Seleucia on the Tigris. It superseded Babylon as the industrial focus of Babylonia and counted some 600,000 inhabitants (plebs urbana) according to Pliny, N.H. vi. §122 (cf. Joseph. Arch, xviii. § 372, 374; for coins, probably of Seleucia, with the type of Tyche issued in the years A.D. 43-44 see Wroth, Coins of Parthia, p. xlvi.). The list of other Greek cities known to us in these regions is too long to give here (see Droysen, loc. cit., and E. Schwartz in Kern's Inschr. v. Magnesia, p. 171 f.). In Mesopotamia, Pliny especially notes how the character of the country was changed when the old village life was broken in upon by new centres of population in the cities of Macedonian foundation (Pliny, N.H. vi. § 117; cf. K. Regling, " Histor. geog. d. mesopot. Parallelograms," in Lehmann's Beitriige, i. p. 442 f.). We do not look in vain for notable names in Hellenistic literature and philosophy produced on an Asiatic soil. Diogenes, the Stoic philosopher (head of the school in 156 B.C.), was a " Babylonian," i.e. a citizen of Seleucia on the Heikak- Tigris; so too was Seleucus, the mathematician and culture. astronomer, being possibly a native Babylonian; Berossus, who wrote a Babylonian history in Greek (before 261 B.C.) was a Hellenized native. Apollodorus, Strabo's authority 242 HELLENISM for Parthian history (c. 80 B.C. ?), was from the Greek city of Artemita in Assyria. When the Parthians rent away provinces from the Seleucid empire, the Greek cities did not cease to exist by passing under barbarian rule. Gradually no doubt the Greek colonies were absorbed, but the process was a long one. In 140 and 130 B.C. those of Iran were ready to rise in support of the Seleucid invader (Joseph. Arch. xiii. § 184; Justin xxxviii. 10.6-8). Just so, Crassus in 53 B.C. found a welcome in the Greek cities of Mesopotamia. Seleucia on the Tigris is spoken of by Tacitus as being in A.D. 36 " proof against barbarian influences and mindful of its founder Seleucus " (Ann. vi. 42). How im- portant an element the Greek population of their realm seemed to the Parthian kings we can see by the fact that they claimed to be themselves champions of Hellenism. From the reign of Artabanus I. (128/7-123 B.C.) they bear the epithet of " Phil- hellen " as a regular part of their title upon the coins. Under the later reigns the Tyche figure (the personification of a Greek city) becomes common as a coin type (Wroth, Coins of Parthia, pp. liii., Ixxiv.). The coinage may, of course, give a somewhat one-sided representation of the Parthian kingdom, being specially designed for the commercial class, in which the population of the Greek cities was, we may guess, predominant. The state of things which prevails in modern Afghanistan, where trade is in the hands of a class distinct in race and speech (Persian in this case) from the ruling race of fighters is very probably analogous to that which we should have found in Iran under the Parthians.1 That the Parthian court itself was to some extent Hellenized is shown by the story, often adduced, that a Greek company of actors was performing the Bacchae before the king when the head of Crassus was brought in. This single instance need not, it is true, show a Hellenism of any profundity; still it does show that certain parts of Hellenism had become so essential to the lustre of a court that even an Arsacid could not be without them. Artavasdes, king of Armenia (54?~34 B.C.) composed Greek tragedies and histories (Plut. Crass. 33). Then the prestige of the Roman Empire, with its prevailingly Hellenistic culture, must have told powerfully. The Parthian princes were in many cases the children of Greek mothers who had been taken into the royal harems (Plut. Crass. 32). Musa, the queen-mother, whose head appears on the coins of Phraataces (3/2 B.C.-A.D. 4) had been an Italian slave-girl. Many of the Parthian princes resided temporarily, as hostages or refugees, in the Roman Empire; but one notes that the nation at large looked with anything but favour upon too liberal an introduction of foreign manners at the court (Tac. Ann. ii. 2). Such slight notices in Western literature do not give us any penetrating view into the operation of Hellenism among the Iranians. As an expression of the Iranian mind we have the Avesta and the Pehlevi theological literature. Unfortunately in a question of this kind the dating of our documents is the first matter of importance, and it seems that we can only assign dates to the different parts of the Avesta by processes of fine- drawn conjecture. And even if we could date the Avesta securely, we could only prove borrowing by more or less close coincidences of idea, a tempting but uncertain method of inquiry. Taking an opinion based on such data for what it is worth, we may note that Darmesteter believed in the influence of the later Greek philosophy (Philonian and Neo-platonic) as one of those which shaped the Avesta as we have it (Sacred Books of the East, iv. 54 f.), but we must also note that such an influence is emphatically denied by Dr L. Mills (Zarathushtra and the Greeks, Leipzig, 1906). Outside literature, we have to look to the artistic remains offered by the region to determine Hellenic influence. But here, too, the preliminary classification of the documents is beset with doubt. In the case of small objects like gems the place of manufacture may be far from the place of discovery. The architectural remains are solidly in situ, but 1 " Ce sont les Tadjik de 1'Afghanistan qui constituent les trente- deux corps de metier, qui tiennent boutique, expedient les marchan- dises, repr^sentent, en un mot, la vie industrielle et commerciale de la nation. Ce sont aussi les Tadjik des villes qui forment la classe Iettr6e, et qui ont emp^che' les Afghans de retomber dans la barbarie." (Reclus, Nouvelle Geograph. univ. ix. p. 71.) we may have such vast disagreement as to date as that between Dieulafoy and M. de Morgan with respect to domed buildings of Susa, a disagreement of at least five centuries. It is enough then here to observe that Iran and Babylonia do, as a matter of fact, continually yield the explorer objects of workmanship either Greek or influenced by Greek models, belonging to the age after Alexander, and that we may hence infer at any rate such an influence of Hellenism upon the tastes of the richer classes as would create a demand for these things. For gems see " Gobineau " in the Rei: archeol., yols. xxvii., xxviii. (1874); M6nant, Recherches sur la glyptique orientate, ii. 189 f. ; E. Babelon, Catalogue des camees de la Bibl. Nat. (1897), p. 56; A. Furtwangler, Die antiken Gemmen, pp. 165, 369 ff. ; Figurines: Heuzey, Fig. ant. du Louvre (1883) p. 3; J. P. Peters, Nippur, ii. 128; Military standard: Heuzey, Comptes rendus de lAcad. d. Inscr. (1895) p. 16; Rev. d'Assyr. \. (1903), p. 103 f. Alabaster vase: Sykes, Ten Thousand Miles in Persia, p. 445. In the case of the architectural remains, the Greek tradition is obvious at Hatra (Jacquerel, Rev. arcMol., 1897 [ii.], 343 f.), and in the relics of the temple at Kingavar (Dieulafoy, L Art antique de la Perse, v. p. 10 f.). If any vestige of Hellenism still survived under the Sassanian kings, our records do not show it. The spirit of the Sassanian monarchy was more jealously national than that of the Arsacid, and alien grafts could hardly have flourished under it. Of course, if Darmesteter was right in seeing a Greek element in Zoroastrianism, Greek influence must still have operated under the new dynasty, which recognized the national religion. But, as we saw, the Greek influence has been authoritatively denied. At the court a limited recognition might be given, as fashion veered, to the values prevalent in the Hellenistic world. The story of Hormisdas in Zosimus is sugges- tive in this connexion (Zosim. Hist. nov. ii. 27). Chosroes I. interested himself in Greek philosophy and received its professors from the West with open arms (Agath. ii. 28 f.); according to one account, he had his palace at Ctesiphon built by Greeks (Theophylact. Simocat. v. 6). But the account of Chosroes' mode of action makes it plain that the Hellenism once planted in Iran had withered away; representatives of Greek learning and skill have all to be imported from across the frontier. For Hellenism in Babylonia and Iran, see the useful article of M. Victor Chapot in the Bull, et memoires de la Soc. Nat. des Anti- quaires de France for 1902 (published 1904), p. 206 f., which gives a conspectus of the relevant literature. (iii.) Asia Minor. — Very different were the fortunes of Hellen- ism in those lands which became annexed to the Roman Empire. In Asia Minor, we have seen how, even before Alexander, Hellenism had begun to affect the native races and Persian nobility. During Alexander's own reign, we cannot anek trace any progress in the Hellenization of the interior, cities nor can we prove here his activity as a builder of cities. But under the dynasties of his successors a great work of city-building and colonization went on. Antigonus fixed his capital at the old Phrygian town of Celaenae, and the famous cities of Nicaea and Alexandria Troas owed to him their first foundation, each as an Antigonia; they were refounded and renamed by Lysimachus (301-281 B.C.). Then we have the great system of Seleucid foundations. Sardis, the Seleucid capital in Asia Minor, had become a Greek city before the end of the 3rd century B.C. The main high road between the Aegean coast and the East was held by a series of new cities. Going west from the Cilician Gates we have Laodicea Catacecaumene, Apamea, the Phrygian capital which absorbed Celaenae, Laodicea on the Lycus, Antioch-on-Meander, Antioch-Nysa, Antioch- Tralles. To the south of this high road we have among the Seleucid foundations Antioch in Pisidia (colonized with Mag- nesians from the Meander) and Stratonicea in Caria; in the region to the north of it the most famous Seleucid colony was Thyatira. Along the southern coast, where the houses of Seleucus and Ptolemy strove for predominance, we find the names of Berenice, Arsinoe and Ptolemais confronting those of Antioch and Seleucia. With the rise of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum , a system of Pergamene foundation begins to oppose the Seleucid in the interior, bearing such names as Attalia, Philetaeria, a e HELLENISM 243 Eumenia, Apollonis. Of these, one may note for their later celebrity Philadelphia in Lydia and Attalia on the Pamphylian coast. The native Bithynian dynasty became Hellenized in the course of the 3rd century, and in the matter of city building Prusias (the old Cius) , Apamea (the old Myrlea) , probably Prusa, and above all Nicomedia attested its activity. While new Greek cities were rising in the interior, the older Hellenism of the western coast grew in material splendour under the muni- ficence of Hellenistic kings. Its centres of gravity to some extent shifted. There was a tendency towards concentration in large cities of the new type, which caused many of the lesser towns, like Lebedus, Myus or Colophon, to sink to insignificance, while Ephesus grew in greatness and wealth, and Smyrna rose again after an extinction of four centuries. The great importance of Rhodes belongs to the days after Alexander, when it received the riches of the East from the trade-routes which debouched into the Mediterranean at Alexandria and Antioch. In Aeolis, of course, the centre of gravity moved to the Attalid capital, Pergamum. It was the irruption of the Celts, beginning in 278-277 B.C., which checked the Hellenization of the interior. Not only did the Galatian tribes take large tracts towards the north of the plateau in possession, but they were an element of perpetual unrest, which hampered and distracted the Hellenistic monarchies. The wars, therefore, in which the Pergamene kings in the latter part of the 3rd century stemmed their aggres- sions, had the glory of a Hellenic crusade. The minor dynasties of non-Greek origin, the native Bithynian and the two Persian dynasties in Pontus and Cappadocia, were Hellenized before the Romans drove the Seleucid out dynasties. °^ l^e country- In Bithynia the upper classes seem to have followed the fashion of the court (Beloch iii. [i.], 278); the dynasty of Pontus was phil-hellenic by ancestral tradition; the dynasty of Cappadocia, the most conservative, dated its conversion to Hellenism from the time when a Seleucid princess came to reign there early in the 2nd century B.C. as the wife of Ariarathes V. (Diod. xxxi. 19. 8). But Hellenism in Cappadocia was for centuries to come still confined to the castles of the king and the barons, and the few towns. When Rome began to interfere in Asia Minor, its first action was to break the power of the Gauls (189 B.C.). In 133 Rome Hellenism entered formally upon the heritage of the Attalid under kingdom and became the dominant power in the Roman Anatolian peninsula for 1 200 years. Under Rome the process of Hellenization, which the divisions and weaknessof the Macedonian kingdoms had checked, went forward. The coast regions of the west and south the Romans found already Hellenized. In Lydia " not a trace " of the old language was left in Strabo's time (Strabo xiv. 631); in Lycia, the old language became obsolete in the early days of Macedonian rule (see Kalinka, Tituli Asioe minoris, i. 8). But inland, in Phrygia, Hellenism had as yet made little headway outside the Greek cities. Even the Attalids had not effected much here (Korte, Athen. Mitth. xxiii., 1898, p. 152), and under the Romans, the penetration of the interior by Hellenism was slow. It was not till the reign of Hadrian that city life on the Phrygian plateau became rich and vigorous, with its material circumstances of temples, theatres and baths. Among the villages of the north and east of Phrygia, Hellenism " was only beginning to make itself felt in the middle of the 3rd century A.D." (Ramsay in Kuhn's Zeitsch. f. vergleich. Sprachforschung, xxviii., 1885, p. 382). Gravestones in this region as late as the 4th century curse violators in the old Phrygian speech. The lower classes at Lystra in St Paul's time spoke Lycaonian (Acts xiv. u). In that part of Phrygia, which by the settlement of the Celtic invaders became Galatia, the larger towns seem to have become Hellenized by the time of the Christian era, whilst the Celtic speech maintained itself in the country villages till the 4th century A.D. (Jerome, Preface to Comment, in Epist. ad Gal. book ii.; see J. G. C. Anderson, Journ. of Hell, Stud, xix., 1899, p. 312 f.). Cappadocia at the beginning of the Christian era was still comparatively townless (Strabo xii. 537), a country of large estates with a servile peasantry. Even in the 4th century its Hellenization was still far from complete; but Christianity had assimilated so much of the older Hellenic culture that the Church was now a main propagator of Hellenism in the backward regions. The native languages of Asia Minor all ultimately gave way to Greek (unless Phrygian lingered on in parts till the Turkish invasions; see Mordtmann, Sitzungsb. d. bayer. Ak. 1862, i. p. 30; K. Holl in Hermes, xliii., 1908, p. 240 f.). The effective Hellenization of Armenia did not take place till the sth century, when the school of Mesrop and Sahak gave Armenia a literature translated from, or imitating, Greek books (Gelzer in I. v. Miiller's Handbuch, vol. ix. Abt. i. p. 916.) (iv.) Syria. — In Syria, which with Cilicia and Mesopotamia, formed the central part of the Seleucid empire, the new colonies were especially numerous. Alexander himself had perhaps made a beginning with Alexandria-by-Issus emp/re (mod. Alexandretta), Samaria, Pella (the later Apamea), Carrhae, &c. Antigonus founded Antigonia, which was absorbed a few years later by Antioch, and after the fall of Antigonus in 301, the work of planting Syria with Greek cities was pursued effectively north of the Lebanon by the house of Seleucus, and, less energetically, south of the Lebanon by the house of Ptolemy. In the north of Syria four cities stood pre-eminent above the rest, (i) Antioch on the Orontes, the Seleucid capital; (2) Seleucia-in-Pieria near the mouth of the Orontes, which guarded the approach to Antioch from the sea; (3) Apamea (mod. Famia), on the middle Orontes, the military headquarters of the kingdom; and (4) Laodicea " on sea " (ad mare), which had a commercial importance in connexion with the export of Syrian wine. Of the Ptolemaic foundations in Coele-Syria only one attained an importance comparable with that of the larger Seleucid foundations, Ptolemais on the coast, which was the old Semitic Acco transformed (mod. Acre). The group of Greek cities east of the Jordan also fell within the Ptolemaic realm during the 3rd century B.C., though their greatness belonged to a somewhat later day. The whole of Syria was brought under the Seleucid sceptre, together with Cilicia, by Antiochus III. the Great (223-187 B.C.). Under his son, Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164), a fresh impulse was given to Syrian Hellenism. In i Maccabees he is represented as writing an order to all his subjects to forsake the ways of their fathers and conform to a single prescribed pattern, and though in this form the account can hardly be exact, it does no doubt represent the spirit of his action. Other facts there are which point the same way. We now find a sudden issue of bronze money by a large number of the cities of the kingdom in their own name — an indication of liberties extended or confirmed. Many of them exchange their existing name for that of Antioch (Adana, Tarsus, Gadara, Ptolemais), Seleucia (Mopsuestia, Gadara) or Epiphanea (Oeniandus, Hamath). At Antioch itself great public works were carried out, such as were involved in the addition of a new quarter to the city, including, we may suppose, the civic council chamber which is afterwards spoken of as being here. With the ever-growing weakness of the Seleucid dynasty, the independence and activity of the cities increased, although, if, on the one hand, they were less suppressed by a strong central government, they were less protected against military adventurers and barbarian chieftains. Accordingly, when Pompey annexed Syria in 64 B.C. as a Roman province, he found it a chaos of city-states and petty princi- palities. The Nabataeans and the Jews above all had encroached upon the Hellenistic domain; in the south the Jewish raids had spread desolation and left many cities practically in ruins. Under Roman protection, the cities were soon rebuilt and Hellenism secured from the barbarian peril. Greek city life, with its political forms, its complement of festivities, amusements and intellectual exercise, went on more largely than before. The great majority of the Hellenistic remains in Syria belong to the Roman period. Such local dynasties as were suffered by the Romans to exist had, of course, a Hellenistic complexion. Especially was this the case with that of the Herods. Not only were such marks of Hellenism as a theatre introduced 244 HELLENISM by Herod the Great (37-34 B.C.) at Jerusalem, but in the work of city-building this dynasty showed itself active. Sebaste (the old Samaria), Caesarea, Antipatris were built by Herod the Great, Tiberias by Herod Antipas (4 B.C.-A.D. 39). The reclaiming of the wild district of Hauran for civilization and Hellenistic life was due in the first instance to the house of Herod (Schiirer, Gesch. d. jiid. Volk. 3rd ed., ii. p. 12 f.). In Syria, too, Hellenism under the Romans advanced upon new ground. Palmyra, of which we hear nothing before Roman times, is a notable instance. As to the effect of this network of Greek cities upon the aboriginal population of Syria, we do not find here the same disappearance of native languages and racial charac- teristics as in Asia Minor. Still less was this the case la Syria. in Mesopotamia, where a strong native element in such a city as Edessa is indicated by its epithet /ji£o/3dp/3apos. The old cults naturally went on, and at Carrhae (Harran) even survived the establishment of Christianity. The lower classes at Antioch, and no doubt in the cities generally, were in speech Aramaic or bilingual; we find Aramaic popular nicknames of the later Seleucids (K. O. Midler, Antiq. Ant. p. 29). The villages, of course, spoke Aramaic. The richer natives, on the other hand, those who made their way into the educated classes of the towns, and attained official position, would become Hellenized in language and manners, and the " Syrian Code " shows how far the social structure was modified by the Hellenic tradition (Mitteis, Reichsrecht und Volksrecht in den o'st. Pro- vinzen des rom. Kaiserreichs, 1891; Arnold Meyer, Jesu Mutter- sprache, 1896). Of the Syrians who made their mark in Greek literature, some were of native blood, e.g. Lucian of Samosata. One may notice the great part taken by natives of the Phoenician cities in the history of later Greek philosophy, and in the poetic movement of the last century B.C., which led to fresh cultivation of the epigram. Greek, in fact, held the field as the language of literature and polite society. Possibly at places like Edessa, which for some 350 years (till A.D. 216) was under a dynasty of native princes, Aramaic was cultivated as a literary language. There was a Syriac-speaking church here as early as the 2nd century, and with the spread of Christianity Syriac asserted itself against Greek. The Syriac literature which we possess is all Christian. But where Greek gave place to Syriac, Hellenism was not thereby effaced. It was to some extent the passing over of the Hellenic tradition into a new medium. We must remember the marked Hellenic elements in Christian theology. The earliest Syriac work which we possess, the book " On Fate," produced in the circle of the heretic Bardaisan or Bardesanes (end of the 2nd century), largely follows Greek models. There was an extensive translation of Greek works into Syriac during the next centuries, handbooks of philosophy and science for the most part. The version of Homer into Syriac verses made in the 8th century has perished, all but a few lines (R. Duval, La Litt. syriaque, 1900, p. 325). (v.) The relation of the Jews to Hellenism in the first century and a half of Macedonian rule is very obscure, since the state- ments made by later writers like Josephus, as to the visit of Alexander to Jerusalem or the privileges con- ferred upon the Jews in the new Macedonian realms are justly suspected of being fiction. It has been maintained that Greek influence is to be traced in parts of the Old Testament assigned to this period, as, for instance, the Book of Proverbs; but even in the case of Ecclesiastes, the canonical writing whose affinity with Greek thought is closest, the coincidence of idea need not necessarily prove a Greek source. The one solid fact in this con- nexion is the translation of the Jewish Law into Greek in the 3rd century B.C., implying a Jewish Diaspora at Alexandria, so far Hellenized as to have forgotten the speech of Palestine. Early in the 2nd century B. c. we see that the priestly aristocracy of Jerusalem had, like the well-to-do classes everywhere in Syria, been carried away by the Hellenistic current, its strength being evidenced no less by the intensity of the conservative opposition embodied in the party of the " Pious " (Assideans, JJasldim). Under Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (176-165) the Hellenistic aristocracy contrived to get Jerusalem converted into a Greek city; the gymnasium appeared, and Greek dress became fashion- able with the young men. But when Antiochus, owing to political developments, interfered violently at Jerusalem, the conservative opposition carried the nation with them. The revolt under the Hasmonaean family (Judas Maccabaeus and his brethren) followed, ending in 143-142 in the establishment of an independent Jewish state under a Hasmonaean prince. But whilst the old Hellenistic party had been crushed the Hasmonaean state was of the nature of a compromise. The Mosaic Law was respected, but Hellenism still found an entrance in various forms. The first Hasmonaean " king," Aristobulus I. (104-103), was known to the Greeks as Phil-hellen. He and all later kings of the dynasty bear Greek names as well as Hebrew ones, and after Jannaeus Alexander (103-76) the Greek legends are common on the coins beside the Hebrew. Herod, who sup- planted the Hasmonaean dynasty (37-34 B.C,) made, outside Judaea, a display of Phil-hellenism, building new Greek cities and temples, or bestowing gifts upon the older ones of fame. His court, at the same time, welcomed Greek men of letters like Nicolaus of Damascus. Even in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem, he erected a theatre and an amphitheatre. We have already noticed the work done by the Herodian dynasty in furthering Hellenism in Syria (see Schiirer, Gesch. des jiidisch. Volkes, vols. i. and ii.). Meanwhile a great part of the Jewish people was living dispersed among the cities of the Greek world, speaking Greek as their mother-tongue, and absorbing Greek influences in much larger measure than their brethren of Palestine. These are the Jews whom we find contrasted as " Hellenists " with the " Hebrews " in Acts. They still kept in touch with the mother-city, and indeed we hear of special synagogues in Jerusalem in which the Hellenists temporarily resident there gathered (Acts vi. 9). A large Jewish literature in Greek had grown up since the translation of the Law in the 3rd century. Beside the other canonical books of the Old Testament, translated in many cases with modifications or additions, it included transla- tions of other Hebrew books (Ecclesiasticus, Judith, &c.), works composed originally in Greek but imitating to some extent the Hebraic style (like Wisdom), works modelled more closely on the Greek literary tradition, either historical, like 2 Maccabees, or philosophical, like the productions of the Alexandrian school, represented for us by Aristobulus and Philo, in which style and thought are almost wholly Greek and the reference to the Old Testament a mere pretext; or Greek poems on Jewish subjects, like the epic of the elder Philo and Ezechiel's tragedy, Exagoge. It included also a number of forgeries, circulated under the names of famous Greek authors, verses fathered upon Aeschylus or Sophocles, or books like the false Hecataeus, or above all the pretended prophecies of ancient Sibyls in epic verse. These frauds were all contrived for the heathen public, as a means of propaganda, calculated to inspire them with respect for Jewish antiquity or turn them from idols to God. For Jewish Hellenism see Schiirer, op. cit. iii. ; Susemihl, Gesch. der griech. Lit. in der Alexandrinerzeit, ii. 601 f. ; Willrich, Juden und Griechen (1895), Judaica (1900); Hastings' Diet, of the Bible, art. "Greece"; Encyclop. Biblica, art. "Hellenism"; Pauly- Wissowa, art. " Aristobulus (15) "; also the work of P. Wendland cited above. Through the Hellenistic Jews, Greek influences reached Jerusalem itself, though their effect upon the Aramaic-speaking Rabbinical schools was naturally not so pronounced. The large number of Greek words, however, in the language of the Mishnah and the Talmud is a significant phenomenon. The attitude of the Rabbinic doctors to a Greek education does not seem to have been hostile till the time of Hadrian. The sect of the Essenes probably shows an intermingling of the Greek with other lines of tradition among the Jews of Palestine. See Schiirer ii. 42-67, 583; . S. Krauss, Griech. u. latein. Lehnworter im Talmud (1898); Jewish Encyclopedia, art. "Greek Language." HELLENISM 245 (vi.) In Egypt the Ptolemies were hindered by special considera- tions from building Greek cities after the manner of the other Macedonian houses. One Greek city they found existing, Naucratis; Alexander had called Alexandria into being; the first Ptolemy added Ptolemais as a Greek centre for Upper Egypt. They seem to have suffered no other community in the Nile Valley with the inde- pendent life of a Greek city, for the Greek and Macedonian soldier-colonies settled in the Fayum or elsewhere had no political self-existence. And even at Alexandria Hellenism was not allowed full development. Ptolemais, indeed, enjoyed all the ordinary forms of self-government, but Alexandria was governed despotically by royal officials. In its population, too, Alexandria was only semi-Hellenic; for besides the proportion of Egyptian natives in its lower strata, its commercial greatness drew in elements from every quarter; the Jews, for instance, formed a majority of the population in two out of the five divisions of the city. At the same time the prevalent tone of the populace was, no doubt, Hellenistic, as is shown by the fact that the Jews who settled there acquired Greek in place of Aramaic as their mother-tongue, and in its upper circles Alexandrian society under the Ptolemies was not only Hellenistic, but notable among the Hellenes for its literary and artistic brilliance. The state university, the " Museum," was in close connexion with the court, and gave to Alexandria the same pre-eminence in natural science and literary scholar- ship which Athens had in moral philosophy. Probably in no other country, except Judaea, did Hellenism encounter as stubborn a national antagonism as in Egypt. The common description of " the Oriental " as indurated in his antagonism to the alien conqueror here perhaps has some truth in it. The assault made upon the Macedonian devotee in the temple of Serapis at Memphis " because he was a Greek " is significant (Papyr. Brit. Mus. i. No. 44; cf. Grenfell, Amherst Papyr. p. 48) . And yet even here one must observe qualifications. The papyri show us habitual marriage of Greeks and native women and a frequent adoption by natives of Greek names. It has even been thought that some developments of the Egyptain religion are due to Hellenistic influence, such as the deification of Imhotp (Bissing, Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 1902, col. 2330) or the practice of forming voluntary religious associations (Otto, Priester und Tempel, i. 125). The worship of Serapis was patronized by the court with the very object of affording a mixed cultus in which Greek and native might unite. In Egypt, too, the triumph of Christianity brought into being a native Christian literature, and if this was in one way the assertion of the native against Hellenistic predominance, one must remember that Coptic literature, like Syriac, necessarily incorporated those Greek elements which had become an essential part of Christian theology. From the Ptolemaic kingdom Hellenism early travelled up the Nile into Ethiopia. Ergamenes, the king of the Ethiopians Ethiopia *n tne t'me °^ tne second Ptolemy, "who had received a Greek education and cultivated philosophy," broke with the native priesthood (Diod. iii. 6), and from that time traces of Greek influence continue to be found in the monuments of the Upper Nile. When Ethiopia became a Christian country in the 4th century, its connexion with the Hellenistic world became closer. (vii.) Hellenism in the West. — Whilst in the East Hellenism had been sustained by the political supremacy of the Greeks, in Qnek Italy Graecia capta had only the inherent power and culture charm of her culture wherewith to win her way. At la the Carthage in the 3rd century the educated classes seem generally to have been familiar with Greek culture (Bernhardy, Grundriss d. griech. Lit. § 77). The philosopher Clitomachus, who presided over the Academy at Athens in the 2nd century, was a Carthaginian. Even before Alexander, as we saw, Hellenism had affected the peoples of Italy, but it was not till the Greeks of south Italy and Sicily were brought under the supremacy of Rome in the 3rd century B.C. that the stream of Greek influence entered Rome in any Roman world. volume. It was now that the Greek freedman, L. Livius Andronicus, laid the foundation of a new Latin literature by his translation of the Odyssey, and that the Greek dramas were recast in a Latin mould. The first Romans who set about writing history wrote in Greek. At the end of the 3rd century there was a circle of enthusiastic phil-hellenes among the Roman aristocracy, led by Titus Quinctius Flamininus, who in Rome's name proclaimed the autonomy of the Greeks at the Isthmian games of 196. In the middle of the 2nd century Roman Hellen- ism centred in the circle of Scipio Aemilianus, which included men like Polybius and the philosopher Panaetius. The visit of the three great philosophers, Diogenes the " Babylonian," Critolaus and Carneades in 155, was an epoch-making event in the history of Hellenism at Rome. Opposition there could not fail to be, and in 161 a senatus consultum ordered all Greek philosophers and rhetoricians to leave the city. The effect of such measures was, of course, transient. Even though the opposition found so doughty a champion as the elder Cato (censor in 184), it was ultimately of no avail. The Italians did not indeed surrender themselves passively to the Greek tradition. In different departments of culture the degree of their inde- pendence was different. The system of government framed by Rome was an original creation. Even in the spheres of art and literature, the Italians, while so largely guided by Greek canons, had something of their own to contribute. The mere fact that they produced, a literature in Latin argues a power of creation as well as receptivity. The great Latin poets were imitators indeed, but mere imitators they were no more than Petrarch or Milton. On the other hand, even where the creative originality of Rome was most pronounced, as in the sphere of Law, there were elements of Hellenic origin. It has been often pointed out how the Stoic philosophy especially helped to shape Roman jurisprudence (Schmekel, Philos. d. mittl. Stoa, p. 454 f.). Whilst the upper classes in Italy absorbed Greek influences by their education, by the literary and artistic tradition, the lower strata of the population of Rome became largely hellenized by the actual influx on a vast scale of Greeks and hellenized Asiatics, brought in for the most part as slaves, and coalescing as freedmen with the citizen body. Of the Jewish inscriptions found at Rome some two-thirds are in Greek. So too the early Christian church in Rome, to which St Paul addressed his epistle, was Greek-speaking, and continued to be till far into the 3rd century. III. LATER HISTORY. — It remains only to glance at the ultimate destinies of Hellenism in West and East. In the Latin West knowledge of Greek, first-hand acquaintance with the Greek classics, became rarer and rarer as general culture declined, till in the dark ages (after ages. the $th century) it existed practically nowhere but in Ireland (Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, i. 438). In Latin literature, however, a great mass of Hellenistic tradition in a derived form was maintained in currency, wherever, that is, culture of any kind continued to exist. It was a small number of monkish communities whose care of those narrow channels prevented their ever drying up altogether. Then the stream began to rise again, first with the influx of the learning of the Spanish Moors, then with the new knowledge of Greek brought from Constantinople in the I4th century. With the Renaissance and the new learning, Hellenism came in again in flood, to form a chief part of that great river on which the modern world is being carried forward into a future, of which one can only say that it must be utterly unlike anything that has gone before. In the East it is popularly thought that Hellenism, as an exotic, withered altogether away. This view is superficial. During the dark ages, in the Byzantine East, as well as in the West, Hellenism had become little more than a dried and shrivelled tradition, although the closer study of Byzantine culture in latter years has seemed to discover more vitality than was once supposed. Ultimately the Greek East was absorbed by Islam; the popular mistake lies in supposing that the Hel- fa/am lenistic tradition thereby came to an end. The Mahommedan conquerors found a considerable part of it taken 246 HELLER— HELMERSEN over, as we saw, by the Syrian Christians, and Greek philosophical and scientific classics were now translated from Syriac into Arabic. These were the starting-points for the Mahommedan schools in these subjects. Accordingly we find that Arabian philosophy (g.v.), mathematics, geography, medicine and philology are all based professedly upon Greek works (Brockel- mann, Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur, 1898, vol. i.; R. A. Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs, 1907, pp. 358-361). Aristotle in the East no less than in the West was the " master of them that know "; and Moslem physicians to this day invoke the names of Hippocrates and Galen. The Hellenistic strain in Mahommedan civilization has, it is true, flagged and failed, but only as that civilization as a whole has declined. It was not that the Hellenistic element failed, whilst the native elements in the civilization prospered; the culture of Islam has, as a whole (from whatever causes), sunk ever lower during the centuries that have witnessed the marvellous expansion of Europe. AUTHORITIES. — For the inner history of Hellenism after Alexander, the general historical literature dealing with later Greece and Rome supplies material in various degrees. See works quoted in articles GREECE, History; ROME, History; PTOLEMIES; SELEUCID DYNASTY; BACTRIA, &c. Different elements (literature, philosophy, art, &c.) are dealt with in works dealing specially with these subjects, among which those of Susemihl, Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Erwin Rohde and E. Schwartz are of especial importance for the literature; those of Schreiber and Strzygowski for the later Greek art. Sketches of Hellenistic civilization generally are found in J. P. Mahaffy's Greek Life and Thought (1887), The Greek World under Roman Sway (1890), The Silver Age of the Greek World (1906); Julius Kaerst, Gesch. d. hellenist. Zeitalters (Band ii., publ. 1909) ; and in Beloch's Griechische Geschichte, vol. iii. (for the century immediately succeeding Alexander). R. von Scala's " The Greeks after Alexander," in Helmolt's History of the. World (vol. v.), covers the whole period from Alexander to the end of the Byzantine Empire. P. Wendland's Hellenistisch-rdmische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum u. Christentum (1907) is an illuminating monograph, giving a conspectus of the material. For Hellenistic Egypt, Bouch<§- Leclercq, Histoire des Lagides, vol. iii. (1906). (E. R. B.) HELLER, STEPHEN (1815-1888), Austrian pianist and composer, was born at Pest on the isth of May 1815. (Fetis's dictionary says 1814, but this is almost certainly wrong.) He was at first intended for a lawyer, but at nine years of age performed so successfully at a concert that he was sent to Vienna to study under Czerny. Halm was his principal master, and from the age of twelve he gave concerts in Vienna, and made a tour through Hungary, Poland and Germany. At Augsburg he had the good fortune to be befriended when ill by a wealthy family, who practically adopted him and gave him the oppor- tunity to complete his musical education. In 1838 he went to Paris, and soon became intimate with Liszt, Chopin, Berlioz and their set, among whom was Halle, throughout his life an indefatigable performer of Heller's music. In 1849 he came to England and played a few times, and in 1862 he appeared with Halle at the Crystal Palace. He outlived the great reputation he had enjoyed among cultivated amateurs for so many years, and was almost forgotten when he died at Paris on the i4th of January 1888. His pianoforte pieces, almost all of them pub- lished in sets and provided with fancy names, do not show very startling originality, but their grace and refinement could not but make them popular with players and listeners of all classes. HELLESPONT (i.e. " Sea of Helle "; variously named in classical literature 'EXX^o-TrofTOJ, 6 "EXXjjj -nwTOS, Helle- spontum Pelagus, and Fretum Hellesponticuni), the ancient name of the Dardanelles (?.».)• It was so-called from Helle, the daughter of Athamas ( &c.); G. C. Champion's volumes in the Biologia Centrali- Americana; W. L. Distant's Oriental Cicadidae (London, 1889-1892), and many other papers; M. E. Fernald's Catalogue of the Coccidae (Amherst, U.S.A., 1903). European Hemiptera have been dealt with in numerous papers by A. Puton. For British species we have E. Saunders's Hemiptera-Heteroptera of the British Isles (London, 1892); J. Edwards's Hemiptera-Homoptera of the British Isles (London, 1896); J. B. Buckton's British Aphidae (London, Ray Society, 1875-1882); and R. Newstead's British Coccidae (London, Ray Society, 1901-1903). Aquatic Hemiptera are described by L. C. Miall (Nat. History Aquatic Insects; London, 1895), and by G. W. Kirkaldy in numerous recent papers (Entomologist, &c.). For marine Hemiptera (Halobates) see F. B. White (Challenger Reports, vii., 1883); J. J. Walker (Ent. Mo. Mag., 1893); N. Nassonov (Warsaw, 1893), and G. H. Carpenter (Knowledge, 1901, and Report, Pearl Oyster Fisheries, Royal Society, 1906). Sound-producing organs of Heteroptera are described by A. Handlirsch (Ann. Hofmus. Wien, xv. 1900), and G. W. Kirkaldy (Journ. Quekett Club (2) viii. 1901); of Cicads by G. Carlet (Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (6) v. 1877). For the Anoplura see E. Piaget's Pediculines (Leiden, 1880-1905), and G. Enderlein (Zool. Anz. xxviii., 1904). (G. H. C.) HEMLOCK (in O. Eng. hemlic or hymlice; no cognate is found in any other language, and the origin is unknown), the Conium maculatum of botanists, a biennial umbelliferous plant, found wild in many parts of Great Britain and Ireland, where it occurs in waste places on hedge-banks, and by the borders of fields, and also widely spread over Europe and temperate Asia, and naturalized in the cultivated districts of North and South America. It is an erect branching plant, growing from 3 to 6 ft. high, and emitting a disagreeable smell, like that of mice. The stems are hollow, smooth, somewhat glaucous green, spotted with dull dark purple, as alluded to in the specific name, maculatum. The root-leaves have long furrowed footstalks, sheathing the stem at the base, and are large, triangular in outline, and repeatedly divided or compound, the ultimate and very numerous segments being small, ovate, and deeply incised at the edge. These leaves generally perish after the growth of the flowering stem, which takes place in the second year, while the leaves HEMP 263 produced on the stem became gradually smaller upwards. The branches are all terminated by compound many-rayed umbels of small white flowers, the general involucres consisting of several, the partial ones of about three short lanceolate bracts, the latter being usually turned towards the outside of the umbel. The flowers are succeeded by broadly ovate fruits, the mericarps (half-fruits) having five ribs which, when mature, are waved or crenated; and when cut across the albumen is seen to be deeply furrowed on the inner face, so as to exhibit in section a reniform outline. The fruits when triturated with a solution of caustic potash evolve a most unpleasant odour. Hemlock is a virulent poison, but it varies much in potency according to the conditions under which it has grown, and the season or stage of growth at which it is gathered. In the first year the leaves have little power, nor in the second are their properties developed until the flowering period, at which time, or later on when the fruits are fully grown, the plant should be gathered. The wild plant growing in exposed situations is to be preferred to garden-grown samples, and is more potent in dry warm summers than in those which are dull and moist. The poisonous property of hemlock resides chiefly in the alkaloid canine or conia which is found in both the fruits and the leaves, though in exceedingly small proportions in the latter. Conine resembles nicotine in its deleterious action, but is much less powerful. No chemical antidote for it is known. The plant also yields a second less poisonous crystallizable base called conhydrine, which may be converted into conine by the abstraction of the elements of water. When collected for medicinal purposes, for which both leaves and fruits are used, the former should be gathered at the time the plant is in full blossom, while the latter are said to possess the greatest degree of energy just before they ripen. The fruits are the chief source whence conine is prepared. The principal forms in which hemlock is employed are the extract and juice of hemlock, hemlock poultice, and the tincture of hemlock fruits. Large doses produce vertigo, nausea and paralysis; but in smaller quantities, administered by skilful hands, it has a sedative action on the nerves. It has also some reputation as an alterative and resolvent, and as an anodyne. The acrid narcotic properties of the plant render it of some importance that one should be able to identify it, the more so as some of the compound-leaved umbellifers, which have a general similarity of appearance to it, form wholesome food for man and animals. Not only is this knowledge desirable to prevent the poisonous plant being detrimentally used in place of the wholesome one; it is equally important in the opposite case, namely, to prevent the inert being substituted for the remedial agent. The plant with which hemlock is most likely to be confounded is Anlhriscus sylvestris, or cow-parsley, the leaves of which are freely eaten by cattle and rabbits; this plant, like the hemlock, has spotted stems but they are hairy, not hairless; it has much-divided leaves of the same general form, but they are downy and aromatic, not smooth and nauseous when bruised; and the fruit of Anthriscus is linear-oblong and not ovate. HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf . Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf, cognate with Gr. KavvajSis, La.t. cannabis), an annual herb (Cannabis saliva) having angular rough stems and alternate deeply lobed leaves. The bast fibres of Cannabis are the hemp of commerce, but, unfortunately, the products from many totally different plants are often included under the general name of hemp. In some cases the fibre is obtained from the stem, while in others it comes from the leaf. Sunn hemp, Manila hemp, Sisal hemp, and Phormium (New Zealand flax, which is neither flax nor hemp) are treated separately. All these, however, are often classed under the above general name, and so are the following: — Deccan or Ambari hemp, Hibiscus cannabinus, an Indian and East Indian malvaceous plant, the fibre from which is often known as brown hemp or Bombay hemp; Pile hemp, which is obtained from the American aloe, Agave americana; and Moorva or bowstring-hemp, Sansevieria zeylanica, which is obtained from an aloe-like plant, and is a native of India and Ceylon. Then there are Canada hemp, Apocynum cannabinum, Kentucky hemp, Urtica cannabina, and others. The hemp plant, like the hop, which is of the same natural order, Cannabinaceae, is dioecious, i.e. the male and female flowers are borne on separate plants. The female plant grows to a greater height than the male, and its foliage is darker and more luxuriant, but the plant takes from five to six weeks longer to ripen. When the male plants are ripe they are pulled, put up into bundles, and steeped in a similar manner to flax, but the female plants are allowed to remain until the seed is perfectly ripe. They are then pulled, and after the seed has been removed are retted in the ordinary way. The seed is also a valuable product; the finest is kept for sowing, a large quantity is sold for the food of cage birds, while the remainder is sent to the oil mills to be crushed. The extracted oil is used in the manufacture of soap', while the solid remains, known as oil-cake, are valuable as a food for cattle. The leaves of hemp have five to seven leaflets, the form of which is lanceolate-acuminate, with a serrate margin. The loose panicles of male flowers, and the short spikes of female flowers, arise from the axils of the upper leaves. The height of the plant varies greatly with season, soil and manuring; in some districts it varies from 3 to 8 ft., but in the Piedmont province it is not unusual to see them from 8 to 16 ft. in height, whilst a variety (Cannabis sotiva, variety gigantea) has produced specimens over 17 ft. in height. All cultivated hemp belongs to the same species, Cannabis saliva; the special varieties such as Cannabis indica, Cannabis chinensis, &c., owe their differences to climate and soil, and they lose many of their peculiarities when cultivated in temperate regions. Rumphius (in the i?th century) had noticed these differences between Indian and European hemp. Wild hemp still grows on the banks of the lower Ural, and the Volga, near the Caspian Sea. It extends to Persia, the Altai range and northern and western China. The authors of the Pharmacographia say: — " It is found in Kashmir and in the Himalaya, growing 10 to 12 ft. high, and thriving vigorously at an elevation of 6000 to 10,000 ft." Wild hemp is, however, of very little use as a fibre producer, although a drug is obtained from it. It would appear that the native country of the hemp plant is in some part of temperate Asia, probably near the Caspian Sea. It spread westward throughout Europe, and southward through the Indian peninsula. The names given to the plant and to its products in different countries are of interest in connexion with the utilization of the fibre and resin. In Sans, it is called goni, sana, shanapu, banga and ganjika; in Bengali, ganga; Pers. bang and canna; Arab. kinnub or cannub; Gr. kannabis; Lat. cannabis; Ital. canappa; Fr. chanvre; Span, canamo; Portuguese, canamo; Russ. kondpel; Lettish and Lithuanian, kannapes; Slav, konopi; Erse, canaib and canab; A. Sax. hoenep; Dutch, hennep; Ger. Hanf; Eng. hemp; Danish and Norwegian, hamp; Icelandic, hampr; and in Swed. hampa. The English word canvas sufficiently reveals its derivation from cannabis. Very little hemp is now grown in the British Isles, although this variety was considered to be of very good quality, and to possess great strength. The chief continental hemp-producing countries are Italy, Russia and France; it is also grown in several parts of Canada and the United States and India. The Central Provinces, Bengal and Bombay are the chief centres of hemp cultivation in India, where the plant is of most use for narcotics. The satisfactory growth of hemp demands a light, rich and fertile soil, but, unlike most substances, it may be reared for a few years in succession. The time of sowing, the quantity of seed per acre (about three bushels) and the method of gathering and retting are very similar to those of flax; but, as a rule, it is a hardier plant than flax, does not possess the same pliability, is much coarser and more brittle, and does not require the same amount of attention during the first few weeks of its growth. The very finest hemp, that grown in the province of Piedmont, 264 HEMSTERHUIS, F. Italy, is, however, very similar to flax, and in many cases the two fibres are mixed in the same material. The hemp fibre has always been valuable for the rope industry, and it was at one time very extensively used in the production of yarns for the manufacture of sail cloth, sheeting, covers, bagging, sacking, &c. Much of the finer quality is still made into cloth, but almost all the coarser quality finds its way into ropes and similar material. A large quantity of hemp cloth is still made for the British navy. The cloth, when finished, is cut up into lengths, made into bags and tarred. They are then used as coal sacks. There is also a quantity made into sacks which are intended to hold very heavy material. Hemp yarns are also used in certain classes of carpets, for special bags for use in cop dyeing and for similar special purposes, but for the ordinary bagging and sacking the employment of hemp yarns has been almost entirely supplanted by yarns made from the jute fibre. Hemp is grown for three products — (i) the fibre of its stem; (2) the resinous secretion which is developed in hot countries upon its leaves and flowering heads; (3) its oily seeds. Hemp has been employed for its fibre from ancient times. Herodotus (iv. 74) mentions the wild and cultivated hemp of Scythia, and describes the hempen garments made by the Thracians as equal to linen in fineness. Hesychius says the Thracian women made sheets of hemp. Moschion (about 200 B.C.) records the use of hempen ropes for rigging the ship " Syracusia " built for Hiero II. The hemp plant has been cultivated in northern India from a considerable antiquity, not only as a drug but for its fibre. The Anglo-Saxons were well acquainted with the mode of preparing hemp. Hempen cloth became common in central and southern Europe in the I3th century. Hemp-resin. — Hemp as a drug or intoxicant for smoking and chewing occurs in the three forms of bhang, ganja and charas. 1. Bhang, the Hindustani siddhi or sabzi, consists of the dried leaves and small stalks of the hemp; a faw fruits occur in it. It is of a dark brownish-green colour, and has a faint peculiar odour and but a slight taste. It is smoked with or without tobacco; or it is made into a sweetmeat with honey, sugar and aromatic spices; or it is powdered and infused in cold water, yielding a turbid drink, subdschi. Hashish is one of the Arabic names given to the Syrian and Turkish preparations of the resinous hemp leaves. One of the commonest of these prepara- tions is made by heating the bhang with water and butter, the butter becoming thus charged with the resinous and active substances of the plant. 2. Ganja, the guaza of the London brokers, consists of the flowering and fruiting heads of the female plant. It is brownish- green, and otherwise resembles bhang, as in odour and taste. Some of the more esteemed kinds of hashish are prepared from this ganja. Ganja is met with in the Indian bazaars in dense bundles of 24 plants or heads apiece. The hashish in such extensive use in Central Asia is often seen in the bazaars of large cities in the form of cakes, i to 3 in. thick, 5 to 10 in. broad and 10 to 15 in. long. 3. Charas, or churrus, is the resin itself collected, as it exudes naturally from the plant, in different ways. The best sort is gathered by the hand like opium; sometimes the resinous exudation of the plant is made to stick first of all to cloths, or to the leather garments of men, or even to their skin, and is then removed by scraping, and afterwards consolidated by kneading, pressing and rolling. It contains about one-third or one-fourth its weight of the resin. But the churrus prepared by different methods and in different countries differs greatly in appearance and purity. Sometimes it takes the form of egg-like masses of greyish-brown colour, having when of high quality a shining resinous fracture. Often it occurs in the form of irregular friable lumps, like pieces of impure linseed oil-cake. The medicinal and intoxicating properties of hemp have probably been known in Oriental countries from a very early period. An ancient Chinese herbal, part of which was written about the 5th century B.C., while the remainder is of still earlier date, notices the seed and flower-bearing kinds of hemp. Other early writers refer to hemp as a remedy. The medicinal and dietetic use of hemp spread through India, Persia and Arabia in the early middle ages. The use of hemp (bhang) in India was noticed by Garcia d'Orta in 1563. Berlu in his Treasury of Drugs (1690) describes it as of " an infatuating quality and pernicious use." Attention was recalled to this drug, in consequence of Napoleon's Egyptian expedition, by de Sacy (1809) and Rouger (1810). Its modern medicinal use is chiefly due to trials by Dr O'Shaughnessy in Calcutta (1838-1842). The plant is grown partly and of ten mainly for the sake of its resin in Persia, northern India and Arabia, in many parts of Africa and in Brazil. Pharmacology and Therapeutics. — The composition of this drug is still extremely obscure; partly, perhaps, because it varies so much in individual specimens. It appears to contain at least two alkaloids — cannabinine and tetano-cannabine — of which the former is volatile. The chief active principle may possibly be neither of these, but the substance cannabinon. There are also resins, a volatile oil and several other constituents. Cannabis indica — as the drug is termed in the pharmacopoeias — may be given as an extract (dose j-i gr.) or tincture (dose 5-15 minims). The drug has no external action. The effects of its absorption, whether it be swallowed or smoked, vary within wide limits in different individuals and races. So great is this variation as to be inexplicable except on the view that the nature and propor- tions of the active principles vary greatly in different specimens. But typically the drug in an intoxicant, resembling alcohol in many features of its action, but differing in others. The early symptoms are highly pleasurable, and it is for these, as in the case of other stimulants, that the drug is so largely consumed in the East. There is a subjective sensation of mental brilliance, but, as in other cases, this is not borne out by the objective results. It has been suggested that the incoordination of nervous action under the influence of Indian hemp may be due to independent and non-concerted action on the part of the two halves of the cerebrum. Following on a decided lowering of the pain and touch senses, which may even lead to complete loss of cutaneous sensation, there comes a sleep which is often accompanied by pleasant dreams. There appears to be no evidence in the case of either the lower animals or the human subject that the drug is an aphrodisiac. Excessive indulgence in cannabis indica is very rare, but may lead to general ill-health and occasionally to insanity. The apparent impossibility of obtaining pure and trustworthy samples of the drug has led to its entire abandon- ment in therapeutics. When a good sample is obtained it is a safe and efficient hypnotic, at any rate in the case of a European. The tincture should not be prescribed unless precautions are taken to avoid the precipitation of the resin which follows its dilution with water. See Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products of India. HEMSTERHUIS, FRANCOIS (1721-1790), Dutch writer on aesthetics and moral philosophy, son of Tiberius Hemsterhuis, was born at Franeker in Holland, on the 27th of December 1721. He was educated at the university of Leiden, where he studied Plato. Failing to obtain a professorship, he entered the service of the state, and for many years acted as secretary to the state council of the United Provinces. He died at the Hague on the 7th of July 1790. Through his philosophical writings he became acquainted with many distinguished persons — Goethe, Herder, Princess Amalia of Gallitzin, and especially Jacobi, with whom he had much in common. Both were idealists, and their works suffer from a similar lack of arrangement, although distinguished by elegance of form and refined sentiment. His most valuable contributions are in the department of aesthetics or the general analysis of feeling. His philosophy has been characterized as Socratic in content and Platonic in form. Its foundation was the desire for self-knowledge and truth, untrammelled by the rigid bonds of any particular system. His most important works, all of which were written in French, are : Lettre sur la sculpture (1769), in which occurs the well-known defini- tion of the Beautiful as " that which gives us the greatest number of HEMSTERHUIS, T.— HENBANE 265 ideas in the shortest space of time " ; its continuation, Lettre sur Its desirs (1770); Lettre sur I'homme et ses rapports (1772), in which the "moral organ" and the theory of knowledge are discussed; Sopyle (1778), a dialogue on the relation between the soul and the body, and also an attack on materialism; Aristee (1779), the " theodicy " of Hemsterhuis, discussing the existence of God and his relation to man; Simon '(1787), on the four faculties of the soul, which are the will, the imagination, the moral principle (which is both passive and active); Alexis (1787), an attempt to prove that chere are three golden ages, the last being the life beyond the grave ; Lettre sur Vatheisme (1/87). The best collected edition of his works is by P. S. Meijboom (1846-1850); see also S. A. Gronemann, F. Hemsterhuis, de Neder- landische Wijsgeer (Utrecht, 1867) ; E. Grucker, Francois Hemsterhuis , so, vie et ses ceuvres (Paris, 1866); E. Meyer, Der Philosoph Franz Hemsterhuis (Breslau, 1893), with bibliographical notice. HEMSTERHUIS, TIBERIUS (1685-1766), Dutch philologist and critic, was born on the pth of January 1685 at Groningen in Holland. His father, a learned physician, gave him so good an early education that, when he entered the university of his native town in his fifteenth year, he speedily proved himself to be the best student of mathematics. After a year or two at Groningen, he was attracted to the university of Leiden by the fame of Perizonius; and while there he was entrusted with the duty of arranging the manuscripts in the library. Though he accepted an appointment as professor of mathematics and philosophy at Amsterdam in his twentieth year, he had already directed his attention to the study of the ancient languages. In 1706 he completed the edition of Pollux's Onomasticon begun by Lederlin; but the praise he received from his countrymen was more than counterbalanced by two letters of criticism from Bentley, which mortified him so keenly that for two months he refused to open a Greek book. In 1717 Hemsterhuis was appointed professor of Greek at Franeker, but he did not enter on his duties there till 1720. In 1738 he became professor of national history also. Two years afterwards he was called to teach the same subjects at Leiden, where he died on the 7th of April 1766. Hemsterhuis was the founder of a laborious and useful Dutch school of criticism, which had famous disciples in Valckenaer, Lennep and Ruhnken. His chief writings are the following: Luciani cottoquia et Timon (1708); Aristophanis Plutus (1744); Notae, &c., ad Xenopkontem Ephesium in the Miscellanea crilica of Amsterdam, vols. iii. and iv.; Observationes ad Chrysostomi homilias ; Orationes (1784); a Latin translation of the Birds of Aristophanes, in Kiister's edition ; notes to Bernard's Thomas Magister, to Alberti's Hesychius, to Ernesti's Callimachus and to Burmann's Propertius. See Elogium T. Hemsterhusii (with Bentley's letters) by Ruhnken (1789), and Supplementa annotalionis ad elogium T. Hemsterhusii, &c. (Leiden, 1874) ; also J. E. Sandys' Hist. Class. Scholarship, ii. (1908). HEMY, CHARLES NAPIER (1841- ), British painter, born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, was trained in the Newcastle school of art, in the Antwerp academy and in the studio of Baron Leys. He has produced some figure subjects and landscapes, but is best known by his admirable marine paintings. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1898, associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1890 and member in 1897. Two of his paintings, " Pilchards " (1897) and " London River " (1904), are in the National Gallery of British Art. HEN, a female bird, especially the female of the common fowl ((?.».) . The O. Eng. keen is the feminine form of hana, the male bird, a correlation of words which is represented in other Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Hahn, Henne, Dutch haan, hen, Swed. hane, honne, &c. The O. Eng. name for the male bird has disappeared, its place being taken by " cock," a word probably of onomato- poeic origin, being from a base kuk- or kik-, seen also in " chicken." This word also appears in Fr. coq, and medieval Lat. coccus. HENAULT, CHARLES JEAN FRANCOIS (1685-1770), French historian, was born in Paris on the 8th of February 1685. His father, a farmer-general of taxes, was a man of literary tastes, and young Renault obtained a good education at the Jesuit college. Captivated by the eloquence of Massillon, in his fifteenth year he entered the Oratory with the view of becoming a preacher, but after two years' residence he changed his intention, and, inheriting a position which secured him access to the most select society of Paris, he achieved distinction at an early period by his gay, witty and graceful manners. His literary talent, mani- fested in the composition of various light poetical pieces, an opera, a tragedy (Cornelie vestale, 1710), &c., obtained his entrance to the Academy (1723). Petit-matire as he was, he had also serious capacity, for he became councillor of the parlement of Paris (1705), and in 1710 he was chosen president of the court of enquetes. After the death of the count de Rieux (son of the famous financier, Samuel Bernard) he became (1753) super- intendent of the household of Queen Marie Leszczynska, whose intimate friendship he had previously enjoyed. On his recovery in his eightieth year from a dangerous malady (1765) he pro- fessed to have undergone religious conversion and retired into private life, devoting the remainder of his days to study and devotion. His religion was, however, according to the marquis d'Argenson, " exempt from fanaticism, persecution, bitterness and intrigue "; and it did not prevent him from continuing his friendship with Voltaire, to whom it is said he had formerly rendered the service of saving the manuscript of La Henriade, when its author was about to commit it to the flames. The literary work on which Henault bestowed his chief attention was the Abr6g6 chronologique de I'histoire de France, first published in 1744 without the author's name. In the compass of two volumes he comprised the whole history of France from the earliest times to the death of Louis XIV. The work has no originality. Henault had kept his note-books of the history lectures at the Jesuit college, of which the substance was taken from Mezeray and P. Daniel. He revised them first in 1723, and later put them in the form of question and answer on the model of P. le Ragois, and by following Dubos and Boulain- villiers and with the aid of the abbe Boudot he compiled his^l bregi. The research is all on the surface and is only borrowed. But the work had a prodigious success, and was translated into several languages, even into Chinese. This was due partly to Renault's popularity and position, partly to the agreeable style which made the history readable. He inserted, according to the fashion of the period, moral and political reflections, which are always brief and generally as fresh and pleasing as they are just. A few masterly strokes reproduced the leading features of each age and the characters of its illustrious men; accurate chronological tables set forth the most interesting events in the history of each sovereign and the names of the great men who flourished during his reign; and interspersed throughout the work are occasional chapters on the social and civil state of the country at the dose of each era in its history. Continuations of the work have been made at separate periods by Fantin des Odoards, by Anguis with notes by Walckenaer, and by Michaud. He died at Paris on the 24th of November 1770. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Renault's Memoires have come down to us in two different versions, both claiming to be authentic. One was published in 1855 by M. du Vigan; the other was owned by the Comte de Coutades, who permitted Lucien Percy to give long extracts in his work on President Henault (Paris, 1893). The memoirs are fragmentary and disconnected, but contain interesting anecdotes and details concerning persons of note. See the Correspondence of Grimm , of Madame du Deffand and of Voltaire; the notice by Walckenaer in the edition of the Abrege; Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. xi. ; and the Origines de I'abrege (Ann. Bulletin de la Societe de I'histoire de France, 1901). Also H. Lion, Le President Henault (Paris, 1903). HENBANE (Fr. jusquiaume, from the Gr. voo-Kvafios, or hog's-bean; Ital. giusquiamo; Ger. Sckwarzes Bilsenkraut, Hiihnertod, Saubohne and Zigeuner-Korn or " gipsies' corn "), the common name of the plant Hyoscyamus niger, a member of the natural order Solanaceae, indigenous to Britain, found wild in waste places, on rubbish about villages and old castles, and cultivated for medicinal use in various counties in the south and east of England. It occurs also in central and southern Europe and in western Asia extending to India and Siberia, and has long been naturalized in the United States. There are two forms of the plant, an annual and a biennial, which spring indifferently from the same crop of seed — the one growing on during summer to a height of from i to 2 ft., and flowering and perfecting seed; the other producing the first season only a tuft of radical leaves, which disappear in winter, leaving under- 266 HENCHMAN— HENDERSON, A. ground a thick fleshy root, from the crown of which arises in spring a branched flowering stem, usually much taller and more vigorous than the flowering stems of the annual plants. The biennial form is that which is considered officinal. The radical leaves of this biennial plant spread out flat on all sides from the crown of the root; they are ovate-oblong, acute, stalked, and more or less incisely-toothed, of a greyish-green colour, and covered with viscid hairs; these leaves perish at the approach of winter. The flowering stem pushes up from the root-crown in spring, ultimately reaching from 3 to 4 ft. in height, and as it grows becoming branched, and furnished with alternate sessile leaves, which are stem-clasping, oblong, unequally-lobed, clothed with glandular clammy hairs, and of a dull grey-green, the whole plant having a powerful nauseous odour. The flowers are shortly- stalked, the lower ones growing in the fork of the branches, the upper ones sessile in one-sided leafy spikes which are rolled back at the top before flowering, the leaves becoming smaller upwards and taking the place of bracts. The flowers have an urn-shaped calyx which persists around the fruit and is strongly veined, with five stiff, broad, almost prickly lobes; these, when the soft matter is removed by maceration, form very elegant specimens when associated with leaves prepared in a similar way. The corollas are obliquely funnel-shaped, of a dirty yellow or buff, marked with a close reticulation of purple veins. The capsule opens transversely by a convex lid and contains numerous seeds. Both the leaves and the seeds are employed in pharmacy. The Mahommedan doctors of India are accustomed to prescribe the seeds. Henbane yields a poisonous alkaloid, hyoscyamine, which is stated to have properties almost identical with those of atropine, from which it differs in being more soluble in water. It is usually obtained in an amorphous, scarcely ever in a crystalline state. Its properties have been investigated in Germany by T. Husemann, Schroff, Hohn, &c. Hohn finds its chemical composition expressed by CigHjs^Oa. (Compare Hellmann, Beitrage zur Kennlnis der physiolog. Wirkung des Hyoscyamins, &c., Jena, 1874.) In small and repeated doses henbane has been found to have a tranquillizing effect upon persons affected by severe nervous irritability. In poisonous doses it causes loss of speech, distortion and paralysis. In the form of extract or tincture it is a valuable remedy in the hands of a medical man, either as an anodyne, a hypnotic or a sedative. The extract of henbane is rich in nitrate of potassium and other inorganic salts. The smoking of the seeds and capsules of henbane is noted in books as a somewhat dangerous remedy adopted by country people for toothache. Accidental poisoning from henbane occasionally occurs, owing sometimes to the apparent edibility and whole- someness of the root. See Bentley and Trumen, Medicinal Plants, 194 (1880). HENCHMAN, originally, probably, one who attended on a horse, a grqom, and hence, like groom (q.v.), a title of a sub- ordinate official in royal or noble households. The first part of the word is the O. Eng. hengest, a horse, a word which occurs in many Teutonic languages, cf . Ger. and Dutch hengst. The word appears in the name, Hengest, of the Saxon chieftain (see HENGEST AND HORSA) and still survives in English in place and other names beginning with Hingst- or Hinx-. Henchmen, pages of honour or squires, rode or walked at the side of their master in processions and the like, and appear in the English royal household from the I4th century till Elizabeth abolished the royal henchmen, known also as the " children of honour." The word was obsolete in English from the middle of the I7th century, and seems to have been revived through Sir Walter Scott, who took the word and its derivation, according to the New English Dictionary, from Edward Burt's Letters from a Gentleman in the North of Scotland, together with its erroneous derivation from " haunch." The word is, in this sense, used as synonymous with " gillie," the faithful personal follower of a Highland chieftain, the man who stands at his master's " haunch," ready for any emergency. It is this sense that usually survives in modern usage of the word, where it is often used of an out-and- out adherent or partisan, ready to do anything. HENDERSON, ALEXANDER (1583-1646), Scottish ecclesi- astic, was born in 1583 at Criech, Fifeshire. He graduated at the university of St Andrews in 1603, and in 1610 was appointed professor of rhetoric and philosophy and questor of the faculty of arts. Shortly after this he was presented to the living of Leuchars. As Henderson was forced upon his parish by Arch- bishop George Gladstanes, and was known to sympathize with episcopacy, his settlement was at first extremely unpopular; but he subsequently changed his views and became a Presby- terian in doctrine and church government, and one of the most esteemed ministers in Scotland. He early made his mark as a church leader, and took an active part in petitioning against the " five acts " and later against the introduction of a service-book and canons drawn up on the model of the English prayer-book. On the ist of March 1638 the public signing of the " National Covenant " began in Greyfriars Church, Edinburgh. Henderson was mainly responsible for the final form of this document, which consisted of (i) the " king's confession " drawn up in 1581 by John Craig, (2) a recital of the acts of parliament against " superstitious and papistical rites," and (3) an elaborate oath to maintain the true reformed religion. Owing to the skill shown on this occasion he seems to have been applied to when any manifesto of unusual ability was required. In July of the same year he proceeded to the north to debate on the " Covenant " with the famous Aberdeen doctors; but he was not well received by them. " The voyd church was made fast, and the keys keeped by the magistrate," says Baillie. Henderson's next public opportunity was in the famous Assembly which met in Glasgow on the 2 ist of November 1 638. He was chosen moderator by acclamation, being, as Baillie says, " incomparablie the ablest man of us all for all things." James Hamilton, 3rd marquess of Hamilton, was the king's commissioner; and when the Assembly insisted on proceeding with the trial of the bishops, he formally dissolved the meeting under pain of treason. Acting on the constitutional principle that the king's right to convene did not interfere with the church's independent right to hold assemblies, they sat till the 2Oth of December, deposed all the Scottish bishops, excommunicated a number of them, repealed all acts favouring episcopacy, and reconstituted the Scottish Kirk on thorough Presbyterian principles. During the sitting of this Assembly it was carried by a majority of seventy-five votes that Henderson should be transferred to Edinburgh. He had been at Leuchars for about twenty-three years, and was extremely reluctant to leave it. While Scotland and England were preparing for the " First Bishops' War," Henderson drew up two papers, entitled respec- tively The Remonstrance of the Nobility and Instructions for Defensive Arms. The first of these documents he published himself; the second was published against his wish by John Corbet (1603-1641), a deposed minister. The " First Bishops' War " did not last long. At the Pacification of Birks the king virtually granted all the demands of the Scots. In the negotia- tions for peace Henderson was one of the Scottish commissioners, and made a very favourable impression on the king. In 1640 Henderson was elected by the town council rector of Edinburgh University — an office to which he was annually re-elected till his death. The Pacification of Birks had been wrung from the king; and the Scots, seeing that he was preparing for the " Second Bishops' War," took the initiative, and pressed into England so vigorously that Charles had again to yield everything. The maturing of the treaty of peace took a considerable time, and Henderson was again active in the negotiations, first at Ripon (October ist) and afterwards in London. While he was in London he had a personal interview with the king, with the view of obtaining assistance for the Scottish universities from the money formerly applied to the support of the bishops. On Henderson's return to Edinburgh in July 1641 the Assembly was sitting at St Andrews. To suit the convenience of the parliament, however, it removed to Edinburgh; Henderson was elected moderator of the Edinburgh meeting. In this Assembly he proposed that " a confession of faith, a catechism, a directory for all the parts of the public worship, and a platform HENDERSON, E.— HENDERSON, G. F. R. 267 of government, wherein possibly England and we might agree," should be drawn up. This was unanimously approved of, and the laborious undertaking was left in Henderson's hands; but the " notable motion " did not lead to any immediate results. During Charles's second state-visit to Scotland, in the autumn of 1641, Henderson acted as his chaplain, and managed to get the funds, formerly belonging to the bishopric of Edinburgh, applied to the metropolitan university. In 1642 Henderson, whose policy was to keep Scotland neutral in the war which had now broken out between the king and the parliament, was engaged in corresponding with England on ecclesiastical topics; and, shortly afterwards, he was sent to Oxford to mediate between the king and his parliament; but his mission proved a failure. A memorable meeting of the General Assembly was held in August 1643. Henderson was elected moderator for the third time. He presented a draft of the famous " Solemn League and Covenant," which was received with great enthusiasm. Unlike the " National Covenant " of 1638, which applied to Scotland only, this document was common to the two kingdoms. Henderson, Baillie, Rutherford and others were sent up to London to represent Scotland in the Assembly at Westminster. The " Solemn League and Covenant," which pledged both countries to the extirpation of prelacy, leaving further decision as to church government to be decided by the " example of the best reformed churches, "after undergoing some slight alterations, passed the two Houses of Parliament and the Westminster Assembly, and thus became law for the two kingdoms. By means of it Henderson has had considerable influence on the history of Great Britain. As Scottish commissioner to the Westminster Assembly, he was in England from August 1643 till August 1646; his principal work was the drafting of the directory for public worship. Early in 1643 Henderson was sent to Uxbridge to aid the commissioners of the two parliaments in negotiating with the king; but nothing came of the conference. In 1646 the king joined the Scottish army; and, after retiring with them to Newcastle, he sent for Henderson, and discussed with him the two systems of church government in a number of papers. Meanwhile Henderson was failing in health. He sailed to Scotland, and eight days after his arrival died, on the igth of August 1646. He was buried in Greyfriars churchyard, Edinburgh ; and his death was the occasion of national mourning in Scotland. On the 7th of August Baillie had written that he had heard that Henderson was dying " most of heartbreak." A document was published in London purporting to be a "Declara- tion of Mr Alexander Henderson made upon his Death-bed "; and, although this paper was disowned, denounced and shown to be false in the General Assembly of August 1648, the document was used by Clarendon as giving the impression that Henderson had recanted. Its foundation was probably certain expressions lamenting Scottish interference in English affairs. Henderson is one of the greatest men in the history of Scotland and, next to Knox, is certainly the most famous of Scottish ecclesiastics. He had great political genius; and his statesman- ship was so influential that " he was," as Masson well observes, " a cabinet minister without office." He has made a deep mark on the history, not only of Scotland, but of England; and the existing Presbyterian churches in Scotland are largely indebted to him for the forms of their dogmas and their ecclesiastical organization. He is thus justly considered the second founder of the Reformed Church in Scotland. See M'Crie's Life of Alexander Henderson (1846) ; Alton's Life and Times of Alexander Henderson (1836); The Letters and Journals of Robert Baillie (1841-1842) (an exceedingly valuable work, from an historical point of view); J. H. Burton's History of Scotland; D. Masson's Life of Drummond of Hawthornden; and, above all, Masson's Life of Milton; Andrew Lang, Hist, of Scotland (1907), vol. iii. Henderson's own works are chiefly contributions to current controversies, speeches and sermons. (T. Gl. ; D. MN.) HENDERSON, EBENEZER (1784-1858), a Scottish divine, was born at the Linn near Dunfermline on the i7th of November 1784, and died at Mortlake on the i7th of May 1858. He was the youngest son of an agricultural labourer, and after three years' schooling spent some time at watchmaking and as a shoemaker's apprentice. In 1803 he joined Robert Haldane's theological seminary, and in 1805 was selected to accompany the Rev. John Paterson to India; but as the East India Company would not allow British vessels to convey missionaries to India, Henderson and his colleague went to Denmark to await the chance of a passage to Serampur, then a Danish port. Being unexpectedly delayed, and having begun to preach in Copenhagen, they ultimately decided to settle in Denmark, and in 1806 Henderson became pastor at Elsinore. From this time till about 1817 he was engaged in encouraging the distribution of Bibles in the Scandinavian countries, and in the course of his labours he visited Sweden and Lapland (1807-1808), Iceland (1814-1815) and the mainland of Denmark and part of Germany (1816). During most of this time he was an agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society. On the 6th of October 181 1 he formed the first Congregational church in Sweden. In 1818, after a visit to England, he travelled in company with Paterson through Russia as far south as Tiflis, but, instead of settling as was proposed at Astrakhan, he retraced his steps, having resigned his connexion with the Bible Society owing to his disapproval of a translation of the Scriptures which had been made in Turkish. In 1822 h'e was invited by Prince Alexander (Galitzin) to assist the Russian Bible Society in translating the Scriptures into various languages spoken in the Russian empire. After twenty years of foreign labour Henderson returned to England , and in 1 8 2 5 was appointed tutor of the Mission College, Gosport. In 1830 he succeeded Dr William Harrison as theological lecturer and professor of Oriental languages in Highbury Congregational College. In 1850, on the amalgamation of the colleges of Homerton, Coward and Highbury, he retired on a pension. In 1852-1853 he was pastor of Sheen Vale chapel at Mortlake. His last work was a translation of the book of Ezekiel. Henderson was a man of great linguistic attain- ment. He made himself more or less acquainted, not only with the ordinary languages of scholarly accomplishment and the various members of the Scandinavian group, but also with Hebrew, Syriac, Ethiopic, Russian, Arabic, Tatar, Persian, Turkish, Armenian, Manchu, Mongolian and Coptic. He organized the first Bible Society in Denmark (1814), and paved the way for several others. In 1817 he was nominated by the Scandinavian Literary Society a corresponding member; and in 1840 he was made D.D. by the university of Copenhagen. He was honorary secretary for life of the Religious Tract Society, and one of the first promoters of the British Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews. The records of his travels in Iceland (1818) were valuable contributions to our knowledge of that island. His other principal works are: Iceland, or the Journal of a Residence in that Island (2 vols., 1818); Biblical Researches and Travels in Russia (1826); Elements of Biblical Criticism and Interpretation (1830); The Vaudois, a Tour of the Valleys of Piedmont (1845). See Memoirs of Ebenezer Henderson, by Thulia S. Henderson (his daughter) (London, 1859) ; Congregational Year Book (1859). HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT (1854-1903), British soldier and military writer, was born in Jersey in 1854. Educated at Leeds Grammar School, of which his father, after- wards Dean of Carlisle, was headmaster, he was early attracted to the study of history, and obtained a scholarship at St John's College, Oxford. But he soon left the University for Sandhurst, whence he obtained his first commission in 1878. One year later, after a few months' service in India, he was promoted lieutenant and returned to England, and in 1882 he went on active service with his regiment, the York and Lancaster (6sth/ 84th) to Egypt . He was present at Tell-el-Mahuta and Kassassin, and at Tell-el-Kebir was the first man of his regiment to enter the enemy's works. His conduct attracted the notice of Sir Garnet (afterwards Lord) Wolseley, and he received the sth class of the Medjidieh order. His name was, further, noted for a brevet- majority, which he did not receive till he became captain in 1886. During these years he had been quietly studying military art and history at Gibraltar, in Bermuda and in Nova Scotia, in spite of the difficulties of research, and in 1889 appeared 268 HENDERSON, J.—HENGEST AND HORSA (anonymously) his first work, The Campaign of Fredericksburg. In the same year he became Instructor in Tactics, Military Law and Administration at Sandhurst. From this post he proceeded as Professor of Military Art and History to the Staff College (1892-1899), and there exercised a profound influence on the younger generation of officers. His study on Spicheren had been begun some years before, and in 1898 appeared, as the result of eight years' work, his masterpiece, Stonewall Jackson and the American Civil War. In the South African War Lieutenant- Colonel Henderson served with distinction on the staff of Lord Roberts as Director of Intelligence. But overwork and malaria broke his health, and he had to return home, being eventually selected to write the official history of the war. But failing health obliged him to go to Egypt, where he died at Assuan on the 5th of March 1903. He had completed the portion of the history of the South African War dealing with the events up to the commencement of hostilities, amounting to about a volume, but the War Office decided to suppress this, and the work was begun de now and carried out by Sir F. Maurice. Various lectures and papers by Henderson were collected and published in 1905 by Captain Malcolm, D.S.O., under the title The Science of War; to this collection a memoir was contributed by Lord Roberts. See also Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, vol. xlvii. No. 302. HENDERSON, JOHN (1747-1785), English actor, of Scottish descent, was born in London. He made his first appearance on the stage at Bath on the 6th of October 1772 as Hamlet. His success in this and other Shakespearian parts led to his being called the " Bath Roscius." He had great difficulty in getting a London engagement, but finally appeared at the Haymarket in 1777 as Shylock, and his success was a source of considerable profit to Colman, the manager. Sheridan then engaged him to play at Drury Lane, where he remained for two years. When the companies joined forces he went to Covent Garden, appearing as Richard III, in 1778, and creating original parts in many of the plays of Cumberland, Shirley, Jephson and others. His last appearance was in 1785 as Horatius in The Roman Father, and he died on the 25th of November of that year and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Garrick was very jealous of Henderson, and the latter's power of mimicry separated him also from Colman, but he was always gratefully remembered by Mrs. Siddons and others of his profession whom he had encouraged. He was a close friend of Gainsborough, who painted his portrait, as did also Stewart and Romney. He was co-author of Sheridan and Henderson's Practical Method of Reading and Writing English Poetry. HENDERSON, a city and the county-seat of Henderson county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the S. bank of the Ohio river, about 142 m. W.S.W! of Louisville. Pop. (1890), 8835; (1900), 10,272, of whom 4029 were negroes; (1910 census) 11,452. It is served by the Illinois Central, the Louisville & Nashville, and the Louisville, Henderson & St. Louis railways, and has direct communication by steamboat with Louisville, Evansville, Cairo, Memphis and New Orleans. Henderson is built on the high bank of the river, above the flood level; the river is spanned here by a fine steel bridge, designed by George W. G. Ferris (1859-1896), the designer of the Ferris Wheel. The city has a public park of 80 acres and a Carnegie library. It is situated in the midst of a region whose soil is said to be the best in the world for the raising of dark, heavy-fibred tobacco, and is well adapted also for the growing of fruit, wheat and Indian corn. Bituminous coal is obtained from the surrounding country. Immense quantities of stemmed tobacco are shipped from here, and the city is an important market for Indian corn. The manufactures of the city include cotton and woollen goods, hominy, meal, flour, tobacco and cigars, carriages, baskets, chairs and other furniture, bricks, ice, whisky and beer; the value of the city's factory products in 1905 was $1,365,120. •The municipality owns and operates its water works, gas plant and electric-lighting plant. Henderson, named in honour of Richard Henderson (1734-1785), was settled as early as 1784, was first known as Red Banks, was laid out as a town by Hender- son's company in 1797, was incorporated as a town in 1810, and was first chartered as a city in 1854. The city boundary lines were extended in 1905 by the annexation of Audubon and Edgewood. Henderson was for some time the home of John James Audubon, the ornithologist. HENDIADYS, the name adopted from the Gr. tv dia 8vo1i> (" one by means of two ") for a rhetorical figure, in which two words connected by a copulative conjunction are used of a single idea; usually the figure takes the form of two substantives instead of a substantive and adjective, as in the classical example pateris libamus et auro (Virgil, Ceorgics, ii. 192), " we pour libations in cups and gold " for " cups of gold." HENDON, an urban district in the Harrow parliamentary division of Middlesex, England, on the river Brent, 8 m. N.W. of St Paul's Cathedral, London, served by the Midland railway. Pop. (1891), 15,843; (1901), 22,450. The nucleus of the township lies on high ground to the east of the Edgware road, which crosses the Welsh Harp reservoir of Regent's Canal, a favourite fishing and skating resort. The church of St Mary is mainly Per- pendicular, and contains a Norman font and monuments of the i8th century. To the north of the village, which has extended greatly as a residential suburb of the metropolis, is Mill Hill, with a Roman Catholic Missionary College, opened in 1871, with branches at Rosendaal, Holland and Brixen, Austria, and a preparatory school at Freshfield near Liverpool; and a large grammar school founded by Nonconformists in 1807. The manor belonged at an early date to the abbot of Westminster. HENDRICKS, THOMAS ANDREWS (1819-1885), American political leader, vice-president of the United States in 1885, was born near Zanesville, Ohio, on the 7th of September 1819. He graduated at Hanover College, Hanover, Indiana, in 1841, and began in 1843 a successful career at the bar. Identifying himself with the Democratic party, he served in the state House of Representatives in 1848, and was a prominent member of the convention for the revision of the state constitution in 1850-1851, a representative in Congress (1851-1855), commissioner of the United States General Land Office (1855-1859), a United States senator (1863-1869), and governor of Indiana (1873-1877). From 1868 until his death he was put forward for nomination for the presidency at every national Democratic Convention save in 1872. Both in 1876 and 1884, after his failure to receive the nomination for the presidency, he was nominated by the Demo- cratic National Convention for vice-president, his nomination in each of these conventions being made partly, it seems, with the hope of gaining "greenback" votes — Hendricks had opposed the immediate resumption of specie payments. In 1876, with S. J. Tilden, he lost the disputed election by the decision of the electoral commission, but he was elected with Grover Cleveland in 1884. He died at Indianapolis on the 25th of November 1885. HENGELO, or HENGELOO, a town in the province of Overyssel, Holland, and a junction station 5 m. by rail N.W. of Enschede. Pop. (1900), 14,968. The castle belonging to the ancient terri- torial lords of Hengelo has long since disappeared, and the only interest the town now possesses is as the centre of the flourishing industries of the Twente district. The manufacture of cotton in all its branches is very actively carried on, and there are dye-works and breweries, besides the engineering works of the state railway company. HENGEST and HORSA, the brother chieftains who led the first Saxon bands which settled in England. They were apparently called in by the British king Vortigern (q.v.)to defend him against the Picts. The place of their landing is said to have been Ebbsfleet in Kent. Its date is not certainly known, 450-455 being given by the English authorities, 428 by the Welsh (see KENT). The settlers of Kent are described by Bede as Jutes (q.v.), and there are traces in Kentish custom of differences from the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Hengest and Horsa were at first given the island of Thanet as a home, but soon quarrelled with their British allies, and gradually possessed themselves of what became the kingdom of Kent. In 455 the Saxon Chronicle records a battle between Hengest and Horsa and Vortigern at a place called Aegaels threp, in which Horsa HENGSTENBERG— HENLE 269 was slain. Thenceforward Hengest reigned in Kent, together with his son Aesc (Oisc). Both the Saxon Chronicle and the Historia Brittonum record three subsequent battles, though the two authorities disagree as to their issue. There is no doubt, however, that the net result was the expulsion of the Britons from Kent. According to the Chronicle, which probably derived its information from a lost list of Kentish kings, Hengest died in 488, while his son Aesc continued to reign until 512. Bede, Hist. Eccl. (Plummet, 1896), i. 15, ii. 5; Saxon Chronicle (Earle and Plummer, 1899), s.a. 449, 455, 457, 465, 473; Nennius, Ilistoria Brittonum (San Marte, 1844), §§ 31, 37, 38, 43-46, 58. HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM (1802-1869), German Lutheran divine and theologian, was born at Frondenberg, a Westphalian village, on the 2oth of October 1802. He was educated by his father, who was a minister of the Reformed Church, and head of the Frondenberg convent of canonesses (Frauleinstift). Entering the university of Bonn in 1810, he attended the lectures of G. G. Freytag for Oriental languages and of F. K. L. Gieseler for church history, but his energies were principally devoted to philosophy and philology, and his earliest publication was an edition of the Arabic Moallakat of Amru'l- Qais, which gained for him the prize at his graduation in the philosophical faculty. This was followed in 1824 by a German translation of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Finding himself without the means to complete his theological studies under Neander and Tholuck in Berlin, he accepted a post at Basel as tutor in Oriental languages to J. J. Stahelin, who afterwards became professor at the university. Then it was that he began to direct his attention to a study of the Bible, which led him to a conviction, never afterwards shaken, not only of the divine character of evangelical religion, but also of the unapproachable adequacy of its expression in the Augsburg Confession. In 1824 he joined the philosophical faculty of Berlin as a Privatdozent, and in 1825 he became a licentiate in theology, his theses being' remark- able for their evangelical fervour and for their emphatic protest against every form of " rationalism," especially in questions of Old Testament criticism. In 1826 he became professor extra- ordinarius in theology; and in July 1827 appeared, under his editorship, the Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, a strictly orthodox journal, which in his hands acquired an almost unique reputation as a controversial organ. It did not, however, attain to great notoriety until in 1830 an anonymous article (by E. L. von Gerlach) appeared, which openly charged Wilhelm Gesenius and J. A. L. Wegscheider with infidelity and profanity, and on the ground of these accusations advocated the interposition of the civil power, thus giving rise to the prolonged Hallische Sireit. In 1828 the first volume of Hengstenberg's Christologie des Allen Testaments passed through the press; in the autumn of that year he became professor ordinarius in theology, and in 1829 doctor of theology. He died on the z8th of May 1869. The following is a list of his principal works: Christologie des Allen Testaments (1829-1835; 2nd ed., 1854-1857; Eng. trans, by R. Keith, 1835-1839, also in Clark's " Foreign Theological Library, by T. Meyer and J. Martin, 1854-1858), a work of much learning, the estimate of which varies according to the hermeneutical principles of the individual critic; Beitrage zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1831-1839); Eng. trans., Dissertations on the Genuineness of Daniel and the Integrity of Zechariah (Edin., 1848), and Dissertations on tfa Genuineness of the Pentateuch (Edin., 1847), in which the traditional view on each question is strongly upheld, and much capital is made of the absence of. harmony among the negative critics; Die Bucher Moses und Agypten (1841); Die Geschichte Bileams u. seiner Weissagungen (1842; translated along with the Dissertations on Daniel and Zechariah) ; Commentar iiber die Psalmen (1842-1847; 2nd ed., 1849-1852; Eng. trans, by P. Fairbairn and J. Thomson, Edin., 1844-1848), which shares the merits and defects of the Christologie; Die Offenbarung Johannis erldutert (1849-1851; 2nd ed., 1861-1862; Eng. trans, by P. Fairbairn, also in Clark's "Foreign Theological Library," 1851-1852); Das Hohe Lied ausgelegt (1853); Der Prediger Salomo ausgelegt (1859); Das Evangelium Johannis erldutert (1861-1863; 2nd ed., 1867-1871 ; Eng. trans., 1865) and Die Weissagungen des Propheten Ezechiel erlaulert (1867-1868). Of minor importance are De rebus Tyriorum commentatio academica (1832); Ober den Tag des Herrn (1852); Das Passa, ein Vortrag (1853); and Die Opfer der heiligen Schrift (1859). Several series of papers also, as, for example, on " The Retention of the Apocrypha," " Freemasonry " (1854), " Duelling " (1856) and The Relation between the Jews and the Christian Church " (1857; 2nd ed., 1859), which originally appeared in the Kirchenzeitung, were afterwards printed in a separate form. Geschichte des Retches Gottes unter dem Allen Bunde (1869-1871), Das Buck Hiob erldutert (1870- 1875) and Vorlesungen iiber die Leidensgeschichte (1875) were pub- lished posthumously. See J. Bachmann's Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg (1876-1879); also his article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (1899), and the article in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie. Also F. Lichtenberger, History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889),. pp. 212-217; Philip Schaff, Germany; its Universities, Theology and Religion (1857), pp. 300-319. HENKE, HEINRICH PHILIPP KONRAD (1752-1809), German theologian, best known as a writer on church history, was born at Hehlen, Brunswick, on the 3rd of July 1752. He was educated at the gymnasium of Brunswick and the university of Helmstadt, and from 1778 to 1809 he was professor, first of philosophy, then of theology, in that university. In 1803 he was appointed principal of the Carolinum in Brunswick as well. He died on the 2nd of May 1809. Henke belonged to the rationalistic school. His principal work (Allgemeine Geschichte der christl. Kirche, 6 vols., 1788-1804; 2nd ed., 1795-1806)13 commended by F. C. Baur for fullness, accuracy and artistic composition. His other works are Lineamenta institulionum fidei Christianae historico-criticarum (1783), Opuscula academica (1802) and two volumes of Predigten. He was also editor of the Magazin Jilr die Religionsphilosophie, Exegese und Kirchen- geschichte (1793-1802) and the Archiv fiir die neueste Kirchen- geschichle (1794-1799). His son, ERNST LUDWIG THEODOR HENKE (1804-1872), after studying at the university of Jena, became professor extra- ordinarius there in 1833, and professor ordinarius of Marburg in 1839. He is known as the author of monographs upon Georg Calixt u. seine Zeit (1853-1860), Papst Pius VII. (1860), Konrad von Marburg (1861), Kaspar Peucer u. Nik. Krett (1865), Jak. Friedr. Fries (1867), Zur neuern Kirchengeschichte (1867). HENLE, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV JAKOB (1809 - 1885), German pathologist and anatomist, was born on the gth of July 1809 at Fiirth, in Franconia. After studying medicine at Heidelberg and at Bonn, where he took his doctor's degree in 1832, he became prosector in anatomy to Johannes Mtiller at Berlin. During the six years he spent in that position he pub- lished a large amount of work, including three anatomical monographs on new species of animals, and papers on the structure of the lacteal system, the distribution of epithelium in the human body, the structure and development of the hair, the formation of mucus and pus, &c. In 1840 he accepted the chair of anatomy at Zurich, and in 1844 he was called to Heidel- berg, where he taught not only anatomy, but physiology and pathology. About this period he was engaged on his complete system of general anatomy, which formed the sixth volume of the new edition of S. T. von Sommerring's treatise, published at Leipzig between 1841 and 1844. While at Heidelberg he published a zoological monograph on the sharks and rays, in conjunction with his master Miiller, and in 1846 his famous Manual of Rational Pathology began to appear; this marked the beginning of a new era in pathological study, since in it physiology and pathology were treated, in Henle's own words, as " branches of one science," and the facts of disease were systematically considered with reference to their physiological relations. In 1852 he moved to Gottingen, whence he issued three years later the first instalment of his great Handbook of Systematic Human Anatomy, the last volume of which was not published till 1873. This work was perhaps the most complete and comprehensive of its kind that had so far appeared, and it was remarkable not only for the fullness and minuteness of the anatomical descriptions, but also for the number and ex- cellence of the illustrations with which they were elucidated. During the latter half of his life Henle's researches were mainly histological in character, his investigations embracing the minute anatomy of the blood vessels, serous membranes, kidney, eye, nails, central nervous system, &c. He died at Gottingen on the i3th of May 1885. 2JO HENLEY, J.— HENLEY, W. E. HENLEY, JOHN (1692-1759), English clergyman, commonly known as " Orator Henley," was born on the 3rd of August 1692 at Melton-Mowbray, where his father was vicar. After attending the grammar schools of Melton and Oakham, he entered St John's College, Cambridge, and while still an under- graduate he addressed in February 1712, under the pseudonym of Peter de Quir, a letter to the Spectator displaying no small wit and humour. After graduating B.A., he became assistant and then headmaster of the grammar school of his native town, uniting to these duties those of assistant curate. His abundant energy found still further expression in a poem entitled Esther, Queen of Persia (1714), and in the compilation of a grammar of ten languages entitled The Complete Linguist (2 vols., London, 1719-1721). He then decided to go to London, where he obtained the appointment of assistant preacher in the chapels of Ormond Street and Bloomsbury. In 1723 he was presented to the rectory of Chelmondiston in Suffolk; but residence being insisted on, he resigned both his appointments, and on the 3rd of July 1726 opened what he called an " oratory " in Newport Market, which he licensed under the Toleration Act. In 1729 he transferred the scene of his operations to Lincoln's Inn Fields. Into his services he introduced many peculiar alterations: he drew up a " Primitive Liturgy," in which he substituted for the Nicene and Athanasian creeds two creeds taken from the Apostolical Constitutions; for his " Primitive Eucharist " he made use of unleavened bread and mixed wine; he distributed at the price of one shilling medals of admission to his oratory, with the device of a sun rising to the meridian, with the motto Ad summa, and the viordslnveniam viam autfaciam below. But the most original clement in the services was Henley himself, who is described by Pope in the Dunciad as " Preacher at once and zany of his age." He possessed some oratorical ability and adopted a very theatrical style of elocution, " tuning his voice and balancing his hands "; and his addresses were a strange medley of solemnity and buffoonery, of clever wit and the wildest absurdity, of able and original disquisition and the worst artifices of the oratorical charlatan. His services were much frequented by the " free- thinkers," and he himself expressed- his determination " to die a rational." Besides his Sunday sermons, he delivered Wednes- day lectures on social and political subjects; and he also pro- jected a scheme for connecting with the " oratory " a university on quite a Utopian plan. For some time he edited the Hyp Doctor, a weekly paper established in opposition to the Crafts- man, and for this service he enjoyed a pension of £100 a year from Sir Robert Walpole. At first the orations of Henley drew great crowds, but, although he never discontinued his services, his audience latterly dwindled almost entirely away. He died on the I3th of October 1759. Henley is the subject of several of Hogarth's prints. His life, professedly written by A. Welstede, but in all probability by himself, was inserted by him in his Oratory Transactions. See J. B. Nichols, History of Leicestershire; I. Disraeli, Calamities of Authors. HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST (1849-1903), British poet, critic and editor, was born on the 23rd of August 1849 at Glou- cester, and was educated at the Crypt Grammar School in that city. The school was a sort of Cinderella sister to the Cathedral School, and Henley indicated its shortcomings in his article (Pall Mall Magazine, Nov. 1900) on T. E. Brown the poet, who was headmaster there for a brief period. Brown's appointment, uncongenial to himself, was a stroke of luck for Henley, for whom, as he said, it represented a first acquaintance with a man of genius. " He was singularly kind to me at a moment when I needed kindness even more than I needed encouragement." Among other kindnesses Brown did him the essential service of lending him books. To the end Henley was no classical scholar, but his knowledge and love of literature were vital. Afflicted with a physical infirmity, he found himself in 1874, at the age of twenty-five, an inmate of the hospital at Edinburgh. From there he sent to the Cornhill Magazine poems in irregular rhythms, describing with poignant force his experiences in hospital. Leslie Stephen, then editor, being in Edinburgh, visited his contributor in hospital and took Robert Louis Steven- son, another recruit of the Cornhill, with him. The meeting between Stevenson and Henley, and the friendship of which it was the beginning, form one of the best-known episodes in recent literature (see especially Stevenson's letter to Mrs Sitwell, Jan. 1875, and Henley's poems " An Apparition " and " Envoy to Charles Baxter "). In 1877 Henley went to London and began his editorial career by editing London, a journal of a type more usual in Paris than London, written for the sake of its contributors rather than of the public. Among other dis- tinctions it first gave to the world The New Arabian Nights of Stevenson. Henley himself contributed to his journal a series of verses chiefly in old French forms. He had been writing poetry since 1872, but (so he told the world in his " advertise- ment " to his collected Poems, 1898) he " found himself about 1877 so utterly unmarketable that he had to own himself beaten in art and to addict himself to journalism for the next ten years." After the decease of London, he edited the Magazine of Art from 1882 to 1886. At the end of that period he came before the public as a poet. In 1887 Mr Gleeson White made for the popular series of Canterbury Poets (edited by Mr William Sharp) a selection of poems in old French forms. In his selection Mr Gleeson White included a considerable number of pieces from London, and only after he had completed the selection did he discover that the verses were all by one hand, that of Henley. In the following year, Mr H. B. Donkin in his volume Voluntaries, done for an East End hospital, included Henley's unrhymed rhythms quintessentializing the poet's memories of the old Edinburgh Infirmary. Mr Alfred Nutt read these, and asked for more; and in 1888 his firm published A Book of Verse. Henley was by this time well known in a restricted literary circle, and the publication of this volume determined for them his fame as a poet, which rapidly outgrew these limits, two new editions of this volume being called for within three years. In this same year (1888) Mr Fitzroy Bell started the Scots Observer in Edin- burgh, with Henley as literary editor, and early in 1889 Mr Bell left the conduct of the paper to him. It was a weekly review somewhat on the lines of the old Saturday Review, but inspired in every paragraph by the vigorous and combative personality of the editor. It was transferred soon after to London as the National Observer, and remained under Henley's editorship until 1893. Though, as Henley confessed, the paper had almost as many writers as readers, and its fame was mainly confined to the literary class, it was a lively and not uninfluential feature of the literary life of its time. Henley had the editor's great gift of discerning promise, and the " Men of the Scots Observer," as Henley affectionately and characteristically called his band of contributors, in most instances justified his insight. The paper found utterance for the growing imperialism of its day, and among other services to literature gave to the world Mr Kipling's Barrack-Room Ballads. In 1890 Henley published Views and Reviews, a volume of notable criticisms, described by himself as " less a book than a mosiac of scraps and shreds recovered from the shot rubbish of some fourteen years of journalism." The criticisms, covering a wide range of authors (except Heine and Tolstoy, all English and French), though wilful and often one-sided were terse, trenchant and picturesque, and remarkable for insight and gusto. In 1892 he published a second volume of poetry, named after the first poem, The Song of the Sword, but on the issue of the second edition (1893) re-christened London Voluntaries after another section. Stevenson wrote that he had not received the same thrill of poetry since Mr Meredith's " J°y °f Earth " and " Love in the Valley," and he did not know that that was so intimate and so deep. " I did not guess you •were so great a magician. These are new tunes; this is an undertone of the true Apollo. These are not verse; they are poetry." In 1892 Henley published also three plays written with Stevenson — Beau Austin, Deacon Brodie and Admiral Guinea. In 1895 followed Macaire, afterwards published in a volume with the other plays. Deacon Brodie was produced in Edinburgh in 1884 and later in London. Beerbohm Tree produced Beau Austin at the Haymarket on the 3rd of November 1890 HENLEY-ON-THAMES— HENNA 271 and Macaire at His Majesty's on the 2nd of May 1901. Admiral Guinea also achieved stage performance. In the meantime Henley was active in the magazines and did notable editorial work for the publishers: the Lyra Heroica, 1891; A Book of English Prose (with Mr Charles Whibley), 1894; the centenary Burns (with Mr T.F. Henderson) in 1896-1897, in which Henley's Essay (published separately 1898) roused considerable con- troversy. In 1892 he undertook for Mr Nutt the general editor- ship of the Tudor Translations; and in 1897 began for Mr Heinemann an edition of Byron, which did not proceed beyond one volume of letters. In 1898 he published a collection of hjs Poems in one volume, with the autobiographical " advertise- ment " above quoted; in 1899 London Types, Quatorzains to accompany Mr William Nicolson's designs; and in 1900 during the Boer War, a patriotic poetical brochure, For England's Sake. In 1901 he published a second volume of collected poetry with the title Hawthorn and Lavender, uniform with the volume of 1898. In 1902 he collected his various articles on painters and artists and published them as a companion volume of Views and Reviews: Art. These with " A Song of Speed " printed in May 1903 within two months of his death make up his tale of work. At the close of his life he was engaged upon his edition of the Authorized Version of the Bible for his series of Tudor Translations. There remained uncollected some of his scattered articles in periodicals and reviews, especially the series of literary articles contributed to the Pall Mall Magazine from 1899 until his death. These contain the most outspoken utterances of a critic never mealy-mouthed, and include the splenetic attack on the memory of his dead friend R. L. Stevenson, which aroused deep regret and resentment. In 1894 Henley lost his little six- year-old daughter Margaret; he had borne the " bludgeonings of chance" with "the unconquerable soul" of which he boasted, not unjustifiably, in a well-known poem; but this blow broke his heart. With the knowledge of this fact, some of these out- bursts may be better understood; yet we have the evidence of a clear-eyed critic who knew Henley well, that he found him more generous, more sympathetic at the close of his life than he had been before. He died on the nth of July 1903. In spite of his too boisterous mannerism and prejudices, he exercised by his originality, independence and fearlessness an inspiring and inspiriting influence on the higher class of journalism. This influence he exercised by word of mouth as well as by his pen, for he was a famous talker, and figures as " Burly " in Stevenson's essay on Talk and Talkers. As critic he was a good hater and a good fighter. His virtue lay in his vital and vitalizing love of good literature, and the vivid and pictorial phrases he found to give it expression. But his fame must rest on his poetry. He excelled alike in his delicate experiments in complicated metres, and the strong impressionism of Hospital Sketches and London Volun- taries. The influence of Heine may be discerned in these " un- rhymed rhythms "; but he was perhaps a truer and more successful disciple of Heine in his snatches of passionate song, the best of which should retain their place in English literature. See also references in Stevenson's Letters; Cornhill Magazine (1903) (Sidney Low) ; Fortnightly Review (August 1892) (Arthur Symons) ; and for bibliography, English Illustrated Magazine, vol. xxix. p. 548. (W. P. J.) HEKLEY-ON-THAMES, a market town and municipal borough in the Henley parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, on the left bank of the Thames, the terminus of a branch of the Great Western railway, by which it is 35 J m. W. of London, while it is 575 m. by river. Pop. (1901) 5984. It occupies one of the most beautiful situations on the Thames, at the foot of the finely wooded Chiltern Hills. The river is crossed by an elegant stone bridge of five arches, constructed in 1786. The parish church (Decorated and Perpendicular) • possesses a lofty tower of intermingled flint and stone, attributed to Cardinal Wolsey, but more probably erected by Bishop Longland. The grammar school, founded in 1605, is incorporated with a Blue Coat school. Henley is a favourite summer resort, and is celebrated for the annual Henley Royal Regatta, the principal gathering of amateur oarsmen in England, first held in 1839 and usually taking place in July. Henley is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 549 acres. Henley-on-Thames (Hanlegang, Henle, Handley), not mentioned in Domesday, was a manor or ancient demesne of the crown and was granted (1337) to John de Molyns, whose family held it for about 250 years. It is said that members for Henley sat in parliaments of Edward I. and Edward III., but no writs have been found. Henry VIII. having granted the use of the titles " mayor " and " burgess," the town was incorporated in 1570-1371 by the name of the warden, portreeves, burgesses and commonalty. Henley suffered from both parties in the Civil War. William III. on his march to London (1688) rested here and received a deputation from the Lords. The period of prosperity in the I7th and i8th centuries was due to manu- factures of glass and malt, and to trade, in corn and wool. The existing Thursday market was granted by a charter of John and the existing Corpus Christi fair by a charter of Henry VI. See J. S. Burn, History of Henley-on-Thames (London, 1861). HENNA, the Persian name for a small shrub found in India, Persia, the Levant and along the African coasts of the Mediter- ranean, where it is frequently cultivated. It is the Lawsonia alba of botanists, and from the fact that young trees are spineless, while older ones have the branchlets hardened into spines, it has also received the names of Lawsonia inermis and L. spinosa. It forms a slender shrubby plant of from 8 to 10 ft. high, with opposite lance-shaped smooth leaves, which are entire at the margins, and bears small white four-petalled sweet-scented flowers disposed in panicles. Its Egyptian name is Khenna, its Arabic name Al Khanna, its Indian name Mendee, while in England it is called Egyptian privet, and in the West Indies, where it is naturalized, Jamaica mignonette. Henna or Henne is of ancient repute as a cosmetic. This consists of the leaves of the Lawsonia powdered and made up into a paste; this is employed by the Egyptian women, and also by the Mahommedan women in India, to dye their finger- nails and other parts of their hands and feet of an orange-red colour, which is considered to add to their beauty. The colour lasts for three or four weeks, when it requires to be renewed. It is moreover used for dyeing the hair and beard, and even the manes of horses; and the same material is employed for dyeing skins and morocco-leather a reddish-yellow, but it contains no tannin. The practice of dyeing the nails was common amongst the Egyptians, and not to conform to it would have been con- sidered indecent. It has descended from very remote ages, as is proved by the evidence afforded by Egyptian mummies, the nails of which are most commonly stained of a reddish hue. Henna is also said to have been held in repute amongst the Hebrews, being considered to be the plant referred to as camphire in the Bible (Song of Solomon i. 14, iv. 13). " The custom of dyeing the nails and palms of the hands and soles of the feet of an iron-rust colour with henna," observes Dr J. Forbes Royle, " exists throughout the East from the Mediterranean to the Ganges, as well as in northern Africa. In some parts the practice is not confined to women and children, but is also followed by men, especially in Persia. In dyeing the beard the hair is turned to red by this application, which is then changed to black by a preparation of indigo. In dyeing the hair of children, and the tails and manes of horses and asses, the process is allowed to stop at the red colour which the henna produces." Mahomet, it is said, used henna as a dye for his beard, and the fashion was adopted by the caliphs. " The use of henna," remarks Lady Calico tt in her Scripture Herbal, " is scarcely to be called a caprice in the East. There is a quality in the drug which gently restrains perspiration in the hands and feet, and produces an agreeable coolness equally conducive to health and comfort." She further suggests that if the Jewish women were not in the habit of using this dye before the time of Solomon, it might probably have been introduced amongst them by his wife, the daughter of Pharaoh, and traces to this probability the allusion to " camphire " in the passages in Canticles above referred to. The preparation of henna consists in reducing the leaves and young twigs to a fine powder, catechu or lucerne leaves 272 HENNEBONT— HENRIETTA MARIA in a pulverized state being sometimes mixed with them. When required for use, the powder is made into a pasty mass with hot water, and is then spread upon the part to be dyed, where it is generally allowed to remain for one night. According to Lady Callcott, the flowers are often used by the Eastern women to adorn their hair. The distilled water from the flowers is used as a perfume. HENNEBONT, a town of western France, in the department of Morbihan, 6m. N.E. of Lorient by road. Pop. (1906) 7250. It is situated about 10 m. from the mouth of the Blavet, which divides it into two parts — the Ville Close, the medieval military town, and the Ville Neuve on the left bank and the Vieille Ville on the right bank. The Ville Close, surrounded by ramparts and entered by a massive gateway flanked by machicolated towers, consists of narrow quiet streets bordered by houses of the i6th and i7th centuries. The Ville Neuve, which lies nearer the river, developed during the lyth century and later than the Ville Close, while the Vieille Ville is older than either. The only building of architectural importance is the church of Notre-Dame de Paradis (i6th century) preceded by a tower with an orna- mented stone spire. There are scanty remains of the old fortress. Hennebont has a small but busy river-port accessible to vessels of 200 to 300 tons. An important foundry in the environs of the town employs 1400 work-people in the manufacture of tin- plate for sardine boxes and other purposes. Boat-building, tanning, distilling and the manufacture of earthenware, white lead and chemical manures are also carried on. Granite is worked in the neighbourhood. Hennebont is famed for the resistance which it made, under the widow of Jean de Montfort, when besieged in 1342 by the armies of Philip of Valois and Charles of Blois during the War of the Succession in Brittany (see BRITTANY) . HENNEQUIN, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE (1763-1833), French painter/ was a pupil of David. He was born at Lyons in 1763, distinguished himself early by winning the " Grand Prix," and left France for Italy. The disturbances at Rome, during the course of the Revolution, obliged him to return to Paris, where he executed the Federation of the I4th of July, and he was at work on a large design commissioned for the town-hall of Lyons, when in July 1704 he was accused before the revolutionary tribunal and thrown into prison. Hennequin escaped, only to be anew accused and imprisoned in Paris, and after running great danger of death, seems to have devoted himself thenceforth wholly to his profession. At Paris he finished the picture ordered for the municipality of Lyons, and in 1801 produced his chief work, " Orestes pursued by the Furies " (Louvre, engraved by Landon, Annales du Musee, vol. i. p. 105). He was one of the four painters who competed when in 1802 Gros carried off the official prize for a picture of the Battle of Nazareth, and in 1808 Napoleon himself ordered Hennequin to illustrate a series of scenes from his German campaigns, and commanded that his picture of the " Death of General Salomon " should be engraved. After 1815 Hennequin retired to Liege, and there, aided by subventions from the Government, carried out a large historical picture of the " Death of the Three Hundred in defence of Liege "- a sketch of which he himself engraved. In 1824 Hennequin settled at Tournay, and became director of the academy; he exhibited various works at Lille in the following year, and continued to produce actively up to the day of his death in May 1833. HENNER, JEAN JACQUES (1829-1905), French painter, was born on the 5th of March 1829 at Dornach (Alsace). At first a pupil of Drolling and of Picot, he entered the Ecole des Beaux- Arts in 1848, and took the Prix de Rome with a painting of " Adam and Eve finding the Body of Abel " (1858). At Rome he was guided by Flandrin, and, among other works, painted four pictures for the gallery at Colmar. He first exhibited at the Salon in 1863 a " Bather Asleep," and subsequently contri- buted " Chaste Susanna " (1865) ; " Byblis turned into a Spring " (1867); "The Magdalene" (1878); "Portrait of M. Hayem " (1878); " Christ Entombed " (1879); " Saint Jerome " (1881); "Herodias" (1887); "A Study" (1891); "Christ in His Shroud," and a " Portrait of Carolus-Duran " (1896) ; a " Portrait of Mile Fouquier " (1897) ; " The Levite of the Tribe of Ephraim " (1898), for which a first-class medal was awarded to him; and "The Dream" (1900). Among other professional distinctions Henner also took a Grand Prix for painting at the Paris Inter- national Exhibition of 1900. He was made Knight of the Legion of Honour in 1873, Officer in 1878 and Commander in 1889. In 1889 he succeeded Cabanel in the Institut de France. See E. Ericon, Psychologic d'art (Paris, 1900); C. Phillips, Art Journal (1888); F. Wedmore, Magazine of Art (1888). HENRIETTA MARIA (1600-1666), queen of Charles I. of England, born on the 25th of November 1609, was the daughter of Henry IV. of France. When the first serious overtures for' her hand were made on behalf of Charles, prince of Wales, in the spring of 1624, she was little more than fourteen years of age. Her brother, Louis XIII., only consented to the marriage on the condition that the English Roman Catholics were relieved from the operation of the penal laws. When therefore she set out for her new home in June 1625, she had already pledged the husband to whom she had been married by proxy on the ist of May to a course of action which was certain to bring unpopularity on him as well as upon herself. That husband was now king of England. The early years of the married life of Charles I. were most unhappy. He soon found an excuse for breaking his promise to relieve the English Catholics. His young wife was deeply offended by treatment which she naturally regarded as unhandsome. The favourite Buckingham stirred the flames of his master's discontent. Charles in vain strove to reduce her to tame submission. After the assassination of Buckingham in 1628 the barrier between the married pair was broken down, and the bond of affection which from that moment united them was never loosened. The children of the marriage were Charles II. (b. 1630), Mary, princess of Orange (b. 1631), James II. (b. 1633), Elizabeth (b. 1636), Henry, duke of Gloucester (b. 1640), and Henrietta, duchess of Orleans (b. 1644). For some years Henrietta Maria's chief interests lay in her young family, and in the amusements of a gay and brilliant court. She loved to be present at dramatic entertainments, and her participation in the private rehearsals of the Shepherd's Pastoral, written by her favourite Walter Montague, probably drew down upon her the savage attack of Prynne. With political matters she hardly meddled as yet. Even her co-religionists found little aid from her till the summer of 1637. She had then recently opened a diplomatic communication with the see of Rome. She appointed an agent to reside at Rome, and a papal agent, a Scotsman named George Conn, accredited to her, was soon engaged in effecting conversions amongst the English gentry and nobility. Henrietta Maria was well pleased to become a patroness of so holy a work, especially as she was not asked to take any personal trouble in the matter. Protestant England took alarm at the proceedings of a queen who associated herself so closely with the doings of "the grim wolf with privy paw." When the Scottish troubles broke out, she raised money from her fellow-Catholics to support the king's army on the borders in 1639. During the session of the Short Parliament in the spring of 1640, the queen urged the king to oppose himself to the House of Commons in defence of the Catholics. When the Long Parlia- ment met, the Catholics were believed to be the authors and agents of every arbitrary scheme which was supposed to have entered into the plans of Strafford or Laud. Before the Long Parliament had sat for two months, the queen was urging upon the pope the duty of lending money to enable her to restore her husband's authority. She threw herself heart and soul into the schemes for rescuing Strafford and coercing the parliament. The army plot, the scheme for using Scotland against England, and the attempt upon the five members were the fruits of her political activity. In the next year the queen effected her passage to the Continent. In February 1643 she landed at Burlington Quay, placed herself at the head of a force of loyalists, and marched through England to join the king near Oxford. After little more than a year's residence there, on the 3rd of April 1644, she left her husband, HENRY— HENRY II. 273 to see his face no more. Henrietta Maria found a refuge in France. Richelieu was dead, and Anne of Austria was com- passionate. As long as her husband was alive the queen never ceased to encourage him to resistance. During her exile in France she had much to suffer. Her husband's execution in 1649 was a terrible blow. She brought up her youngest child Henrietta in her own faith, but her efforts to induce her youngest son, the duke of Gloucester, to take the same course only produced discomfort in the exiled family. The story of her marriage with her attached servant Lord Jermyn needs more confirmation than it has yet received to be accepted, but all the information which has reached us of her relations with her children points to the estrangement which had grown up between them. When after the Restoration she returned to England, she found, that she had no place in the new world. She received from parliament a grant of £30,000 a year in com- pensation for the loss of her dower-lands, and the king added a similar sum as a pension from himself. In January 1661 she returned to France to be present at the marriage of her daughter Henrietta to the duke of Orleans. In July 1662 she set out again for England, and took up her residence once more at Somerset House. Her health failed her, and on the 24th of June 1665, she departed in search of bhe clearer air of her native country. She died on the 3ist of August 1666, at Colombes, not far from Paris. See I. A. Taylor, The Life of Queen Henrietta Maria (1905). HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth, reiks; compare Lat. rex " king " — " rich," therefore " mighty," and so " a ruler." Compare Sans, rddsh " to shine forth, rule, &c. " and mod. raj " rule " and raja, "king"), the name of many European sovereigns, the more important of whom are noticed below in the following order: (i) emperors and German kings; (2) kings of England; (3) other kings in the alphabetical order of their states; (4) other reigning princes in the same order; (5) non-reigning princes; (6) bishops, nobles, chroniclers, &c. HENRY I. (c. 876-936), surnamed the " Fowler," German king, son of Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, grew to manhood amid the disorders which witnessed to the decay of the Carolingian empire, and in early life shared in various campaigns for the defence of Saxony. He married Hatburg, a daughter of Irwin, count of Merseburg, but as she had taken the veil on the death of a former husband this union was declared illegal by the church , and in 909 he married Matilda, daughter of a Saxon count named Thiederich, and a reputed descendant of the hero Widukind. On his father's death in 912 he became duke of Saxony, which he ruled with considerable success, defending it from the attacks of the Slavs and resisting the claims of the German king Conrad I. (sec SAXONY). He afterwards won the esteem of Conrad to such an extent that in 918 the king advised the nobles to make the Saxon duke his successor. After Conrad's death the Franks and the Saxons met at Fritzlar in May 919 and chose Henry as German king, after which the new king refused to allow his election to be sanctioned by the church. His authority, save in Saxony, was merely nominal; but by negotiation rather than by warfare he secured a recognition of his sovereignty from the Bavarians and the Swabians. A struggle soon took place between Henry and Charles III., the Simple, king of France, for the possession of Lorraine. In 921 Charles recognized Henry as king of the East Franks, and when in 923 the French king was taken prisoner by Herbert, count of Vermandois, Lorraine came under Henry's authority, and Giselbert, who married his daughter Gerberga, was recognized as duke. Turning his attention to the east, Henry reduced various Slavonic tribes to subjection, took Brennibor, the modern Brandenburg, from the Hevelli, and secured both banks of the Elbe for Saxony. In 923 he had bought a truce for ten years with the Hungarians, by a promise of tribute, but on its expiration he gained a great victory over these formidable foes in March 933. The Danes were defeated, and territory as far as the Eider secured for Germany; and the king sought further to extend his influence by entering into relations with the kings of England, France and Burgundy. He is said to have been contemplating a journey to Rome, when he died at Memleben on the 2nd of July 936, and was buried at Quedlinburg. By his first wife, Hatburg, he left a son, Thankmar, who was excluded from the succession as illegitimate; and by Matilda he left three sons, the eldest of whom, Otto (afterwards the emperor Otto the Great), succeeded him, and two daughters. Henry was a successful ruler, probably because he was careful to undertake only such enterprises as he was able to carry through. Laying more stress on his position as duke of Saxony than king of Germany, he conferred great benefits on his duchy. The founder of her town life and the creator of her army, he ruled in harmony with her nobles and secured her frontiers from attack. The story that he received the surname of " Fowler " because the nobles, sent to inform him of his election to the throne, found him engaged in laying snares for the birds, appears to be mythical. See Widukind of Corvei, Res gestae Saxonicae, edited by G. Waitz in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Band iii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.); " Die Urkunde des deutschen Konigs Heinrichs I.," edited by T. von Sickel in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Diplomata (Hanover, 1879) ; W. von Giese- brecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Bande i., ii. (Leipzig, 1881); G. Waitz, Jahrbilcher des deutschen Reichs unter Konig Heinrich I. (Leipzig, 1885); and F. Loher, Die deutsche Politik Konig Heinrich I. (Munich, 1857). HENRY II. (973-1024), surnamed the " Saint, " Roman emperor, son of Henry II., the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria, and Gisela, daughter of Conrad, king of Burgundy, or Aries (d. 993), and great-grandson of the German king Henry I., the Fowler, was born on the 6th of May 973. When his father was driven from his duchy in 976 it was intended that Henry should take holy orders, and he received the earlier part of a good education at Hildesheim. This idea, however, was abandoned when his father was restored to Bavaria in 985; but young Henry, whose education was completed at Regensburg, retained a lively interest in ecclesiastical affairs. He became duke of Bavaria on his father's death in 995, and appears to have governed his duchy quietly and successfully for seven years. He showed a special regard for monastic reform and church government, accompanied his kinsman, the emperor Otto III., on two occasions to Italy, and about 1001 married Kunigunde (d. 1037), daughter of Siegfried, count of Luxemburg. When Otto III. died childless in 1002, Henry sought to secur; the German throne, and seizing the imperial insignia made an arrangement with Otto I., duke of Carinthia. There was con- siderable opposition to his claim; but one rival, Ekkard I., margrave of Meissen, was murdered, and, hurrying to Mainz, Henry was chosen German king by the Franks and Bavarians on the 7th of June 1002, and subsequently crowned by Willigis, archbishop of Mainz, who had been largely instrumental in securing his election. Having ravaged the lands of another rival, Hermann II., duke of Swabia, Henry purchased the allegiance of the Thuringians and the Saxons; and when shortly afterwards the nobles of Lorraine did homage and Hermann of Swabia submitted, he was generally recognized as king. Danger soon arose from Boleslaus I., the Great, king of Poland, who had extended his authority over Meissen andLusatia, seized Bohemia, and allied himself with some discontented German nobles, including the king's brother, Bruno, bishop of Augsburg. Henry easily crushed his domestic foes; but the incipient war with Boleslaus was abandoned in favour of an expedition into Italy, where Arduin, margrave of Ivrea, had been elected king. Cross- ing the Alps Henry met with no resistance from Arduin, and in May 1004 he was chosen and crowned king of the Lombards at Pavia; but a tumult caused by the presence of the Germans soon arose in the city, and having received the homage of several cities of Lombardy the king returned to Germany. He then freed Bohemia from the rule of the Poles, led an expedition into Friesland, and was successful in compelling Boleslaus to sue for peace in 1005. A struggle with Baldwin IV., count of Flanders, in 1006 and 1007 was followed by trouble with the king's brothers-in-law, Dietrich and Adalbero of Luxemburg, who had seized respectively the bishopric of Metz and the 274 HENRY III. archbishopric of Trier (Treves) . Henry sought to dislodge them, but aided by their elder brother Henry, who had been made duke of Bavaria in 1004, they held their own in a desultory warfare in Lorraine. In 1009, however, the eldest of the three brothers was deprived of Bavaria, while Adalbero had in the previous year given up his claim to Trier, but Dietrich retained the bishopric of Metz. The Polish war had been renewed in 1007, but it was not until 1010 that the king was able to take a personal part in these campaigns. Meeting with indifferent success, he made peace with Boleslaus early in 1013, when the duke retained Lusatia, but did homage to Henry at Merseburg. In 1013 the king made a second journey to Italy where two popes were contending for the papal chair, and meeting with no opposition was received with great honour at Rome. Having recognized Benedict VIII. as the rightful pope, he was crowned emperor on the I4th of February 1014, and soon returned to Germany laden with treasures from Italian cities. But the struggle with the Poles now broke out afresh, and in 1015 and 1017 the king, having obtained assistance from the heathen Liutici, led formidable armies against Boleslaus. During the campaign of 1017 he had as an ally the grand duke of Russia, but his troops suffered considerable loss, and on the 3oth of January 1018 he made peace at Bautzen with Boleslaus, who again retained Lusatia. As early as 1006 Henry had concluded a succession treaty with his uncle Rudolph III., the childless king of Burgundy, or Aries; but when Rudolph desired to abdicate in 1016 Henry's efforts to secure possession of the territory were foiled by the resistance of the nobles. In 1020 the emperor was visited at Bamberg by Pope Benedict, in response to whose entreaty for assistance against the Greeks of southern Italy he crossed the Alps in 1021 for the third and last time. With the aid of the Normans he captured many fortresses and seriously crippled the power of the Greeks, but was compelled by the ravages of pestilence among his troops to return to Germany in 1022. It was probably about this time that Henry gave Benedict the diploma which ratified the gifts made by his predecessors' to the papacy. Spending his concluding years in disputes over church reform he died on the i3th of July 1024 at Grona near Gottingen, and was buried at Bamberg, where he had founded and richly endowed a bishopric. Henry was an enthusiast for church reform, and under the influence of his friend Odilo, abbot of Cluny, sought to further the principles of the Cluniacs, and seconded the efforts of Benedict VIII. to prevent the marriage of the clergy and the sale of spiritual dignities. He was energetic and capable, but except in his relations with the church was not a strong ruler. But though devoted to the church and a strict observer of religious rites, he was by no means the slave of the clergy. He appointed bishops without the formality of an election, and attacked clerical privileges although he made clerics the representatives of the imperial power. He held numerous diets and issued frequent ordinances for peace, but feuds among the nobles were common, and the frontiers of the empire were insecure. Henry, who was the last emperor of the Saxon house, was the first to use the title " King of the Romans. " He died childless, and a tradition of the i2th century says he and his wife took vows of chastity. He was canonized in 1146 by Pope Eugenius III. See Adalbold of Utrecht, Vita Heinrici II., Thietmar of Merse- burg, Chronicon, both in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptures, Bande iii. and iv. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.) ; W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit (Leipzig, 1881-1890) ; S. Hirsch, continued by R. Usinger, H. Pabst and H. Bresslau, Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Kaiser Heinrich II. (Leipzig, 1874); A. Cohn, Kaiser Heinrich II. (Halle, 1867); H. Zeissberg, Die Kriege Kaiser Heinrichs II. mil Boleslaw I. von Polen (Vienna, 1868); and G. Matthaei, Die Klosterpolitik Kaiser Heinrichs II. (Gottingen, 1877). HENRY III. (1017-1056), surnamed the "Black," Roman emperor, only son of the emperor Conrad II., and Gisela, widow of Ernest I., duke of Swabia, was born on the 28th of October 1017, designated as his father's successor in 1026, and crowned German king at Aix-la-Chapelle by Pilgrim, archbishop of Cologne, on the I4th of April 1028. In 1027 he was appointed duke of Bavaria, and his early years were mainly spent in this country, where he received an excellent education under the care of Bruno, bishop of Augsburg and, afterwards, of Egilbert, bishop of Freising. He soon began to take part in the business of the empire. In 1032 he took part in a campaign in Burgundy; in 1033 led an expedition against Ulalrich, prince of the Bohemians; and in June 1036 was married at Nijmwegen to Gunhilda, afterwards called Kunigunde, daughter of Canute, king of Denmark and England. In 1038 he followed his father to Italy, and in the same year the emperor formally handed over to him the kingdom of Burgundy, or Aries, and appointed him duke of Swabia. In spite of the honours which Conrad heaped upon Henry the relations between father and son were not uniformly friendly, as Henry disapproved of the emperor's harsh treatment of some of his allies and adherents. When Conrad died in June 1039, Henry became sole ruler of the empire, and his authority was at once recognized in all parts of his dominions. Three of the duchies were under his direct rule, no rival appeared to contest his claim, and the outlying parts of the empire, as well as Germany, were practically free from disorder. This peaceful state of affairs was, however, soon broken by the ambition of Bretislaus, prince of the Bohemians, who revived the idea of an independent Slavonic state, and conquered various Polish towns. Henry took up arms, and having suffered two defeats in 1040 renewed the struggle with a stronger force in the following year, when he compelled Bretislaus to sue for peace and to do homage for Bohemia at Regensburg. In 1042 he received the homage of the Burgundians and his attention was then turned to the Hungarians, who had driven out their king Peter, and set up in his stead one Aba Samuel, or Ovo, who attacked the eastern border of Bavaria. In 1043 and the two following years Henry crushed the Hungarians, restored Peter, and brought Hungary completely under the power of the German king. In 1038 Queen Kuni- gunde had died in Italy, and in 1043 the king was married at Ingelheim to Agnes, daughter of William V., duke of Guienne, a union which drew him much nearer to the reforming party in the church. In 1044 Gothelon (Gozelo), duke of Lorraine, died, and some disturbance arose over Henry's refusal to grant the whole of the duchy to his son Godfrey, called the Bearded. Godfrey took up arms, but after a short imprisonment was released and confirmed in the possession of Upper Lorraine in 1046 which, however, he failed to secure. About this time Henry was invited to Italy where three popes were contending for power, and crossing the Alps with a large army he marched to Rome. Councils held at Sutri and at Rome having declared the popes deposed, the king secured the election of Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, who took the name of Clement II., and by this pontiff Henry was crowned as emperor on the 25th of December 1046. He was immediately recognized by the Romans as Patricius, an office which carried with it at this time the right to appoint the pope. Supreme in church and state alike, ruler of Germany, Italy and Burgundy, overlord of Hungary and Bohemia, Henry occupied a commanding position, and this time may be regarded as marking the apogee of the power of the Roman empire of the Germans. The emperor assisted Pope Clement in his efforts to banish simony. He made a victorious progress in southern Italy, where he restored Pandulph IV. to the principality of Capua, and asserted his authority over the Normans in Apulia and Aversa. Returning to Germany in 1047 he appointed two popes, Damasus II. and Leo IX., in quick succession, and turned to face a threatening combination in the west of the empire, where Godfrey of Lorraine was again in revolt, and with the help of Baldwin V., count of Flanders and Dirk IV., count of Holland, who had previously caused trouble to Henry, was ravaging the lands of the emperor's representatives in Lorraine. Assisted by the kings of England and Denmark, Henry succeeded with some difficulty in bringing the rebels to submission in 1050. Godfrey was deposed; but Baldwin soon found an opportunity for a further revolt, which an expedition undertaken by the emperor in 1054 was unable to crush. HENRY IV. 275 Meanwhile a reaction against German influence had taken place in Hungary. King Peter had been driven out in 1046 and his place taken by Andreas I. Inroads into Bavaria followed, and in 1051 and 1052 Henry led his forces against the Hungarians, and after the pope had vainly attempted to mediate, peace was made in 1053. It was quickly broken, however, and the emperor, occupied elsewhere, soon lost most of his authority in the east; although in 1054 he made peace between Brestislav of Bohemia and Casimir I., duke of the Poles. Henry had not lost sight of affairs in Italy during these years, and had received several visits from the pope, whose aim was to bring southern Italy under his own dominion. Henry had sent military assistance to Leo, and had handed over to him the government of the principality of Benevento in return for the bishopric of Bamberg. But the pope's defeat by the Normans was followed by his death. Henry then nominated Gebhard, bishop of Eichstadt, who took the name of Victor II., to the vacant chair, and promised his assistance to the reluctant candidate. Jn 1055 the emperor went a second time to Italy, where his authority was threatened by Godfrey of Lorraine, who had married Beatrice, widow of Boniface III., margrave of Tuscany, and was ruling her vast estates. Godfrey fled, however, on the appearance of Henry, who only remained a short time in Italy, during which he granted the duchy of Spoleto to Pope Victor, and negotiated for an attack upon the Normans. Before the journey to Italy, Henry had found it necessary to depose Conrad III., duke of Bavaria, and to suppress a rising in southern -Germany. During his absence Conrad formed an alliance with Welf , duke of Carinthia, and Gebhard III., bishop of Regensburg. A conspiracy to depose the emperor, support for which was found in Lorraine, was quickly discovered, and Henry, leaving Victor as his repre- sentative in Italy, returned in 1055 to Germany to receive the submission of his foes. In 1056, the emperor was visited by the pope; and on the sth of October in the same year he died at Bodfeld and was buried at Spires. Henry was a pious and peace-loving prince, who favoured church reform, sought earnestly to suppress private warfare, and alone among the early emperors is said to have been innocent of simony. Although under his rule Germany enjoyed considerable tranquillity, and a period of wealth and progress set in for the towns, yet his secular and ecclesiastical policy showed signs of weakness. Unable, or unwilling, seriously to curb the increasing power of the church, he alienated the sympathies of the nobles as a class, and by allowing the southern duchies to pass into other hands restored a power which true to its traditions was not always friendly to the royal house. Henry was a patron of learning, a founder of schools, and built or completed cathedrals at Spires, Worms and Mainz. The chief original authorities for the life and reign of Henry III. are the Chronicon of Herimann of Reichenau, the Annales Sangallenses majores, the Annales Hildesheimenses , all in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.). The best modern authorities are W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Band ii. (Leipzig, 1888) ; M. Perlbach, " Die Kriege Heinrichs III. gegen Bohmen," in the Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, Band x. (Gottingen, 1862— 1886); E. Steindorff, Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich III. (Leipzig, 1874-1881); and F. Steinhoff, Das Konigthum und Kaiserthum Heinrichs III. (Gottingen, 1865). HENRY IV. (1050-1106), Roman emperor, son of the emperor Henry III. and Agnes, daughter of William V., duke of Guienne, was born on the nth of November 1050, chosen German king at Tribur in 1053, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the I7th of July 1054. In 1055 he was appointed duke of Bavaria, and on his father's death in October 1056 inherited the kingdoms of Germany, Italy and Burgundy. These territories were governed in his name by his mother, who was unable to repress the internal disorder or to take adequate measures for their defence. Some opposition was soon aroused, and in 1062 Anno, archbishop of Cologne, and others planned to seize the person of the young king and to deprive Agnes of power. This plot met with complete success. Henry, who was at Kaiserwerth, was persuaded to board a boat lying in the Rhine; it was immediately unmoored and the king sprang into the stream, but was rescued by one of the conspirators and carried to Cologne. Agnes made no serious effort to regain her control, and the chief authority was exercised for a time by Anno; but his rule proved unpopular, and he was soon compelled to share his power with Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen. The education and training of Henry were supervised by Anno, who was called his magister, while Adalbert was styled pair onus; but Anno was disliked by Henry, and during his absence in Italy the chief power passed into the hands of Adalbert. Henry's education seems to have been neglected, and his wilful and headstrong nature was developed by the conditions under which his early years were passed. In March 1065 he was declared of age, and in the following year a powerful coalition of ecclesiastical and lay nobles brought about the banishment of Adalbert from court and the return of Anno to power. In 1066 Henry was persuaded to marry Bertha, daughter of Otto, count of Savoy, to whom he had been betrothed since 1055. For some time he regarded his wife with strong dislike and sought in vain for a divorce, but after she had borne him a son in 1071 she gained his affections, and became his most trusted friend and companion. In 1069 the king took the reins of government into his own hands. He recalled Adalbert to court; led expeditions against the Liutici, and against Dedo or Dedi II., margrave of a district east of Saxony; and soon afterwards quarrelled with Rudolph, duke of Swabia, and Berthold, duke of Carinthia. Much more serious was Henry's struggle with Otto of Nordheim, duke of Bavaria. This prince, who occupied an influential position in Germany, was accused in 1070 by a certain Egino of being privy to a plot to murder the king. It was decided that a trial by battle should take place at Goslar, but when the demand of Otto for a safe conduct for himself and his followers, to and from the place of meeting, was refused, he declined to appear. He was thereupon declared deposed in Bavaria, and his Saxon estates were plundered. He obtained sufficient support, however, to carry on a struggle with the king in Saxony and Thuringia until 1071, when he submitted at Halberstadt. Henry aroused the hostility of the Thuringians by supporting Siegfried, arch- bishop of Mainz, in his efforts to exact tithes from them; but still more formidable was the enmity of the Saxons, who had several causes of complaint against the king. He was the son of one enemy, Henry III., and the friend of another, Adalbert of Bremen. He had ordered a restoration of all crown lands in Saxony and had built forts among this people, while the country was ravaged to supply the needs of his courtiers, and its duke Magnus was a prisoner in his hands. All classes were united against him, and when the struggle broke out in 1073 the Thuringians joined the Saxons; and the war, which lasted with slight intermissions until 1088, exercised a most potent influence upon Henry's fortunes elsewhere (see SAXONY). Henry soon found himself confronted by an abler and more stubborn antagonist than either Thuringian or Saxon. In 1073 Hildebrand became pope as Gregory VII. Two years later this great ecclesiastic issued his memorable prohibition of lay investiture, and the blow then struck at the secular power by the papacy threatened seriously to undermine the imperial authority. Spurred on by his advisers, Henry did not refuse the challenge. Threatened with the papal ban, he summoned a synod of German bishops which met at Worms in January 1076 and declared Gregory deposed; and he wrote his famous letter to the pope, in which he referred to him as " not pope, but false monk." The king was at once excommunicated. His adherents gradually fell away, the Saxons were again in arms, and Otto of Nordheim succeeded in uniting the malcontents of north and south Germany. In October 1076 an important diet met at Tribur, and after discussing the deposition of the king, decided that he should be judged by an assembly to be held at Augsburg in the following February under the presidency of the pope. This union of the temporal and spiritual forces was too strong for the king, and he decided to submit. Crossing the Alps, Henry appeared in January 1077 as a penitent before the castle of Canossa, where Gregory had taken 276 HENRY IV. refuge. The story of this famous occurrence, which represents the king asstandingin the courtyard of thecastle for three days in the snow, clad as a penitent, and entreating to be admitted to the pope's presence, is now regarded as mythical in its details; but there is no doubt that the king visited the castle at intervals, and prayed for admission for three days until the 28th of January, when he was received by Gregory and absolved, after promising to submit to the pope's authority and to secure for him a safe journey to Germany. No historical incident has more profoundly impressed the imagination of the Western world. It marked the highest point reached by papal authority, and presents a vivid picture of the awe inspired during the middle ages by the super- natural powers supposed to be wielded by the church. Scorned by his Lombard allies, Henry left Italy to find that in his absence Rudolph, duke of Swabia, had been chosen German king; and although Gregory had taken no part in this election, Henry sought to prevent the pope's journey to Germany, and regaining courage, tried to recover his former position. Supported by most of the German bishops and by the Lombards, now reconciled to him, and recognized in Burgundy, Bavaria and Franconia, Henry (who at this time is referred to by Bruno, the author of De hello Saxonico, as exrex) appeared stronger than his rival Rudolph; but the ensuing war was waged with varying success. He was beaten at Mellrichstadt in 1078, and at Flarchheim in 1080, but these defeats were due rather to the fierce hostility of the Saxons, and the military skill of Otto of Nordheim, than to any general sympathy with Rudolph. Gregory's attitude remained neutral, in spite of appeals from both sides, until March 1080, when he again excommunicated Henry, but without any serious effect on the fortunes of the king. At Henry's initiative, Gregory was declared deposed on three occasions, and an anti-pope was elected in the person of Wibert, archbishop of Ravenna, who took the name of Clement III. The death of Rudolph in October 1080, and a consequent lull in the war, enabled the king to go to Italy early in 1081. He found considerable support in Lombardy; placed Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany, the faithful friend of Gregory, under the imperial ban; took the Lombard crown at Pavia; and secured the recognition of Clement by a council. Marching to Rome, he undertook the siege of the city, but was soon compelled to retire to Tuscany, where he granted privileges to various cities, and obtained monetary assistance from a new ally, the eastern emperor, Alexius I. A second and equally unsuccessful attack on Rome was followed by a war of devastation in northern Italy with the adherents of Matilda; and towards the end of 1082 the king made a third attack on Rome. After a siege of seven months the Leonine city fell into his hands. A treaty was concluded with the Romans, who agreed that the quarrel between king and pope should be decided by a synod, and secretly bound them- selves to induce Gregory to crown Henry as emperor, or to choose another pope. Gregory, however, shut up in the castle of St Angelo, would hear of no compromise; the synod was a failure, as Henry prevented the attendance of many of the pope's supporters; and the king, in pursuance of his treaty with Alexius, marched against the Normans. The Romans soon fell away from their allegiance to the pope; and, recalled to the city, Henry entered Rome in March 1084, after which Gregory was declared deposed and Clement was recognized by the Romans. On the 3ist of March 1084 Henry was crowned emperor by Clement, and received the patrician authority. His next step was to attack the fortresses still in the hands of Gregory. The pope was saved by the advance of Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia, with a large force, which compelled Henry to return to Germany. Meanwhile the German rebels had chosen a fresh anti-king, Hermann, count of Luxemburg, whom Henry's supporters had already driven to his last line of defence in Saxony. During the campaign of 1086 Henry was defeated near Wurzburg, but in 1088 Hermann abandoned the struggle and the emperor was generally recognized in Saxony, to which country he showed considerable clemency. Although Henry's power was in the ascendent, a few powerful nobles adhered to the cause of Gregory's successor, Urban II. Among them was Welf, son of Welf I., the deposed duke of Bavaria, whose marriage with Matilda of Tuscany rendered him too formidable to be neglected. The emperor accordingly returned to Italy in 1090, where Mantua and Milan were taken, and Pope Clement was restored to Rome. Henry's communications with Germany were, however,threatened by a league of the Lombard cities, and his anxieties were soon augmented by domestic troubles. Henry's first wife had died in 1087, and in 1089 he had married a Russian princess, Praxedis, afterwards called Adelaide. Her conduct soon aroused his suspicions, and his own eldest son, Conrad, who had been crowned German king in 1087, was thought to be a partner in her guilt. Escaping from prison, Adelaide fled to Henry's enemies and brought grave charges against her husband; while the papal party induced Conrad to desert his father and to be crowned king of Italy at Monza in 1093. Crushed by this blow, Henry remained almost helpless and inactive in northern Italy for five years, until 1097, when having lost every shred of authority in that country, he returned to Germany, where his position was stronger than ever. Welf had submitted, had forsaken the cause of Matilda and had been restored to Bavaria, and in 1098 the diet assembled at Mainz declared Conrad deposed, and chose the emperor's second son, Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry V., as German king. The crusade of 1096 had freed Germany from many turbulent spirits, and the emperor, meeting with some success in his efforts to restore order, could afford to ignore his repeated excommunication. A success- ful campaign in Flanders was followed in 1 103 by a diet at Mainz, where serious efforts were made to restore peace, and Henry himself promised to go on crusade. But this plan was shattered by the revolt of the younger Henry in 1104, who, encouraged by the adherents of the pope, declared he owed no allegiance to an excommunicated father. Saxony and Thuringia were soon in arms, the bishops held mainly to the younger Henry, while the emperor was supported by the towns. A desultory warfare was unfavourable, however, to the emperor, who, deceived by false promises, became a prisoner in the hands of his son in 1 105. The diet met at Mainz inDecember,when he was compelled to abdicate; but contrary to the conditions, he was detained at Ingelheim and denied his freedom. Escaping to Cologne, he found considerable support in the lower Rhineland; he entered into negotiations with England, France and Denmark, and was engaged in collecting an army when he died at Liege on the 7th of August 1 106. His body was buried by the bishop of Liege with suitable ceremony, but by command of the papal legate it was unearthed, taken to Spires, and placed in an unconsecrated chapel. After being released from the sentence of excommunication the remains were buried in the cathedral of Spires in August mi. Henry IV. was very licentious and in his early years was careless and self-willed, but better qualities were developed in his later life. He displayed much diplomatic ability, and his abasement at Canossa may fairly be regarded as a move of policy to weaken the pope's position at the cost of a personal humiliation to himself. He was always regarded as a friend of the lower orders, was capable of generosity and gratitude, and showed considerable military skill. Unfortunate in the time in which he lived, and in the troubles with which he had to contend, he holds an honourable position in history as a monarch who resisted the excessive pretensions both of the papacy and of the ambitious feudal lords of Germany. The authorities for the life and reign of Henry are Lambert of Hersfeld, Annales; Bernold of Reichenau, Chronicon; Ekkehard of Aura, Chronicon; and Bruno, De hello Saxonico, which gives several of the more important letters that passed between Henry and Gregory VII. These are all found in the Monumenta Germaniae histories.. Scriptores, Bande v. and vi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826- 1892). There is an anonymous Vita Heinrici IV., edited by W. Wattenbach (Hanover, 1876). The best modern authorities are: G. Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbucher des deutschen Reiches unter Heinrich IV. (Leipzig, 1890); H. Floto, Kaiser Heinrich IV. und sein Zeitalter (Stuttgart, 1855); E. Kilian, Itinerar Kaiser Heinrichs IV. (Karlsruhe, 1886); K. W. Nitzsch, " Das deutsche Reich und Heinrich IV.," in the Historische Zeitschrift, Band xlv. (Munich, 1859); H. Ulmann, Zum VerstdnJniss der sachsischen Erhebung gegen Heinrich IV. (Hanover, 1886), W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte HENRY V. 277 der deutschen Kaiserzeit (Leipzig, 1881-1890); B. Gebhardt, Hand- buch der deutschen Geschichle (Berlin, 1901). For a list of other works, especially those on the relations between Henry and Gregory, see Dahlmann-Waitz, Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte (Got- tingen, 1894). (A. W. H.*) HENRY V. (1081-1125), Roman emperor, son of the emperor Henry IV., was born on the 8th of January 1081, and after the revolt and deposition of his elder brother, the German king Conrad (d. noi), was chosen as his successor in 1098. He promised to take no part in the business of the Empire during his fathei's lifetime, and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 6th of January 1099. In spite of his oath Henry was induced by his father's enemies to revolt in 1 104, and some of the princes did homage to him at Mainz in January 1106. In August of the same year the elder Henry died, when his son became sole ruler of the Empire. Order was soon restored in Germany, the citizens of Cologne were punished by a fine, and an expedition against Robert II., count of Flanders, brought this rebel to his knees. In 1107 a campaign, which was only partially successful, was undertaken to restore Bofiwoj II. to the dukedom of Bohemia, and in the year following the king led his forces into Hungary, where he failed to take Pressburg. In 1109 he was unable to compel the Poles to renew their accustomed tribute, but in i no he succeeded in securing the dukedom of Bohemia for Ladislaus I. The main interest of Henry's reign centres in the controversy over lay investiture, which had caused a serious dispute during the previous reign. The papal party who had supported Henry in his resistance to his father hoped he would assent to the decrees of the pope, which had been renewed by Paschal II. at the synod of Guastalla in 1106. The king, however, continued to invest the bishops, but wished the pope to hold a council in Germany to settle the question. Paschal after some hesitation preferred France to Germany, and, after holding a council at Troyes, renewed his prohibition of lay investiture. The matter slumbered until mo, when, negotiations between king and pope having failed, Paschal renewed his decrees and Henry went to Italy with a large army. The strength of his forces helped him to secure general recognition in Lombardy , and at Sutri he concluded an arrangement with Paschal by which he renounced the right of investiture in return for a promise of coronation, and the restoration to the Empire of all lands given by kings, or emperors, to the German church since the time of Charlemagne. It was a treaty impossible to execute, and Henry, whose consent to it is said to have been conditional on its acceptance by the princes and bishops of Germany, probably foresaw that it would occasion a breach between the German clergy and the pope. Having entered Rome and sworn the usual oaths, the king presented himself at St Peter's on the i2th of February nn for his coronation and the ratification of the treaty. The words com- manding the clergy to restore the fiefs of the crown to Henry were read amid a tumult of indignation, whereupon the pope refused to crown the king, who in return declined to hand over his renunciation of the right of investiture. Paschal was seized by Henry's soldiers and, in the general disorder into which the city was thrown, an attempt to liberate the pontiff was thwarted in a struggle during which the king himself was wounded. Henry then left the city carrying the pope with him; and Paschal's failure to obtain assistance drew from him a confirmation of the king's right of investiture and a promise to crown him emperor. The coronation ceremony accordingly took place on the i$th of April nn, after which the emperor returned to Germany, where he sought to strengthen his power by granting privileges to the inhabitants of the region of the upper Rhine. In 1 1 12 Lothair, duke of Saxony, rose in arms against Henry, but was easily quelled. In 1113, however, a quarrel over the succession to the counties of Weimar and Orlamiinde gave occasion for a fresh outbreak on the part of Lothair, whose troops were defeated at Warnstadt, after which the duke was pardoned. Having been married at Mainz on the yth of January 1114 to Matilda, or Maud, daughter of Henry I., king of England, the emperor was confronted with a further rising, initiated by the citizens of Cologne, who were soon joined by the Saxons and others. Henry failed to take Cologne, his forces were defeated at Welfesholz on the nth of February 1115, and complications in Italy compelled him to leave Germany to the care of Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, and his brother Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III. After the departure of Henry from Rome in nn a council had declared the privilege of lay investiture, which had been extorted from Paschal, to be invalid, and Guido, archbishop of Vienne, excommunicated the emperor and called upon the pope to ratify this sentence. Paschal, however, refused to take so extreme a step; and the quarrel entered upon a new stage in 1 1 1 5 when Matilda, daughter and heiress of Boniface, margrave of Tuscany, died leaving her vast estates to the papacy. Crossing the Alps in 1116 Henry won the support of town and noble by privileges to the one and presents to the other, took possession of Matilda's lands, and was gladly received in Rome. By this time Paschal had withdrawn his consent to lay investiture and the excommunication had been published in Rome; but the pope was compelled to fly from the city. Some of the cardinals withstood the emperor, but by means of bribes he broke down the opposition, and was crowned a second time by Burdinas, archbishop of Braga. Meanwhile the defeat at Welfesholz had given heart to Henry's enemies; many of his supporters, especially among the bishops, fell away; the excommunication was published at Cologne, and the pope, with the assistance of the Normans, began to make war. In January 1118 Paschal died and was succeeded by Gelasius II. The emperor immediately returned from northern Italy to Rome. But as the new pope escaped from the city, Henry, despairing of making a treaty, secured the election of an antipope who took the name of Gregory VIII., and who was left in possession of Rome when the emperor returned across the Alps in 1118. The opposition in Germany was gradually crushed and a general peace declared at Tribur, while the desire for a settlement of the investiture dispute was growing. Negotiations, begun at Wurzburg, were continued at Worms, where the new pope, Calixtus II., was represented by Caidinal Lambert, bishop of Ostia. In the concordat of Worms, signed in September 1122,. Henry renounced the right of investiture with ring and crozier, recognized the freedom of election of the clergy and promised to restore all church property. The pope agreed to allow elections to take place in presence of the imperial envoys, and the investi- ture with the sceptre to be granted by the emperor as a symbol that the estates of the church were held under the crown. Henry, who had been solemnly excommunicated at Reims by Calixtus in October 1119, was received again into the communion of the church, after he had abandoned his nominee, Gregory, to defeat and banishment. The emperor's concluding years were occupied with a campaign in Holland, and with a quarrel over the succes- sion to the margraviate of Meissen, two disputes in which his enemies were aided by Lothair of Saxony. In 1124 he led an expedition against King Louis VI. of France, turned his arms against the citizens of Worms, and on the 23rd of May 1125 died at Utrecht and was buried at Spires. Having no children, he left his possessions to his nephew, Frederick II. of Hohen- staufen, duke of Swabia, and on his death the line of Franconian, or Salian, emperors became extinct. The character of Henry is unattractive. His love of power was inordinate; he was wanting in generosity, and he did not shrink from treachery in pursuing his ends. The chief authority for the life and reign of Henry V. is Ekkehard of Aura, Chronicon, edited by G. Waitz in the Monumenta Germaniae hisiorica. Scriptores, Band vi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). See also W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1881-1890); L. von Ranke, Welt- geschichte, pt. vii. (Leipzig, 1886); M. Manitius, Deutsche Geschichte (Stuttgart, 1889); G. Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbucher des deutschen Reiches unter Heinrich IV. und Heinrich V. (Leipzig, 1890); E. Gervais, Politische Geschichte Deutschlands unter der Regierung der Kaiser Heinrich V. und Lothar III. (Leipzig, 1841-1842) ; G. Peiser, Der deutsche Investiturstreit unter Kaiser Heinrich V. (Berlin, 1883); C. Stutzer, " Zur Kritik der Investiturverhandlungen im Jahre 1119," in the Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, Band xviii. (Gottingen, 1862-1886); T. von Sickel and H. Bresslau, "Die 278 HENRY VI.-VII. kaiserliche Ausfertigung des Wormser Konkordats," in the Mitthei- lungen des Instituts fiir osterreichische Geschichtsforschung (Innsbruck, 1880); B. Gebhardt, Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte, Band i. (Berlin, 1901), and E. Bernheim, Zur Geschichte des Wormser Konkordats (Gottingen, 1878). HENRY VI. (1165-1197), Roman emperor,'son of the emperor Frederick I. and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III., count of upper Burgundy, was born at Nijmwegen, and educated under the care of Conrad of Querfurt, afterwards bishop of Hildesheim and Wiirzburg. Chosen German king, or king of the Romans, at Bamberg in June 1169, he was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the isth of August 1169, invested with lands in Germany in 1179, and at Whitsuntide 1184 his knighthood was celebrated in the most magnificent manner at Mainz. Frederick was anxious to associate his son with himself in the government of the empire, and when he left Germany in 1184 Henry remained behind as regent, while his father sought to procure his coronation from Pope Lucius III. The pope was hesitating when he heard that the emperor had arranged a marriage between Henry and Constance, daughter of the late king of Sicily, Roger I., and aunt and heiress of the reigning king, William II.; and this step, which threatened to unite Sicily with Germany, decided him to refuse the proposal. This marriage took place at Milan on the 27th of January 1186, and soon afterwards Henry was crowned king of Italy. The claim of Henry and his wife on Sicily was recognized by the barons of that kingdom; and having been recognized by the pope as Roman emperor elect, Henry returned to Germany, and was again appointed regent when Frederick set out on crusade in May 1 189. His attempts to bring peace to Germany were interrupted by the return of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, in October 1189, and a campaign against him was followed by a peace made at Fulda in July 1190. Henry's desire to make this peace was due to the death of William of Sicily, which was soon followed by that of the emperor Frederick. Germany and Italy alike seemed to need the king's presence, but for him, like all the Hohenstaufen, Italy had the greater charm, and having obtained a promise of his coronation from Pope Clement III. he crossed the Alps in the winter of 1 190. He purchased the support of the cities of northern Italy, but on reaching Rome he found Clement was dead and his successor, Celestine III., disinclined to carry out the engagement of his predecessor. The strength of the German army and a treaty made between the king and the Romans induced him, however, to crown Henry as emperor on the I4th of April 1191. The aid of the Romans had been purchased by the king's promise to place in their possession the city of Tusculum, which they had attacked in vain for three years. After the ceremony the emperor fulfilled this contract, when the city was destroyed and many of the inhabitants massacred. Meanwhile a party in Sicily had chosen Tancred, an illegitimate son of Roger, son of King Roger II., as their king, and he had already won considerable authority and was favoured by the pope. Leaving Rome Henry met with no resistance until he reached Naples, which he was unable to take, as the ravages of fever and threatening news from Germany, where his death was reported, compelled him to raise the siege. In December 1191 he returned to Germany. Disorder was general and a variety of reasons induced both the Welfs and their earlier opponents to join in a general league against the emperor. Vacancies in various bishoprics added to the confusion, and Henry's enemies gained in numbers and strength when it was suspected that he was implicated in the murder of Albert, bishop of Li6ge. Henry acted energetically in fighting this formidable combination, but his salvation came from the captivity of Richard I., king of England, and the skill with which he used this event to make peace with his foes; and, when Henry the Lion came to terms in March 1194, order was restored to Germany. In the following May, Henry made his second expedition to Italy, where Pope Celestine had definitely espoused the cause of Tancred. The ransom received from Richard enabled him to equip a large army, and aided by a fleet fitted out by Genoa and Pisa he soon secured a complete mastery over the Italian main- land. When he reached Sicily he found Tancred dead, and, meeting with very little resistance, he entered Palermo, where he was crowned king on Christmas day 1194. A stay of a few months' duration enabled Henry_to settle the affairs of the kingdom; and leaving his wife, Constance, as regent, and appointing many Germans to positions of influence, he returned to Germany in June 1195. Having established his position in Germany and Italy, Henry began to cherish ideas of universal empire. Richard of England had already owned his supremacy, and declaring he would compel the king of France to do the same Henry sought to stir up strife between France and England. Nor did the Spanish kingdoms escape his notice. Tunis and Tripoli were claimed, and when the eastern emperor, Isaac Angelus, asked his help, he demanded in return the cession of the Balkan peninsula. The kings of Cyprus and Armenia asked for investiture at his hands; and in general Henry, in the words of a Byzantine chronicler, put forward his demands as " the lord of all lords, the king of all kings." To complete this scheme two steps were necessary, a reconciliation with the pope and the recognition of his young son, Frederick, as his successor in the Empire. The first was easily accomplished; the second was more difficult. After attempting to suppress the renewed disorder in Germany, Henry met the princes at Worms in December 1195 and put his proposal before them. In spite of promises they disliked the suggestion as tending to draw them into Sicilian troubles, and avoided the emperor's displeasure by postponing their answer. By threats or negotiations, however, Henry won the consent of about fifty princes; but though the diet which met at Wiirzburg in April 1196 agreed to the scheme, the vigorous opposition of Adolph, archbishop of Cologne, and others rendered it inopera- tive. In June 1196 Henry went again to Italy, sought vainly to restore order in the north, and tried to persuade the pope to crown his son who had been chosen king of the Romans at Frankfort. Celestine, who had many causes of complaint against the emperor and his vassals, refused. The emperor then went to the south, where the oppression of his German officials had caused an insurrection, which was put down with terrible cruelty. At Messina on the 28th of September 1197 Henry died from a cold caught whilst hunting, and was buried at Palermo. He was a man of small frame and delicate constitution, but possessed considerable mental gifts and was skilled in knightly exercises. His ambition was immense, and to attain his ends he often resorted deliberately to cruelty and treachery. His chief recreation was hunting, and he also found pleasure in the society of the Minnesingers and in writing poems, which appear in F. H. von der Hagen's Minnesinger (Leipzig, 1838). He left an only son Frederick, afterwards the emperor Frederick II. The chief authorities for the life and reign of Henry VI. are Otto of Freising, Chronicon, continued by Otto of St. Blasius; Godfrey of Viterbo, Gesta Friderici I. and Gesta Heinrici VI.; Giselbert of Mons, Chronicon Hanoniense, all of which appear in the Monu- menta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Bande xx., xxi., xxii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892), and the various annals of the time. The best modern authorities are: W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877); T. Toeche, Kaiser Heinrich VI. (Leipzig, 1867); H. Bloch, Forschungen zur Politik Kaiser Heinrichs VI. (Berlin, 1892), and K. A. Kneller, Des Richard Lowenherz deutsche Gefangenschaft (Freiburg, 1893). HENRY VII. (c. 1269-1313), Roman emperor, son of Henry III., count of Luxemburg, was knighted by Philip IV., king of France, and passed his early days under French influences, while the French language was his mother-tongue. His father was killed in battle in 1 288, and Henry ruled his tiny inheritance with justice and prudence, but came into collision with the citizens of Trier over a question of tolls. In 1292 he married Margaret (d. 1311), daughter of John I., duke of Brabant, and after the death of the German king, Albert I., he was elected to the vacant throne on the 27th of November 1308. Recognized at once by the German princes and by Pope Clement V., the aspira- tions of the new king turned to Italy, where he hoped by restoring the imperial authority to prepare the way for the conquest of HENRY VII.— HENRY RASPE 279 the Holy Land. Meanwhile he strove to secure his position in Germany. The Rhenish archbishops were pacified by the restoration of the Rhine tolls, negotiations were begun with Philip IV., king of France, and with Robert, king of Naples, and the Habsburgs were confirmed in their possessions. At this time Bohemia was ruled by Henry V., duke of Carinthia, but the terrible disorder which prevailed induced some of the Bohemians to offer the crown, together with the hand of Elizabeth, daughter of the late king Wenceslas II., to John, the son of the German king. Henry accepted the offer, and in August 1310 John was invested with Bohemia and his marriage was cele- brated. Before John's coronation at Prague, however, in February 1311, Henry had crossed the Alps. His hopes of re- uniting Germany and Italy and of restoring the empire of the Hohenstaufen were flattered by an appeal from the Ghibellines to come to their assistance, and by the fact that many Italians, sharing the sentiments expressed by Dante in his De Monarchia, looked eagerly for a restoration of the imperial authority. In October 1310 he reached Turin where, on receiving the homage of the Lombard cities, he declared that he favoured neither Guelphs nor Ghibellines, but only sought to impose peace. Having entered Milan he placed the Lombard crown upon his head on the 6th of January 1311. But trouble soon showed itself. His poverty compelled him to exact money from the citizens; the peaceful professions of the Guelphs were insincere, and Robert, king of Naples, watched his progress with suspicion. Florence was fortified against him, and the mutual hatred of Guelph and Ghibelline was easily renewed. Risings took place in various places and, after the capture of Brescia, Henry marched to Rome only to find the city in the hands of the Guelphs and the troops of King Robert. Some street fighting ensued, and the king, unable to obtain possession of St Peter's, was crowned emperor on the 2pth of June 1312 in the church of St John Lateran by some cardinals who declared they only acted under compulsion. Failing to subdue Florence, the emperor from his headquarters at Pisa prepared to attack Robert of Naples, for which purpose he had allied himself with Frederick III., king of Sicily. But Clement, anxious to protect Robert, threatened Henry with excommunication. Undeterred by the threat the emperor collected fresh forces, made an alliance with the Venetians, and set out for Naples. On the march he was, however, taken ill, and died at Buonconvento near Siena on the 24th of August 1313, and was buried at Pisa. His death was attributed, probably without reason, to poison given him by a Dominican friar in the sacramental wine. Henry is described by his contemporary Albertino Mussato, in the Historia Augusta as a handsome man, of well-proportioned figure, with reddish hair and arched eyebrows, but disfigured by a squint. He adds, among other details, that he was slow and laconic in his speech, magnanimous and devout, but impatient of any compacts with his subjects, loathing the mention of the Guelph and Ghibelline factions, and insisting on the absolute authority of the Empire over all (cuncta absolute complectem Imperio). He was, however, a lover of justice, and as a knight both bold and skilful. He was hailed by Dante as the deliverer of Italy, and in the Paradiso the poet reserved for him a place marked by a crown. The contemporary documents for the life and reign of Henry VII. are very numerous. Many of them are found in the Rerum Itali- carum scriptores, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan, 1723-1751) others in Fontes rerum Germanicarum, edited by J. F. Bohmer (Stuttgart, 1843-1868), and in Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit, Bande 79 and 80 (Leipzig, 1884). The following modern works may also be consulted: Ada Henrici VII. imperatoris Romanorum, edited by G. Donniges (Berlin, 1839); F. Bonaini Ada Henrici VII. Romanorum imperatoris (Florence, 1877); T Lindner, Deutsche Geschichte unter den Habsburgern und Luxem- burgern (Stuttgart, 1888-1893); J. Heidemann, "Die Konigswah Heinrichs von Luxemburg," in the Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, Band xi. (Gottingen, 1862-1886); B. Thomas, Zur Konigswahl des Graf en Heinrich von Luxemburg (Strassburg, 1875) D. Konig, Kritische Erorterungen zu einigen italienischen Quellen fur die Geschichte des Romerzuges Konigs Heinrich VII. (Gottingen 1874); K. Wenck, Clemens V. und Heinrich VII. (Halle, 1882) F. W. Barthold, Der Romerzug Konig Heinrichs von Liitzelburg Konigsberg, 1830-1831); R. Pohlmann, Der Romerzug Kiinig 'leinnchs VII. und die Politik der Curie (Nuremberg, 1875); W. Donniges, Kritik der Quellen fur die Geschichle Heinrichs VII. des Luxemburgers (Berlin, 1841), and G. Sommerfeldt, Die Romfahrt Kaiser Heinrichs VII. (Konigsberg, 1888). HENRY VII. (1211-1242), German king, son of the emperor Frederick II. and his first wife Constance, daughter of Alphonso [I., king of Aragon, was crowned king of Sicily in 1212 and made duke of Swabia in 1216. Pope Innocent III. had favoured his coronation as king of Sicily in the hope that the union of this .sland with the Empire would be dissolved, and had obtained a jromise from Frederick to this effect. In spite of this, however, Henry was chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at Frankfort in April 1220, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 3th of May 1222 by his guardian Engelbert, archbishop of Cologne. He appears to have spent most of his youth in Germany, and on the 1 8th of November 1225 was married at Nuremberg to Margaret (d. 1267), daughter of Leopold VI., duke of Austria. Henry's marriage was the occasion of some difference of opinion, as Engelbert wished him to marry an English princess, and the name of a Bohemian princess was also mentioned in this con- nexion, but Frederick insisted upon the union with Margaret. The murder of Engelbert in 1225 was followed by an increase of disorder in Germany in which Henry soon began to participate, and in 1227 he took part in a quarrel which had arisen on the death of Henry V., the childless count palatine of the Rhine. About this time the relations between Frederick and his son began to be somewhat strained. The emperor had favoured the Austrian marriage because Margaret's brother, Duke Frederick II., was childless; but Henry took up a hostile attitude towards his brother-in-law and wished to put away his wife and marry Agnes, daughter of Wenceslaus I., king of Bohemia. Other causes of trouble probably existed, for in 1231 Henry not only refused to appear at the diet at Ravenna, but opposed the privileges granted by Frederick to the princes at Worms. In 1 23 2, "however, he submitted to his father, promising to adopt the emperor's policy and to obey his commands. He did not long keep his word and was soon engaged in thwarting Frederick's wishes in several directions, until in 1233 he took the decisive step of issuing a manifesto to the princes, and the following year raised the standard of revolt at Boppard. He obtained very little support in Germany, however, while the suspicion that he favoured heresy deprived him of encouragement from the pope. On the other hand, he succeeded in forming an alliance with the Lombards in December 1234, but his few supporters fell away when the emperor reached Germany in 1235, and, after a vain attack on Worms, Henry submitted and was kept for some time as a prisoner in Germany, though his formal deposition as German king was not considered necessary, as he had broken the oath taken in 1232. He was soon removed to San Felice in Apulia, and afterwards to Martirano in Calabria, where he died, prob- ably by his own hand, on the I2th of February 1242, and was buried at Cosenza. He left two sons, Frederick and Henry, both of whom died in Italy about 1251. See J. Rohden, Der Sturz Heinrichs VII. (Gottingen, 1883) ; F. W. Schirrmacher, Die letzten Hohenstaufen (Gottingen, 1871), and E. Winkelmann, Kaiser Friedrich II. (Leipzig, 1889). HENRY RASPE (c. 1202-1247), German king and landgrave of Thuringia, was the second surviving son of Hermann L, landgrave of Thuringia, and Sophia, daughter of Otto L, duke of Bavaria. When his brother the landgrave Louis IV. died in Italy in September 1227, Henry seized the government of Thuringia and expelled his brother's widow, St Elizabeth of Hungary, and her son Hermann. With some trouble Henry made good his position, although his nephew Hermann II. was nominally the landgrave, and was declared of age in 1237. Henry, who governed with a zealous regard for his own interests, remained loyal to the emperor Frederick II. during his quarrel with the Lombards and the revolt of his son Henry. In 1236 he accompanied the emperor on a campaign against Frederick II., duke of Austria, and took part in the election of his son Conrad as German king at Vienna in 1 237. He appears, however, to have become somewhat estranged from Frederick after this 280 HENRY— HENRY I. expedition, for he did not appear at the diet of Verona in 1238; and it is not improbable that he disliked the betrothal of his nephew Hermann to the emperor's daughter Margaret. At all events, when the projected marriage had been broken off the landgrave publicly showed his loyalty to the emperor in 1239 in opposition to a plan formed by various princes to elect an anti-king. Henry, whose attitude at this time was very important to Frederick, was probably kept loyal by the in- fluence which his brother Conrad, grand-master of the Teutonic Order, exercised over him, for after the death of this brother in 1241 Henry's loyalty again wavered, and he was himself mentioned as a possible anti-king. Frederick's visit to Germany in 1242 was successful in preventing this step for a time, and in May of that year the landgrave was appointed administrator of Germany for King Conrad; and by the death of his nephew in this year he became the nominal, as well as the actual, ruler of Thuringia. Again he contemplated deserting the cause of Frederick, and in April 1246 Pope Innocent IV. wrote to the German princes advising them to choose Henry as their king in place of Frederick who had just been declared deposed. Acting on these instructions, Henry was elected at Veitshochheim on the 22nd of May 1246, and owing to the part played by the spiritual princes in this election was called the Pfa/enkonig, or parsons' king. Collecting an army, he defeated King Conrad near Frankfort on the sth of August 1246, and then, after holding a diet at Nuremberg, undertook the siege of Ulm. But he was soon compelled to give up this enterprise, and returning to Thuringia died at the Wartburg on the I7th of February 1247. Henry married Gertrude, sister of Frederick II., duke of Austria, but left no children, and on his death the male line of his family became extinct. See F. Reuss, Die Wahl Heinrich Raspes (Ludenschcid, 1878); A. Rubesamen, Landgraf Heinrich Raspe von Thuringen (Halle, 1885); F. W. Schirrmacner, Die letzten Hohenstaufen (Gottingen, 1871); E. Winkelrnann, Kaiser Friedrich II. (Leipzig, 1889), and T. Knochenhauer, Geschichte Thiiringens ztir Zeit des ersten 'Land- grafenhauses (Gotha, 1871). HENRY (c. 1174-1216), emperor of Romania, or Constan- tinople, was a younger son of Baldwin, count of Flanders and Hainaut (d. 1195). Having joined the Fourth Crusade about 1201, he distinguished himself at the siege of Constantinople in 1204 and elsewhere, and soon became prominent among the princes of the new Latin empire of Constantinople. When his brother, the emperor Baldwin I., was captured at the battle of Adrianople in April 1205, Henry was chosen regent of the empire, succeeding to the throne when the news of Baldwin's death arrived. He was crowned on the 2oth of August 1205. Henry was a wise ruler, whose reign was largely passed in successful struggles with the Bulgarians and with his rival, Theodore Lascaris I., emperor of Nicaea. Henry appears to have been brave but not cruel, and tolerant but not weak; possessing " the superior courage to oppose, in a superstitious age, the pride and avarice of the clergy." The emperor died, poisoned, it is said, by his Greek wife, on the nth of June 1216. See Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. vi. (ed. J. B. Bury, 1898). HENRY I. (1068-1135), king of England, nicknamed Beau- clerk, the fourth and youngest son of William I. by his queen Matilda of Flanders, was born in 1068 on English soil. Of his life before 1086, when he was solemnly knighted by his father at Westminster, we know little. He was his mother's favourite, and she bequeathed to him her English estates, which, however, he was not permitted to hold in his father's lifetime. Henry received a good education, of which in later life he was proud; he is credited with the saying that an unlettered king is only a crowned ass. His attainments included Latin, which he could both read and write; he knew something of the English laws and language, and it may have been from an interest in natural history that he collected, during his reign, the Woodstock menagerie which was the admiration of his subjects. But from 1087 his life was one of action and vicissitudes which left him little leisure. Receiving, under the Conqueror's last dis- positions, a legacy of five thousand pounds of silver, but no land, he traded upon the pecuniary needs of Duke Robert of Normandy, from whom he purchased, for the small sum of £3000, the district of the Cotentin. He negotiated with Rufus to obtain the possession of their mother's inheritance, but only incurred thereby the suspicions of the duke, who threw him into prison. In 1090 the prince vindicated his loyalty by suppressing, on Robert's behalf, a revolt of the citizens of Rouen which Rufus had fomented. But when his elder brothers were reconciled in the next year they combined to evict Henry from the Cotentin. He dissembled his resentment for a time, and lived for nearly two years in the French Vexin in great poverty. He then accepted from the citizens of Domfront an invitation to defend them against Robert of Belleme; and subsequently, coming to an agreement with Rufus, assisted the king in making war on their elder brother Robert. When Robert's departure for the First Crusade left Normandy in the hands of Rufus (1096) Henry took service under the latter, and he was in the royal hunting train on the day of Rufus's death (August 2nd, noo). Had Robert been in Normandy the claim of Henry to the English crown might have been effectually opposed. But Robert only returned to the duchy a month after Henry's coronation. In the meantime the new king, by issuing his famous charter, by recalling Anselm, and by choosing the Anglo-Scottish princess Edith-Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III., king of the Scots, as his future queen, had cemented that alliance with the church and with the native English which was the foundation of his greatness. Anselm preached in his favour, English levies marched under the royal banner both to repel Robert's invasion (1101) and to crush the revolt of the Mont- gomeries headed by Robert of Belleme (1102). The alliance of crown and church was subsequently imperilled by the question of Investitures (1103-1106). Henry was sharply criticized for his ingratitude to Anselm (q.v.), in spite of the marked respect which he showed to the archbishop. At this juncture a sentence of excommunication would have been a dangerous blow to Henry's power in England. But the king's diplomatic skill enabled him to satisfy the church without surrendering any rights of conse- quence (1106); and he skilfully threw the blame of his previous conduct upon his counsellor, Robert of Meulan. Although the Peterborough Chronicle accuses Henry of oppression in his early years, the nation soon learned to regard him with respect. William of Malmesbury, about 1125, already treats Tinchebrai (1106) as an English victory and the revenge for Hastings. Henry was disliked but feared by the baronage, towards whom he showed gross bad faith in his disregard of his coronation promises. In mo he banished the more conspicuous mal- contents, and from that date was safe against the plots of his English feudatories. With Normandy he had more trouble, and the military skill which he had displayed at Tinchebrai was more than once put to the test against Norman rebels. His Norman, like his English administration, was popular with the non-feudal classes, but doubtless oppressive towards the barons. The latter had abandoned the cause of Duke Robert, who remained a prisoner in England till his death (1134); but they embraced that of Robert's son William the Clito, whom Henry in a fit of generosity had allowed to go free after Tinchebrai. The Norman con- spiracies of iii2, 1118, and 1123-24 were all formed in the Clito's interest. Both France and Anjou supported this pre- tender's cause from time to time; he was always a thorn in Henry's side till his untimely death at Alost (1128), but more especially after the catastrophe of the White Ship (1120) deprived the king of his only lawful son. But Henry emerged from these complications with enhanced prestige. His campaigns had been uneventful, his chief victory (Bremule, 1119) was little more than a skirmish. But he had held his own as a general, and as a diplomatist he had shown surpassing skill. The chief triumphs of his foreign policy were the marriage of his daughter Matilda to the emperor Henry V. (1114) which saved Normandy in 1124; the detachment of the pope, Calixtus II., from the side of France and the Clito (1119), and the Angevin marriages which he arranged for his son William Aetheling (1119) and for HENRY II. 281 the widowed empress Matilda (1129) after her brother's death. This latter match, though unpopular in England and Normandy, was a fatal blow to the designs of Louis VI., and prepared the way for the expansion of English power beyond the Loire. After 1124 the disaffection of Normandy was crushed. The severity with which Henry treated the last rebels was regarded as a blot upon his fame; but the only case of merely vindictive punishment was that of the poet Luke de la Barre, who was sentenced to lose his eyes for a lampoon upon the king, and only escaped the sentence by committing suicide. Henry's English government was severe and grasping; but he " kept good peace " and honourably distinguished himself among contemporary statesmen in an age when administrative reform was in the air. He spent more time in Normandy than in England. But he showed admirable judgment in his choice of subordinates; Robert of Meulan, who died in 1118, and Roger of Salisbury, who survived his master, were statesmen of no common order; and Henry was free from the mania of attending in person to every detail, which was the besetting sin of medieval sovereigns. As a legislator Henry was con- servative. He issued few ordinances; the unofficial compilation known as the Leges Henrici shows that, like the Conqueror, he made it his ideal to maintain the " law of Edward." His itinerant justices were not altogether a novelty in England or Normandy. It is characteristic of the man that the exchequer should be the chief institution created in his reign. The eulogies of the last Peterborough Chronicle on his government were written after the anarchy of Stephen's reign had invested his predecessor's " good peace " with the glamour of a golden age. Henry was respected and not tyrannous. He showed a lofty indifference to criticism such as that of Eadmer in the Historic*, novorum, which was published early in the reign. He showed, on some occasions, great deference to the opinions of the magnates. But dark stories, some certainly unfounded, were told of his prison-houses. Men thought him more cruel and more despotic than he actually was. Henry was twice married. After the death of his first wife, Matilda (1080-1118), he took to wife Adelaide, daughter of Godfrey, count of Louvain (1121), in the hope of male issue. But the marriage proved childless, and the empress Matilda was designated as her father's successor, the English baronage being compelled to do her homage both in 1126, and again, after the Angevin marriage, in 1131. He had many illegitimate sons and daughters by various mistresses. Of these bastards the most important is Robert, earl of Gloucester, upon whom fell the main burden of defending Matilda's title against Stephen. Henry died near Gisors on the ist of December, 1135, in the thirty-sixth year of his reign, and was buried in the abbey of Reading which he himself had founded. ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES. — The Peterborough Chronicle(ed.P\ummer, Oxford, 1882-1889); Florence of Worcester and his first continuator (ed. B. Thorpe, 1848-1849); Eadmer, Historia novorum (ed. Rule, Rolls Series, 1884); William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum and Historia novella (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series, 1887-1889); Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum (ed. Arnold, Rolls Series, 1879); Simeon of Durham (ed. Arnold, Rolls Series, 1882-1885); Orderic Vitalis, Historia eccles'iastica (ed. le PreVost, Paris, 1838-1855); Robert of Torigni, Chronica (ed. Hewlett, Rolls Series, 1889), and Continuatio Willelmi Gemmeticensis (ed. Duchesne, Hist. Norman- norum scriptores, pp. 215-317, Paris, 1619). See also the Pipe Roll of 31 H. I. (ed. Hunter, Record Commission, 1833) ; the documents in W. Stubbs's Select Chapters (Oxford, 1895); the Leges Henrici in Liebermann's Gesetze der Angel-Sachsen (Halle, 1898, &c.) ; and the same author's monograph, Leges Henrici (Halle, 1901); the treaties, &c., in the Record Commission edition of Thomas Rymer's Foedera, vol. i. (1816). MODERN AUTHORITIES. — E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest, vol. v. ; J. M. Lappenberg, History of England under the Norman Kings (tr. Thorpe, Oxford, 1857); Kate Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings, vol. i. (1887); Sir James Ramsay, Founda- tions of England, vol. ii. ; W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. i. ; H. W. C. Davis, England under the Normans and Angevins; Hunt and Poole, Political History of England, vol. ii. (H. W. C. D.) HENRY II. (1133-1189), king of England, son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of Anjou, by Matilda, daughter of Henry I., was born at Le Mans on the 25th of March 1133. He was brought to England during his mother's conflict with Stephen (1142), and was placed under the charge of a tutor at Bristol. He returned to Normandy in 1 146. He next appeared on English soil in 1149 ' when he came to court the help of Scotland and the English baronage against King Stephen. The second visit was of short duration. In 1150 he was invested with Normandy by his father, whose death in the next year made him also count of Anjou. In 1152 by a marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of the French king Louis VII., he acquired Poitou, Guienne and Gascony; but in doing so incurred the ill-will of his suzerain from which he suffered not a little in the future. Lastly in 1153 he was able, through the aid of the Church and his mother's partisans, to extort from Stephen the recognition of his claim to the English succession; and this claim was asserted without opposition immediately after Stephen's death (25th of Octobef 1154). Matilda retired into seclusion, although she possessed, until her death (1167), great influence with her son. The first years of the reign were largely spent in restoring the public peace and recovering for the crown the lands and pre- rogatives which Stephen had bartered away. Amongst the older partisans of the Angevin house the most influential were Archbishop Theobald, whose good will guaranteed to Henry the support of the Church, and Nigel, bishop of Ely, who presided at the exchequer. But Thomas Becket, archdeacon of Canter- bury, a younger statesman whom Theobald had discovered and promoted, soon became all-powerful. Becket lent himself entirely to his master's ambitions, which at this time centred round schemes of territorial aggrandizement. In 1155 Henry asked and obtained from Adrian IV. a licence to invade Ireland, which the king contemplated bestowing upon his brother, William of Anjou. This plan was dropped; but Malcolm of Scotland was forced to restore the northern counties which had been ceded to David; North Wales was invaded in 1157; and in 1159 Henry made an attempt, which was foiled by the inter- vention of Louis VII., to assert his wife's claims upon Toulouse. After vainly invoking the aid of the emperor Frederick I., the young king came to terms with Louis (1160), whose daughter was betrothed to Henry's namesake and heir. The peace proved unstable, and there was desultory skirmishing in 1161. The following year was chiefly spent in reforming the government of the continental provinces. In 1163 Henry returned to England, and almost immediately embarked on that quarrel with the Church which is the keynote to the middle period of the reign. Henry had good cause to complain of the ecclesiastical courts, and had only awaited a convenient season to correct abuses which were admitted by all reasonable men. But he allowed the question to be complicated by personal issues. He was bitterly disappointed that Becket, on whom he bestowed the primacy, left vacant by the death of Theobald (1162), at once became the champion of clerical privilege; he and the archbishop were no longer on speaking terms when the Constitutions of Clarendon came up for debate. The king's demands were not intrinsically irreconcilable with the canon law, and the papacy would probably have allowed them to take effect sub silentio, if Becket (q.ii.) had not been goaded to extremity by persecution in the forms of law. After Becket's flight (1164), the king put himself still further in the wrong by impounding the revenues of Canterbury and banishing at one stroke a number of the archbishop's friends and connexions. He showed, however, considerable dexterity in playing off the emperor against Alexander III. and Louis VII., and contrived for five years, partly by these means, partly by insincere negotiations with Becket, to stave off a papal interdict upon his dominions. When, in July 1170, he was forced by Alexander's threats to make terms with Becket, the king contrived that not a word should be said of the Constitutions. He undoubtedly hoped that in this matter he would have his way when Becket should be more in England and within his grasp. For the murder of Becket (Dec. 29, 1170) the king cannot be held responsible, though the 1 For a supposed visit in 1 147, see J. H. Round in English Historical Review, v. 747. 282 HENRY III. deed was suggested by his impatient words. It was a misfortune to the royal cause; and Henry was compelled to purchase the papal absolution by a complete surrender on the question of criminous clerks (1172). When he heard of the murder he was panic-stricken; and his expedition to Ireland (1171), although so momentous for the future, was originally a mere pretext for placing himself beyond the reach of Alexander's censures. Becket's fate, though it supplied an excuse, was certainly not the real cause of the troubles with his sons which disturbed the king's later years (1173-1189). But Henry's misfortunes were largely of his own making. Queen Eleanor, whom he alienated by his faithlessness, stirred up her sons to rebellion; and they had grievances enough to be easily persuaded. Henry was an affectionate but a suspicious and close-handed father. The titles which he bestowed on them carried little power, and served chiefly to denote the shares of the paternal inheritance which were to be theirs after his death. The excessive favour which he showed to John, his youngest-born, was another cause of heart-burning; and Louis, the old enemy, did his utmost to foment all discords. It must, however, be remembered in Henry's favour, that the supporters of the princes, both in England and in the foreign provinces, were animated by resent- ment against the soundest features of the king's administration; and that, in the rebellion of 1173, he received from the English commons such hearty support that any further attempt to raise a rebellion in England was considered hopeless. Henry, like his grandfather, gained in popularity with every year of his reign. In 1183 the death of Prince Henry, the heir-apparent, while engaged in a war against his brother Richard and their father, secured a short interval of peace. But in 1184 Geoffrey of Brittany and John combined with their father's leave to make war upon Richard, now the heir-apparent. After Geoffrey's death (1186) the feud between John and Richard drove the latter into an alliance with Philip Augustus of France. The ill-success of the old king in this war aggravated the disease from which he was suffering; and his heart was broken by the dis- covery that John, for whose sake he had alienated Richard, was in secret league with the victorious allies. Henry died at Chinon on the 6th of July 1189, and was buried at Fontevraud. By Eleanor of Aquitaine the king had five sons and three daughters. His eldest son, William, died young; his other sons, Henry, v Richard, Geoffrey and John, are all mentioned above. His daughters were: Matilda (1156-1189), who became the wife of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony; Eleanor (1162-1214), who married Alphonso III., king of Castile; and Joanna, who, after the death of William of Sicily in 1189, became the wife of Ray- mund VI., count of Toulouse, having previously accompanied her brother, Richard, to Palestine. He had also three illegiti- mate sons: Geoffrey, archbishop of York; Morgan; and William Longsword, earl of Salisbury. Henry's power impressed the imagination of his contem- poraries, who credited him with aiming at the conquest of France and the acquisition of the imperial title. But his ambitions of conquest were comparatively moderate in !his later years. He attempted to secure Maurienne and Savoy for John by a marriage-alliance, for which a treaty was signed in 1173. But the project failed through the death of the intended bride; nor did the marriage of his third daughter, the princess Joanna (i 165-1 199), with William II., king of Sicily (1177) lead to English intervention in Italian politics. Henry once declined an offer of the Empire, made by the opponents of Frederick Barbarossa; and he steadily supported the young Philip Augustus against the intrigues of French feudatories. The conquest of Ireland was carried out independently of his assistance, and perhaps against his wishes. He asserted his suzerainty over Scotland by the treaty of Falaise (1175), but not so stringently as to pro- voke Scottish hostility. This moderation was partly due to the embarrassments produced by the ecclesiastical question and the rebellions of the princes. But Henry, despite a violent and capricious temper, had a strong taste for the work of a legislator and administrator. He devoted infinite pains and thought to the reform of government both in England and Normandy. The legislation of his reign was probably in great part of his own contriving. His supervision of the law courts was close and jealous; he transacted a great amount of judicial business in his own person, even after he had formed a high court of justice which might sit without his personal presence. To these activities he devoted his scanty intervals of leisure. His govern- ment was stern; he over-rode the privileges of the baronage without regard to precedent; he persisted in keeping large districts under the arbitrary and vexatious jurisdiction of the forest-courts. But it is the general opinion of historians that he had a high sense of his responsibilities and a strong love of justice; despite the looseness of his personal morals, he com- manded the affection and respect of Gilbert Foliot and Hugh of Lincoln, the most upright of the English bishops. ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES. — Henry's laws are printed in W. Stubb's Select Charters (Oxford, 1895). The chief chroniclers of his reign are William of Newburgh, Ralph de Diceto, the so-called Benedict of Peterborough, Roger of Hoveden, Robert de Torigni (or de Monte), Jordan Fantosme, Giraldus Cambrensis, Gervase of Canterbury; all printed in the Rolls Series. The biographies and letters contained in the 7 vols. of Materials for the History of Thomas Becket (ed. J. C. Robertson, Rolls Series, 1875-1885) are valuable for the early and middle part of the reign. For Irish affairs the Song of Dermot (ed. Orpen, Oxford, 1892), for the rebellions of the princes the metrical Histoire de Guillaume le Marechal (ed. Paul Meyer, 3 vols., Paris, 1891, &c.) are of importance. Henry's legal and administrative reforms are illustrated by the Tractatus de legibus attributed to Ranulph Glanville, his chief justiciar (ed. G. Phillips, Berlin, 1828); by the Dialogus de scaccario of Richard fitz Nigel (Oxford, 1902) ; the Pipe Rotts, printed by 1. Hunter for the Record Commission (1844) and by the Pipe-Roll Society (London, 1884, &c.) supply valuable details. The works of John of Salisbury (ed. Giles, 1848), Peter of Blois (ed. Migne), Walter Map (Camden Society, 1841, 1850) and the letters of Gilbert Foliot (ed. J. A. Giles, Oxford, 1845) are useful for the social and Church history of the reign. MODERN AUTHORITIES. — R. W. Eyton, Itinerary of Henry II. (London, 1878); W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. i. (Oxford, 1893), Lectures on Medieval and Modern History (Oxford, 1886) and Early Plantagenets (London, 1876); the same author's introduction to the Rolls editions of " Benedict," Gervase, Diceto, Hoveden; Mrs J. R. Green, Henry II. (London, 1888); Miss K. Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings (2 vols., London, 1887); Sir J. H. Ramsay's The Angtvin Empire (London, 1893); H. W. C. Davis's England under the Normans and Angevins (London, 1905); Sir F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, History of English Law (2 vols., Cam- bridge, 1898) ; and F. Hardegen, Imperialpolitik Konig Heinrichs II. von England (Heidelberg, 1905). (H. W. C. D.) HENRY III. (1207-1272), king of England, was the eldest son of King John by Isabella of Angouleme. Born on the ist of October 1207, the prince was but nine years old at the time of his father's death. The greater part of eastern England being in the hands of the French pretender, Prince Louis, afterwards King Louis VIII., and the rebel barons, Henry was crowned by his supporters at Gloucester, the western capital. John had committed his son to the protection of the Holy See; and a share in the government was accordingly allowed to the papal legates, Gualo and Pandulf, both during the civil war and for some time afterwards. But the title of regent was given by the loyal barons to William Marshal, the aged earl of Pembroke; and Peter des Roches, the Poitevin bishop of Winchester, received the charge of the king's person. The cause of the young Henry was fully vindicated by the close of the year 1217. Defeated both by land and sea, the French prince renounced his pretensions and evacuated England, leaving the regency to deal with the more difficult questions raised by the lawless insolence of the royal partisans. Henry remained a passive spectator of the measures by which William Marshal (d. 1219), and his successor, the justiciar Hubert de Burgh, asserted the royal prerogative against native barons and foreign mercenaries. In 1223 Honorius III. declared the king of age, but this was a mere formality, intended to justify the resumption of the royal castles and demesnes which had passed into private hands during the commotions of the civil war. The personal rule of Henry III. began in 1227, when he was again proclaimed of age. Even then he remained for some time under the influence of Hubert de Burgh, whose chief rival, Peter des Roches, found it expedient to quit the kingdom for four years. But Henry was ambitions to recover the continental HENRY IV. 283 possessions which his father had lost. Against the wishes of the justiciar he planned and carried out an expedition, to the west of France (1230); when it failed he laid the blame upon his minister. Other differences arose soon afterwards. Hubert was accused, with some reason, of enriching himself at the ex- pense of the crown, and of encouraging popular riots against the alien clerks for whom the papacy was providing at the expense of the English Church. He was disgraced in 1232; and power passed for a time into the hands of Peter des Roches, who filled the administration with Poitevins. So began the period of misrule by which Henry III. is chiefly remembered in history. The Poitevins fell in 1234; they were removed at the demand of the barons and the primate Edmund Rich, who held them responsible for the tragic fate of the rebellious Richard Marshal. But the king replaced them with a new clique of servile and rapacious favourites. Disregarding the wishes of the Great Council, and excluding all the more important of the barons and bishops from office, he acted as his own chief minister and never condescended to justify his policy except when he stood in need of subsidies. When these were refused, he extorted aids from the towns, the Jews or the clergy, the three most defenceless interests in the kingdom. Always in pecuniary straits through his extravagance, he pursued a foreign policy which would have been expensive under the most careful management. He hoped not only to regain the French possessions but to establish members of his own family as sovereigns in Italy and the Empire. These plans were artfully fostered by the Savoyard kinsmen of Eleanor, daughter of Raymond Berenger, count of Provence, whom he married at Canterbury in January 1236, and by his half-brothers, the sons of Queen Isabella and Hugo, count of la Marche. These favourites, not content with pushing their fortunes in the English court, encouraged the king in the wildest designs. In 1242 he led an expedition to Gascony which ter- minated disastrously with the defeat of Taillebourg; and hostilities with France were intermittently continued for seven- teen years. The Savoyards encouraged his natural tendency to support the Papacy against the Empire; at an early date in the period of misrule he entered into a close alliance with Rome, which resulted in heavy taxation of the clergy and gave great umbrage to the barons. A cardinal-legate was sent to England at Henry's request, and during four years (1237-1241) admini- stered the English Church in a manner equally profitable to the king and to the pope. After the recall of the legate Otho the alliance was less open and less cordial. Still the pope continued to share the spoils of the English clergy with the king, and the king to enforce the demands of Roman tax-collectors. Circumstances favoured Henry's schemes. Archbishop Edmund Rich was timid and inexperienced; his successor, Boniface of Savoy, was a kinsman of the queen; Grosseteste, the most eminent of the bishops, died in 1253, when he was on the point of becoming a, popular hero. Among the lay barons, the first place naturally belonged to Richard of Cornwall who, as the king's brother, was unwilling to take any steps which might impair the royal prerogative; while Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, the ablest man of his order, was regarded with suspicion as a foreigner, and linked to Henry's cause by his marriage with the princess Eleanor. Although the Great Council repeatedly protested against the king's misrule and extravagance, their remonstrances came to nothing for want of leaders and a clear-cut policy. But between 1248 and 1252 Henry alienated Montfort from his cause by taking the side of the Gascons, whom the earl had provoked to rebellion through his rigorous administration of their duchy. A little later, when Montfort was committed to opposition, Henry foolishly accepted from Innocent IV. the crown of Sicily for his second son Edmund Crouchback (1255). Sicily was to be conquered from the Hohenstaufen at the expense of England; and Henry pledged his credit to the papacy for enormous subsidies, although years of comparative inactivity had already overwhelmed him with debts. On the publication of the ill-considered bargain the baronage at length took vigorous action. They forced upon the king the Provisions of Oxford (1258), which placed the govern- ment in the hands of a feudal oligarchy; they reduced expendi- ture, expelled the alien favourites from the kingdom, and insisted upon a final renunciation of the French claims. The king submitted for the moment, but at the first opportunity endeavoured to cancel his concessions. He obtained a papal absolution from his promises; and he tricked the opposition into accepting the arbitration of the French king, Louis IX., whose verdict was a foregone conclusion. But Henry was incapable of protecting with the strong hand the rights which he had recovered by his double-dealing. Ignominiously defeated by Montfort at Lewes (1264) he fell into the position of a cipher, equally despised by his opponents and supporters. He acquiesced in the earl's dictatorship; left to his eldest son, Edward, the difficult task of reorganizing the royal party; marched with the Montfortians to Evesham; and narrowly escaped sharing the fate of his gaoler. After Evesham he is hardly mentioned by the chroniclers. The compromise with the surviving rebels was arranged by his son in concert with Richard of Cornwall and the legate Ottobuono; the statute of Marlborough (1267), which purchased a lasting peace by judicious concessions, was similarly arranged between Edward and the earl of Gloucester. Edward was king in all but name for some years before the death of his father, by whom he was alternately suspected and adored. Henry had in him some of the elements of a fine character. His mind was cultivated; he was a discriminating patron of literature, and Westminster Abbey is an abiding memorial of his artistic taste. His personal morality was irreproachable, except that he inherited the Plantagenet taste for crooked courses and dissimulation in political affairs; even in this respect the king's reputation has suffered unduly at the hands of Matthew Paris, whose literary skill is only equalled by his malice. The ambitions which Henry cherished, if extravagant, were never sordid; his patriotism, though seldom attested by practical measures, was tEoroughly sincere. Some of his worst actions as a politician were due to a sincere, though exaggerated, gratitude for the support which the Papacy had given him during his minority. But he had neither the training nor the temper of a statesman. His dreams of autocracy at home and far- reaching dominion abroad were anachronisms in a century of constitutional ideas and national differentiation. Above all he earned the contempt of Englishmen and foreigners alike by the instability of his purpose. Matthew Paris said that he had a heart of wax; Dante relegated him to the limbo of ineffectual souls; and later generations have endorsed these scathing judgments. Henry died at Westminster on the i6th of November 1272; his widow, Eleanor, took the veil in 1276 and died at Amesbury on the 25th of June 1291. Their children were: the future king Edward I.; Edmund, earl of Lancaster; Margaret (1240-1275), the wife of Alexander III., king of Scotland; Beatrice; and Katherine. ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES. — Roger of Wendover, Flares historiarum (ed. H. O. Coxe, 4 vols., 1841-1844) ; and Matthew of Paris, Chronica majora (cd. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 7 vols., 1872-1883) are the chief narrative sources. See also the Annales monastici (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 5 vols., 1864-1869); the collection of Royal and other Historical Letters edited by W. Shirley (Rolls Series, 2 vols., 1862-1866) ; the Close and Patent Rolls edited for the Record Com- mission and the Master of the Rolls; the Epistolae Roberti Grosse- teste (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 1861); the Monumenta Francis- cana, vol. i. (ed. J. S. Brewer, Rolls Series, 1858); the documents in the new Foedera, vol. i. (Record Commission, 1816). MODERN WORKS. — G. J. Turner's article on the king's minority in Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, New Series, vol. xyiii. ; Dom Gasquet s Henry III. and the Church (1905) ; the lives of Simon de Montfort by G. W. Prothero (1871), R. Pauli (Eng. ed., 1876) and C. B6mont (Paris, 1884); W. Stubbs's Constitutional History of England, vol. ii. (1887) ; R. Pauli's Geschichte von England, vol. iii. (Hamburg, 1853) ; T. F. Tout in the Political History of England, vol. iii. (1905), and H. W. C. Davis in England under the Normans and Angevins (1905). (H. W. C. D.) HENRY IV. (1367-1413), king of England, son of John of Gaunt, by Blanche, daughter of Henry, duke of Lancaster, was born on the 3rd of April 1367, at Bolingbroke in Lincolnshire. As early as 1377 he is styled earl of Derby, and in 1380 he married 284 HENRY V. Mary de Bohun (d. 1394) one of the co-heiresses of the last earl of Hereford. In 1387 he supported his uncle Thomas, duke of Gloucester, in his armed opposition to Richard II. and his favourites. Afterwards, probably through his father's influence, he changed sides. He was already distinguished for his knightly prowess, and for some years devoted himself to adventure. He thought of going on the crusade to Barbary; but instead, in July 1390, went to serve with the Teutonic knights in Lithuania. He came home in the following spring, but next year went again to Prussia, whence he journeyed by way of Venice to Cyprus and Jerusalem. After his return to England he sided with his father and the king against Gloucester, and in 1397 was made duke of Hereford. In January 1398 he quarrelled with the duke of Norfolk, who charged him with treason. The dispute was to have been decided in the lists at Coventry in September; but at the last moment Richard intervened and banished them both. When John of Gaunt died in February 1399 Richard, contrary to his promise, confiscated the estates of Lancaster. Henry then felt himself free, and made friends with the exiled Arundels. Early in July, whilst Richard was absent in Ireland, he landed at Ravenspur in Yorkshire. He was at once joined by the Percies; and Richard, abandoned by his friends, surrendered at Flint on the igth of August. In the parliament, which assembled on the 3oth of September, Richard was forced to abdicate. Henry then made his claim as coming by right line of blood from King Henry III., and through his right to recover the realm which was in point to be undone for default of govern- ance and good law. Parliament formally accepted him, and thus Henry became king, " not so much by title of blood as by popular election" (Capgrave). The new dynasty had consequently a constitutional basis. With this Henry's own political sympathies well accorded. But though the revolution of 1399 was popular in form, its success was due to an oligarchical faction. From the start Henry was embarrassed by the power and pretensions of the Percies. Nor was his hereditary title so good as that of the Mortimers. To domestic troubles was added the complication of disputes with Scotland and France. The first danger came from the friends of Richard, who plotted prematurely, and were crushed in January 1400. During the summer of 1400 Henry made a not over-successful expedition to Scotland. The French court would not accept his overtures, and it was only in the summer of 1401 that a truce was patched up by the restoration of Richard's child-queen, Isabella of Valois. Meantime a more serious trouble had arisen through the outbreak of the Welsh revolt under Owen Glendower (q.v.). In 1400 and again in each of the two following autumns Henry invaded Wales in vain. The success of the Percies over the Scots at Homildon Hill (Sept. 1402) was no advantage. Henry Percy (Hotspur) and his father, the earl of Northumberland, thought their services ill-requited, and finally made common cause with the partisans of Mortimer and the Welsh. The plot was frustrated by Hotspur's defeat at Shrewsbury (2ist of July 1403); and Northumberland for the time submitted. Henry had, however, no one on whom he could rely outside his own family, except Archbishop Arundel. The Welsh were unsubdued; the French were plundering the southern coast; Northumberland was fomenting trouble in the north. The crisis came in 1405. A plot to carry off the young Mortimers was defeated; but Mowbray, the earl marshal, who had been privy to it, raised a rebellion in the north supported by Archbishop Scrope of York. Mowbray an,d Scrope were taken and beheaded; Northumberland escaped into Scotland. For the execution of the archbishop Henry was personally responsible, and he could never free himself from its odium. Popular belief regarded his subsequent illness as a judgment for his impiety. Apart from ill-health and unpopularity Henry had succeeded — relations with Scotland were secured by the capture of James, the heir to the crown; Northumberland was at last crushed at Bramham Moor (Feb. 1408) ; and a little later the Welsh revolt was mastered. Henry, stricken with sore disease, was unable to reap the advantage. His necessities had all along enabled the Commons to extort concessions in parliament, until in 1406 he was forced to nominate a council and govern by its advice. However, with Archbishop Arundel as his chancellor, Henry still controlled the government. But in January 1410 Arundel had to give way to the king's half-brother, Thomas Beaufort. Beaufort and his brother Henry, bishop of Winchester, were opposed to Arundel and supported by the prince of Wales. For two years the real government rested with the prince and the council. Under the prince's influence the English intervened in France in 1411 on the side of Burgundy. In this, and in some matters of home politics, the king disagreed with his ministers. There is good reason to suppose that the Beauforts had gone so far as to con- template a forced abdication on the score of the king's ill-health. However, in November 1411 Henry showed that he was still capable of vigorous action by discharging the prince and his sup- porters. Arundel again became chancellor, and the king's second son, Thomas, took his brother's place. The change was further marked by the sending of an expedition to France in support of Orleans. But Henry's health was failing steadily. On the 2oth of March 1413, whilst praying in Westminster Abbey he was seized with a fainting fit, and died that same evening in the Jerusalem Chamber. At the time he was believed to have been a leper, but as it would appear without sufficient reason. As a young man Henry had been chivalrous and adventurous, and in politics anxious for good government and justice. As king the loss and failure of friends made him cautious, suspicious and cruel. The persecution of the Lollards, which began with the burning statute of 1401, may be accounted for by Henry's own orthodoxy, or by the influence of Archbishop Arundel, his one faithful friend. But that political Lollardry was strong is shown by the proposal in the parliament of 1410 for a wholesale confiscation of ecclesiastical property. Henry's faults may be excused by his difficulties. Throughout he was practical and steadfast, and he deserved credit for maintaining his principles as a constitutional ruler. So after all his troubles he founded his dynasty firmly, and passed on the crown to his son with a better title. He is buried under a fine tomb at Canterbury. By Mary Bohun Henry had four sons: his successor Henry V., Thomas, duke of Clarence, John, duke of Bedford, and Humphrey, duke of Gloucester; and two daughters, Blanche, who married Louis III., elector palatine of the Rhine, and Philippa, who married Eric XIII., king of Sweden. Henry's second wife was Joan, or Joanna, (c. 1370-1437), daughter of Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, and widow of John IV. or V., duke of Brittany, who survived until July 1437. By her he had no children. The chief contemporary authorities are the Annales Henrici Quarti and T. Walsingham's Historia Anglicar.a (Rolls Series), Adam of Usk's Chronicle and the various Chronicles of London. The life by John Capgrave (De illuslribus Henricis) is of little value. Some personal matter is contained in Wardrobe Accounts of Henry, Earl of Derby (Camden Soc.). For documents consult T. Rymer's Foedera; Sir N. H. Nicolas, Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council; Sir H. Ellis, Original Letters illustrative of English History (London, 1825-1846); Rolls of Parliament; Royal and Historical Letters, Henry IV. (Rolls Series) and the Calendars of Patent Rolls. Of modern authorities the foremost is J. H. Wylie's minute and learned Hist, of England under Henry IV. (4 vols., London, 1884-1898). See also W. Stubbs, Constitutional History; Sir J. Ramsay, Lancaster and York (2 vols., Oxford, 1892), and C. W. C. Oman, The Political History of England, vol. iv. (C. L. K.) HENRY V. (1387-1422), king of England, son of Henry IV. by Mary de Bohun, was born at Monmouth, in August 1387. On his father's exile in 1398 Richard II. took the boy into his own charge, and treated him kindly. Next year the Lancastrian revolution forced Henry into precocious prominence as heir to the throne. From October 1400 the administration of Wales was conducted in his name; less than three years later he was in actual command of the English forces and fought against the Percies at Shrewsbury. The Welsh revolt absorbed his energies till 1408. Then through the king's ill-health he began to take a wider share in politics. From January 1410, helped by his uncles Henry and Thomas Beaufort, he had practical control of the government. Both in foreign and domestic policy he HENRY VI. 285 differed from the king, who in November 1411 discharged the prince from the council. The quarrel of father and son was political only, though it is probable that the Beauforts had discussed the abdication of Henry IV., and their opponents certainly endeavoured to defame the prince. It may be that to political enmity the tradition of Henry's riotous youth, immortal- ized by Shakespeare, is partly due. To that tradition Henry's strenuous life in war and politics is a sufficient general contradic- tion. The most famous incident, his quarrel with the chief- justice, has no contemporary authority and was first related by Sir Thomas Elyot in 1 5.3 1 . The story of Falstaff originated partly in Henry's early friendship for Oldcastle (q.v.). That friendship, and the prince's political opposition to Archbishop Arundel, perhaps encouraged Lollard hopes. If so, their disappointment may account for the statements of ecclesiastical writers, like Walsingham, that Henry on becoming king was changed suddenly into a new man. Henry succeeded his father on the 2oth of March 1413. With no past to embarrass him, and with no dangerous rivals, his practical experience had full scope. He had to deal with three main problems — the restoration of domestic peace, the healing of schism in the Church and the recovery of English prestige in Europe. Henry grasped them all together, and gradually built upon them a yet wider policy. From the first he made it clear that he would rule England as the head of a united nation, and that past differences were to be forgotten. Richard II. was honourably reinterred; the young Mortimer was taken into favour; the heirs of those who had suffered in the last reign were restored gradually to their titles and estates. With Old- castle Henry used his personal influence in vain, and the gravest domestic danger was Lollard discontent. But the king's firmness nipped the movement in the bud (Jan. 1414), and made his own position as ruler secure. Save for the abortive Scrope and Cambridge plot in favour of Mortimer in July 1415, the rest of his reign was free from serious trouble at home. Henry could now turn his attention to foreign affairs. A writer of the next generation was the first to allege that Henry was encouraged by ecclesiastical statesmen to enter on the French war as a means of diverting attention from home troubles. For this story there is no foundation. The restoration of domestic peace was the king's first care, and until it was assured he could not embark on any wider enterprise abroad. Nor was that enterprise one of idle conquest. Old commercial disputes and the support which the French had lent to Glendower gave a sufficient excuse for war, whilst the disordered state of France afforded no security for peace. Henry may have regarded the assertion of his own claims as part of his kingly duty, but in any case a permanent settlement of the national quarrel was essential to the success of his world policy. The campaign of 1415, with its brilliant conclusion at Agincourt (October 25), was only the first step. Two years of patient preparation followed. The command of the sea was secured by driving the Genoese allies of the French out of the Channel. A successful diplomacy detached the emperor Sigismund from France, and by the Treaty of Canterbury paved the way to end the schism in the Church. So in 1417 the war was renewed on a larger scale. Lower Normandy was quickly conquered, Rouen cut off from Paris and besieged. The French were paralysed by the disputes of Burgundians and Armagnacs. Henry skilfully played them off one against the other, without relaxing his warlike energy. In January 1419 Rouen fell. By August the English were outside the wallsof Paris. Theintrigues of the French parties culminated in the assassination of John of Burgundy by the dauphin's partisans at Montereau (Septem- ber 10, 1419). Philip, the new duke, and the French court threw themselves into Henry's arms. After six months' negotia- tion Henry was by the Treaty of Troyes recognized as heir and regent of France, and on the and of June 1420 married Catherine, the king's daughter. He was now at the height of his power. His eventual success in France seemed certain. He shared with Sigismund the credit of having ended the Great Schism by obtain- ing the election of Pope Martin V. All the states of western Europe were being brought within the web of his diplomacy. The headship of Christendom was in his grasp, and schemes for a new crusade began to take shape. He actually sent an envoy to collect information in the East; but his plans were cut short by death. A visit to England in 1421 was interrupted by the defeat of Clarence at Bauge. The hardships of the longer winter siege of Meaux broke down his health, and he died at Bois de Vincennes on the 3ist of August 1422. Henry's last words were a wish that he might live to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem. They are significant. His ideal was founded consciously on the models of Arthur and Godfrey as national king and leader of Christendom. So he is the typical medieval hero. For that very reason his schemes were doomed to end in disaster, since the time was come for a new departure. Yet he was not reactionary. His policy was constructive: a firm central government supported by parliament; church reform on conservative lines; commercial development; and the mainten- ance of national prestige. His aims in some respects anticipated those of his Tudor successors, but he would have accomplished them on medieval lines as a constitutional ruler. His success was due to the power of his personality. He could train able lieu- tenants, but at his death there was no one who could take his place as leader. War, diplomacy and civil administration were all dependent on his guidance. His dazzling achievements as a general have obscured his more sober qualities as a ruler, and even the sound strategy, with which he aimed to be master of the narrow seas. If he was not the founder of theEnglish navy he was one of the first to realize its true importance. Henry had so high a sense of his own rights that he was merciless to disloyalty. But he was scrupulous of the rights of others, and it was his eager desire to further the cause of justice that impressed his French contemporaries. He has been charged with cruelty as a religious persecutor; but in fact he had as prince opposed the harsh policy of Archbishop Arundel, and as king sanctioned a more moderate course. Lollard executions during his reign had more often a political than a religious reason. To be just with sternness was in his eyes a duty. So in his warfare, though he kept strict discipline and allowed no wanton violence, he treated severely all who had in his opinion transgressed. In his personal conduct he was chaste, temperate and sincerely pious. He delighted in sport and all manly exercises. At the same time he was cultured, with a taste for literature, art and music. Henry lies buried in Westminster Abbey. His tomb was stripped of its splendid adornment during the Reformation. The shield, helmet and saddle, which formed part of the original funeral equipment, still hang above it. Of original authorities the best on the English side is the Gesta Henrici Quinti (down to 1416), printed anonymously for the English Historical Society, but probably written by Thomas Elmham, one of Henry's chaplains. Two lives edited by Thomas Hearne under the names of Elmham and Titus Livius Forojuliensis come from a common source; the longer, which Hearne ascribed incorrectly to Elmham, is perhaps the original work of Livius, who was an Italian in the service of Humphrey of Gloucester, and wrote about 1440. Other authorities are the Chronicles of Walsingham and Otterbourne, the English Chronicle or Brut, and the various London Chronicles. On the French side the most valuable are Chronicles of Monstrelet and St Re'my (both Burgundian) and the Chronique du religieux de S. Denys (the official view of the French court). For documents and modern authorities see under HENRY IV. SeeajsoSirN. H. Nicolas, Hist, of the Battle of Agincourt and the Expedition of 1415 (London, 1833) ; C. L. Kingsford, Henry V., the Typical Medieval Hero (New York, 1901), where a fuller bibliography will be found. (C. L. K.) HENRY VI. (1421-1471), king of England, son of Henry V. and Catherine of Valois, was born at Windsor on the 6th of December 1421. He became king of England on the ist of September 1422, and a few weeks later, on the death of his grandfather Charles VI., was proclaimed king of France also. Henry V. had directed that Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (q.v.), should be his son's preceptor; Warwick took up his charge in 1428; he trained his pupil to be a good man and refined gentleman, but he could not teach him kingship. As early as 1423 the baby king was made to appear at public functions and take his place in parliament. He was knighted by his uncle Bedford at Leicester in May 1426, and on the 6th of November 1429 was crowned at Westminster. 286 HENRY VII. Early in the next year he was taken over to France, and after long delay crowned in Paris on the i6th of December 1431. His return to London on the I4th of February 1432 was celebrated with a great pageant devised by Lydgate. During these early years Bedford ruled France wisely and at first with success, but he could not prevent the mischief which Humphrey of Gloucester (q.v.) caused both at home and abroad. Even in France the English lost ground steadily after the victory of Joan of Arc before Orleans in 1429. The climax came with the death of Bedford, and defection of Philip of Burgundy in 1435. This closed the first phase of Henry's reign. There followed fifteen years of vain struggle in France, and growing disorder at home. The determining factor in politics was the conduct of the war. Cardinal Beaufort, and after him Suffolk, sought by work- ing for peace to secure at least Guienne and Normandy. Gloucester courted popularity by opposing them throughout; with him was Richard of York, who stood next in succession to the crown. Beaufort controlled the council, and it was under his guidance that the king began to take part in the government. Thus it was natural that as Henry grew to manhood he seconded heartily the peace policy. That policy was wise, but national pride made it unpopular and difficult. Henry himself had not the strength or knowledge to direct it, and was unfortunate in his advisers. The cardinal was old, his nephews John and Edmund Beaufort were incompetent, Suffolk, though a man of noble char- acter, was tactless. Suffolk, however, achieved a great success by negotiating the marriage of Henry to Margaret of Anjou (q.v.) in 1445. Humphrey of Gloucester and Cardinal Beaufort both died early in 1447. Suffolk was now all-powerful in the favour of the king and queen. But his home administration was unpopular, whilst the incapacity of Edmund Beaufort ended in the loss of all Normandy and Guienne. Suffolk's fall in 1450 left Richard of York the foremost man in England. Henry's reign then entered on its last phase of dynastic struggle. Cade's rebellion suggested first that popular discontent might result in a change of rulers. But York, as heir to the throne, could abide his time. The situa- tion was altered by the mental derangement of the king, and the birth of his son in 1453. York after a struggle secured the protectorship, and for the next year ruled England. Then Henry was restored to sanity, and the queen and Edmund Beaufort, now Duke of Somerset, to power. Open war followed, with the defeat and death of Somerset at St Albans on the 22nd of May 1455. Nevertheless a hollow peace was patched up, which con- tinued during four years with lack of all governance. In 1459 war broke out again. On the loth of July 1460 Henry was taken prisoner at Northampton, and forced to acknowledge York as heir, to the exclusion of his own son. Richard of York's death at Wakefield (Dec. 29, 1460), and the queen's victory at St Albans (Feb. 17, 14^1), brought Henry his freedom and no more. Edward of York had himself proclaimed king, and by his decisive victory at Towton on the 2gth of March, put an end to Henry's reign. For over three years Henry was a fugitive in Scotland. He returned to take part in an abortive rising in 1464. A year later he was captured in the north, and brought a prisoner to the Tower. For six months in 1470-1471 he emerged to hold a shadowy kirfgship as Warwick's puppet. Edward's final victory at Tewkesbury was followed by Henry's death on the 2ist of May 1471, certainly by violence, perhaps at the hands of Richard of Gloucester. Henry was the most hapless of monarchs. He was so honest and well-meaning that he might have made a good ruler in quiet times. But he was crushed by the burden of his inheritance. He had not the genius to find a way out of the French entangle- ment or the skill to steer a constitutional monarchy between rival factions. So the system and policy which were the creations of Henry IV. and Henry V. led under Henry VI. to the ruin of their dynasty. Henry's very virtues added to his difficulties. He was so trusting that any one could influence him, so faithful that he would not give up a minister who had become impossible. Thus even in the middle period he had no real control of the government. In his latter years he was mentally too weak for independent action. At his best he was a " good and gentle creature," but too kindly and generous to rule others. Religious observances and study were his chief occupations. His piety was genuine; simple and pure, he was shocked at any suggestion of impropriety, but his rebuke was only " Fie, for shame ! forsooth ye are to blame." For education he was really zealous. Even as a boy he was concerned for the upbringing of his half-brothers, his mother's children by Owen Tudor. Later, the planning of his great foundations at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, was the one thing which absorbed his interest. To both he was more than a royal founder, and the credit of the whole scheme belongs to him. The charter for Eton was granted on the nth of October 1440, and that for King's College in the following February. Henry himself laid the foundation-stones of both buildings. He frequently visited Cambridge to superintend the progress of the work. When at Windsor he loved to send for the boys from his school and give them good advice. Henry's only son was Edward, prince of Wales (1453-1471), who, having snared the many journeys and varying fortunes of his mother, Margaret, was killed after the battle of Tewkesbury (May 4, 1471) by some noblemen in attendance on Edward IV. There is a life of Henry by his chaplain John Blakman (printed at the end of Hearne's edition of Otterbourne) ; but it is concerned only with his piety and patience in adversity. English chronicles for the reign are scanty ; the best are the Chronicles of London (ed. C. L. Kingsford), with the analogous Gregory's Chronicle (ed. J. Gairdner for Camden Soc.) and Chronicle of London (ed. Sir H. N. Nicolas). The Paston Letters, with James Gairdner's valuable Introductions, are indispensable. Other useful authorities are Joseph Stevenson's Letters and Papers illustrative of the Wars of the English in France during the Reign of Henry VI. ; and Correspondence of T. Bekynton (both in " Rolls ' ' series) . For the French war the chief sources are the Chronicles of Monstrelet, D'Escouchy and T. Basin. For other documents and modern authorities see under HENRY IV. For Henry's foundations see Sir H. C. Maxwell-Lyte, History of Eton College (London, 1899), and J. B. Mullinger, History of the University of Cambridge (London, 1888). (C. L. K.) HENRY VII. (1457-1509), king of England, was the first of the Tudor dynasty. His claim to the throne was through his mother from John of Gaunt and Catherine Swynford, whose issue born before their marriage had been legitimated by parliament. This, of course, was only a Lancastrian claim, never valid, even as such, till the direct male line of John of Gaunt had become extinct. By his father the genealogists traced his pedigree to Cadwallader, but this only endeared him to the Welsh when he had actually become king. His grand- father, Owen Tudor, however, had married Catherine, the widow of Henry V. and daughter to Charles VI. of France. Their son Edmund, being half brother of Henry VI., was created by that king earl of Richmond, and having married Margaret Beaufort, only daughter of John, duke of Somerset, died more than two months before their only child, Henry, was born in Pembroke Castle in January 1457. The fatherless child had sore trials. Edward IV. won the crown when he was four years old, and while Wales partly held out against the conqueror, he was carried for safety from one castle to another. Then for a time he was made a prisoner; but ultimately he was taken abroad by his uncle Jasper, who found refuge in Brittany. At one time the duke of Brittany was nearly induced to surrender him to Edward IV.; but he remained safe in the duchy till the cruelties of Richard III. drove more and more Englishmen abroad to join him. An invasion of England was planned in 1483 in concert with the duke of Buckingham's rising; but stormy weather at sea and an inundation in the Severn defeated the two movements. A second expedition, two years later, aided this time by France, was more successful. Henry landed at Milford Haven among his Welsh allies and defeated Richard at the battle of Bosworth (August 22, 1485). He was crowned at Westminster on the 3oth of October following. Then, in fulfilment of pledges by which he had procured the adhesion of many Yorkist supporters, he was married at Westminster to Elizabeth (1465-1503), eldest daughter and heiress of Edward IV. (Jan. 18, 1486), whose two brothers had both been murdered by Richard III. Thus the Red and White Roses were united and the pretexts for civil war done away with. Nevertheless, Henry's reign was much disturbed by a succession HENRY VIII. 287 of Yorkist conspiracies and pretenders. Of the two most not- able impostors, the first, Lambert Simnel, personated the earl of Warwick, son of the duke of Clarence, a youth of seventeen whom Henry had at his accession taken care to imprison in the Tower. Simnel, who was but a boy, was taken over to Ireland to perform his part, and the farce was wonderfully successful. He was crowned as Edward VI. in Christchurch Cathedral, Dublin, and received the allegiance of every one — bishops, nobles and judges, alike with others. From Ireland, accom- panied by some bands of German mercenaries procured for him in the Low Countries, he invaded England; but the rising was put down at Stoke near Newark in Nottinghamshire, and, Simnel being captured, the king made him a menial of his kitchen. This movement had been greatly assisted by Margaret, duchess dowager of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., who could not endure to see the House of York supplanted by that of Tudor. The second pretender, Perkin Warbeck, was also much indebted to her support; but he seems to have entered on his career at first without it. And his story, which was more prolonged, had to do with the attitude of many countries towards England. Anxious as Henry was to avoid being involved in foreign wars, it was not many years before he was committed to a war with France, partly by his desire of an alliance with Spain, and partly by the indignation of his own subjects at the way in which the French were undermining the independence of Brittany. Henry gave Brittany defensive aid; but after the duchess Anne had married Charles VIII. of France, he felt bound to fulfil his obligations to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and also to the German king Maximilian, by an invasion of France in 1492. His allies, however, were not equally scrupulous or equally able to fulfil their obligations to him; and after besieging Boulogne for some little time, he received very advantageous offers from the French king and made peace with him. Now Perkin Warbeck had first appeared in Ireland in 1491, and had somehow been persuaded there to personate Richard, duke of York, the younger of the two princes murdered in the Tower, pretending that he had escaped, though his brother had been killed. Charles VIII., then expecting war with England, called him to France, recognized his pretensions and gave him a retinue; but after the peace he dismissed him. Then Margaret of Burgundy received him as her nephew, and Maxi- milian, now estranged from Henry, recognized him as king of England. With a fleet given him by Maximilian he attempted to land at Deal, but sailed away to Ireland and, not succeeding very well there either, sailed farther to Scotland, where James IV. received him with open arms, married him to an earl's daughter and made a brief and futile invasion of England along with him. But in 1497 ne thought best to dismiss him, and Perkin, after attempting something again in Ireland, landed in Cornwall with a small body of men. Already Cornwall had risen in insurrection that year, not liking the taxation imposed for the purpose of repelling the Scotch invasion. A host of the country people, led first by a blacksmith, but afterwards by a nobleman, marched up towards London and were only defeated at Blackheath. But the Cornish- men were quite ready for another revolt, and indeed had invited Perkin to their shores. He had little fight in him, however, and after a futile siege of Exeter and an advance to Taunton he stole away and took sanctuary at Beaulieu in Hampshire. But, being assured of his life, he surrendered, was brought to London, and was only executed two years later, when, being imprisoned near the earl of Warwick in the Tower, he inveigled that simple-minded youth into a project of escape. For this Warwick, too, was tried, condemned and executed — no doubt to deliver Henry from repeated conspiracies in his favour. Henry had by this time several children, of whom the eldest, Arthur, had been proposed in infancy for a bridegroom to Catherine, daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon. The match had always been kept in view, but its completion depended greatly on the assurance Ferdinand and Isabella could feel of Henry's secure position upon the throne. At last Catherine was brought to England and was married to Prince Arthur at St Paul's on the i4th of November 1501. The lad was just over fifteen and the co-habitation of the couple was wisely delayed; but he died on the 2nd of April following. Another match was presently proposed for Catherine with the king's second son, Henry, which only took effect when the latter had become king himself. Mean- while Henry's eldest daughter Margaret was married to James IV. of Scotland — a match distinctly intended to promote inter- national peace, and make possible that ultimate union which actually resulted from it. The espousals had taken place at Richmond in 1502, and the marriage was celebrated in Scotland the year after. In the interval between these two events Henry lost his queen, who died on the nth of February 1503, and during the remainder of his reign he made proposals in various quarters for a second marriage — proposals in which political objects were always the chief consideration; but none of them led to any result. In his latter years he became unpopular from the extortions practised by his two instruments, Empson and Dudley, under the authority of antiquated statutes. From the beginning of his reign he had been accumulating money, mainly for his own security against intrigues and conspiracies, and avarice had grown upon him with success. He died in April 1509, undoubtedly the richest prince in Christendom. He was not a niggard, however, in his expenditure. Before his death he had finished the hospital of the Savoy and made provision for the magnificent chapel at Westminster which bears his name. His money-getting was but part of his statesmanship, and for his statesmanship his country owes him not a little gratitude. He not only terminated a disastrous civil war and brought under control the spirit of ancient feudalism, but with a clear survey of the conditions of foreign powers he secured England in almost uninterrupted peace while he developed her commerce, strengthened her slender navy and built, apparently for the first time, a naval dock at Portsmouth. In addition to his sons Arthur and Henry, Henry VII. had several daughters, one of whom, Margaret, married James IV., king of Scotland, and another,'Mary, became the wife of Louis XII. of France, and afterwards of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk. The popular view of Henry VII. 's reign has always been derived from Bacon's History of that king. This has been edited by J. R. Lumby (Cambridge, 1881). But during the last half century large accessions to our knowledge have been made from foreign and domestic archives, and the sources of Bacon's work have been more critically examined. For a complete account of those sources the reader may be referred to W. Busch's England under the Tudors, published in German in 1892 and in an English translation in 1895. Some further information of a special kind will be found in M. Oppenheim's Naval Accounts and Inventories, published by the Navy Records Society in 1896. See also J. Gairdner's Henry VII. (1889). (J. GA.) HENRY VIII. (1491-1547), king of England and Ireland, the third child and second son of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of York, was born on the 28th of June 1491 and, like all the Tudor sovereigns except Henry VII., at Greenwich. His two brothers, Prince Arthur and Edmund, duke of Somerset, and two of his sisters predeceased their father; Henry was the only son, and Margaret, afterwards queen of Scotland, and Mary, after- wards queen of France and duchess of Suffolk, were the only daughters who survived. Henry is said, on authority which has not been traced farther back than Paolo Sarpi, to have been destined for the church; but the story is probably a mere surmise from his theological accomplishments, and from his earliest years high secular posts such as the viceroyalty of Ireland were conferred upon the child. He was the first English monarch to be educated under the influence of the Renaissance, and his tutors included the poet Skelton; he became an accomplished scholar, linguist, musician and athlete, and when by the death of his brother Arthur in 1502 and of his father on the 22nd of April 1509 Henry VIII. succeeded to the throne, his accession was hailed with universal acclamation. He had been betrothed to his brother's widow Catherine of Aragon, and in spite of the protest which he had been made to register against the marriage, and of the doubts expressed by Julius II. and Archbishop Warham as to its validity, it was 288 HENRY VIII. completed in the first few months of his reign. This step was largely due to the pressure brought to bear by Catherine's father Ferdinand upon Henry's council; he regarded England as a tool in his hands and Catherine as his resident ambassador. The young king himself at first took little interest in politics, and for two years affairs were managed by the pacific Richard Fox (q.v.) and Warham. Then Wolsey became supreme, while Henry was immersed in the pursuit of sport and other amusements. He took, however, the keenest interest from the first in learning and in the navy, and his inborn pride easily led him to support Wolsey's and Ferdinand's war-like designs on France. He followed an English army across the Channel in 1513, and personally took part in the successful sieges of Therouanne and Tournay and the battle of Guinegate which led to the peace of 1514. Ferdinand, however, deserted the English alliance, and amid the consequent irritation against everything Spanish, there was talk of a divorce between Henry and Catherine (1514), whose issue had hitherto been attended with fatal misfortune. But the renewed antagonism between England and France which followed the accession of Francis I. (1515) led to a rapprochement with Ferdinand; the birth of the lady Mary (1516) held out hopes of the male issue which Henry so much desired ; and the question of a divorce was postponed. Ferdinand died in that year (1516) and the emperor Maximilian in 1519. Their grandson Charles V. succeeded them both in all their realms and dignities in spite of Henry's hardly serious candidature for the empire; and a lifelong rivalry broke out between him and Francis I. Wolsey used this antagonism to make England arbiter between them; and both monarchs sought England's favour in 1520, Francis at the Field of Cloth of Gold and Charles V. more quietly in Kent. At the conference of Calais in 1521 English influence reached its zenith; but the alliance with Charles destroyed the balance on which that influence depended. Francis was overweighted, and his defeat at Pa via in 1525 made the emperor supreme. Feeble efforts to challenge his power in Italy provoked the sack of Rome in 1527; and the peace of Cambrai in 1529 was made without any reference to Wolsey or England's interests. Meanwhile Henry had been developing a serious interest in politics, and he could brook no superior in whatever sphere he wished to shine. He began to adopt a more critical attitude towards Wolsey's policy, foreign and domestic; and to give ear to the murmurs against the cardinal and his ecclesiastical rule. Parliament had been kept at arm's length since 1515 lest it should attack the church; but Wolsey's expensive foreign policy rendered recourse to parliamentary subsidies indispensable. When it met in 1523 it refused Wolsey's demands, and forced loans were the result which increased the cardinal's unpopularity. Nor did success abroad now blunt the edge of domestic discontent. His fate, however, was sealed by his failure to obtain a divorce for Henry from the papal court. The king's hopes of male issue had been disappointed, and by 1526 it was fairly certain that Henry could have no male heir to the throne while Catherine remained his wife. There was Mary, but no queen regnant had yet ruled in England; Margaret Beaufort had been passed over in favour of her son in 1485, and there was a popular impression that women were excluded from the throne. No candidate living could have secured the succession without a recurrence of civil war. Moreover the unexampled fatality which had attended Henry's issue revived the theological scruples which had always existed about the marriage;, and the breach with Charles V. in 1527 provoked a renewal of the design of 1514. All these considerations were magnified by Henry's passion for Anne Boleyn, though she certainly was not the sole or the main cause of the divorce. That the succession was the main point is proved by the fact that Henry's efforts were all directed to securing a wife and not a mistress. Wolsey persuaded him that the necessary divorce could be obtained from Rome, as it had been in the case of Louis XII. of France and Margaret of Scotland. For a time Clement VII. was inclined to concede the demand, and Campeggio in 1528 was given ample powers. But the prospect of French success in Italy which had encouraged the pope proved delusive, and in 1529 he had to submit to the yoke of Charles V. This involved a rejection of Henry's suit, not because Charles cared anything for his aunt, but because a divorce would mean disinheriting Charles's cousin Mary, and perhaps the eventual succession of the son of a French princess to the English throne. Wolsey fell when Campeggio was recalled, and his fall involved the triumph of the anti-ecclesiastical party in England. Lay- men who had resented their exclusion from power were now promoted to offices such as those of lord chancellor and lord privy seal which they had rarely held before; and parliament was encouraged to propound lay grievances against the church. On the support of the laity Henry relied to abolish papal jurisdic- tion and reduce clerical privilege and property in England; and by a close alliance with Francis I. he insured himself against the enmity of Charles V. But it was only gradually that the breach was completed with Rome. Henry had defended the papacy against Luther in 1521 and had received in return the title " defender of the faith." He never liked Protestantism, and he was prepared for peace with Rome on his own terms. Those terms were impossible of acceptance by a pope in Clement VII. 's position; but before Clement had made up his mind to reject them, Henry had discovered that the papacy was hardly worth conciliating. His eyes were opened to the extent of his own power as the exponent of national antipathy to papal jurisdiction and ecclesiastical privilege; and his appetite for power grew. With Cromwell's help he secured parliamentary support, and its usefulness led him to extend parliamentary re- presentation to Wales and Calais, to defend the privileges of Parliament, and to yield rather than forfeit its con- fidence. He had little difficulty in securing the Acts of Annates, Appeals and Supremacy which completed the separation from Rome, or the dissolution of the monasteries which, by transferring enormous wealth from the church to the crown, really, in Cecil's opinion, ensured the reformation. The abolition of the papal jurisdiction removed all obstacles to the divorce from Catherine and to the legalization of Henry's marriage with Anne Boleyn (1533). But the recognition of the royal supremacy could only be enforced at the cost of the heads of Sir Thomas More, Bishop Fisher and a number of monks and others among whom the Carthusians signalized themselves by their devotion (1535-1536). Anne Boleyn fared no better than the Catholic martyrs; she failed to produce a male heir to the throne, and her conduct afforded a jury of peers, over which her uncle, the duke of Norfolk, presided, sufficient excuse for condemning her to death on a charge of adultery (1536). Henry then married Jane Seymour, who was obnoxious to no one, gave birth to Edward VI., and then died (1537). The dissolution of the monasteries had meanwhile evoked a popular protest in the north, and it was only by skilful and unscrupulous diplomacy that Henry was enabled to suppress so easily the Pilgrimage of Grace. Foreign intervention was avoided through the renewal of war between Francis and Charles; and the insurgents were hampered by having no rival candidate for the throne and no means of securing the execution of their programme. Nevertheless their rising warned Henry against further doctrinal change. He had authorized the English Bible and some approach towards Protestant doctrine in the Ten Articles. He also considered the possibility of a political and theological alliance with the Lutheran princes of Germany. But in 1538 he definitely rejected their theological terms, while in 1530-1540 they rejected his political proposals. By the statute of Six Articles (1539) he took his stand on Catholic doctrine; and when the Lutherans had rejected his alliance, and Cromwell's nominee, Anne of Cleves, had proved both distasteful on personal grounds and unnecessary because Charles and Francis were not really projecting a Catholic crusade against England, Anne was divorced and Cromwell beheaded. The new queen Catherine Howard represented the triumph of the reactionary party under Gardiner and Norfolk; but there was no idea of returning to the papal obedience, and even Catholic orthodoxy as represented HENRY VIII. 289 by the Six Articles was only enforced by spasmodic outbursts of persecution and vain attempts to get rid of Cranmer. The secular importance of Henry's activity has been somewhat obscured by his achievements in the sphere of ecclesiastical politics; but no small part of his energies was devoted to the task of expanding the royal authority at the expense of temporal competitors. Feudalism was not yet dead, and in the north and west there were medieval franchises in which the royal writ and common law hardly ran at all. Wales and its marches were brought into legal union with the rest of England by the statutes of Wales (1534-1536); and after the Pilgrimage of Grace the Council of the North was set up to bring into subjection the extensive jurisdictions of the northern earls. Neither they nor the lesser chiefs who flourished on the lack of common law and order could be reduced by ordinary methods, and the Councils of Wales and of the North were given summary powers derived from the Roman civil law similiar to those exercised by the Star Chamber at Westminster and the court of Castle Chamber at Dublin. Ireland had been left by Wolsey to wallow in its own disorder; but disorder was anathema to Henry's mind, and in 1535 Sir William Skeffington was sent to apply English methods and artillery to the government of Ireland. Sir Anthony St Leger continued his policy from 1540; Henry, instead of being merely lord of Ireland dependent on the pope, was made by an Irish act of parliament king, and supreme head of the Irish church. Conciliation was also tried with some success; planta- tion schemes were rejected in favour of an attempt to Anglicize the Irish; their chieftains were created earls and endowed with monastic lands; and so peaceful was Ireland in 1542 that the lord-deputy could send Irish kernes and gallowglasses to fight against the Scots. Henry, however, seems to have believed as much in the coercion of Scotland as in the conciliation of Ireland. Margaret Tudor's marriage had not reconciled the realms; and as soon as James V. became a possible pawn in the hands of Charles V., Henry bethought himself of his old claims to suzerainty over Scotland. At first he was willing to subordinate them to an attempt to win over Scotland to his anti-papal policy, and he made various efforts to bring about an interview with his nephew. But James V. was held aloof by Beaton and two French marriages; and France was alarmed by Henry's growing friendliness with Charles V., who was mollified by his cousin Mary's restoration to her place in the succession to the throne. In 1542 James madly sent a Scottish army to ruin at Solway Moss; his death a few weeks later left the Scottish throne to his infant daughter Mary Stuart, and Henry set to work to secure her hand for his son Edward and the recognition of his own suzerainty. A treaty was signed with the Scottish estates; but it was torn up a few months later under the influence of Beaton and the queen-dowager Mary of Guise, and Hertford was sent in 1 544 to punish this breach of promise by sacking Edin- burgh. Perhaps to prevent French intervention in Scotland Henry joined Charles V. in invading France, and captured Boulogne (Sept. 1 544). But Charles left his ally in the lurch and concluded the peace of Cr6py that same month; and in 1545 Henry had to face alone a French invasion of the Isle of Wight. This attack proved abortive, and peace between England and France was made in 1546. Charles V.'s desertion inclined Henry to listen to the proposals of the threatened Lutheran princes, and the last two years of his reign were marked by a renewed tendency to advance in a Protestant direction. Catherine Howard had been brought to the block (1542) on charges in which there was probably a good deal of truth, and her successor, Catherine Parr, was a patroness of the new learning. An act of 1545 dissolved chantries, colleges and other religious foundations; and in the autumn of 1546 the Spanish ambassador was anticipating further anti-erclc 'istical measures. Gardiner had almost been sent to the Tower, and Norfolk and Surrey were condemned to death, while Cranmer asserted that it was Henry's intention to convert the mass into a communion service. An opportunist to the last, he would readily have sacrificed any theological convictions he xn: 10 may have had in the interests of national uniformity. He died on the 28th of January 1547, and was buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor. The atrocity of many of Henry's acts, the novelty and success of his religious policy, the apparent despotism of his methods, or all combined, have made it difficult to estimate calmly the importance of Henry's work or the conditions which made it possible. Henry's egotism was profound, and personal motives underlay his public action. While political and ecclesiastical conditions made the breach with Rome possible — and in the view of most Englishmen desirable — Henry VIII. was led to adopt the policy by private considerations. He worked for the good of the state because he thought his interests were bound up with those of the nation; and it was the real coincidence of this private and public point of view that made it possible for so selfish a man to achieve so much for his country. The royal supremacy over the church and the means by which it was enforced were harsh and violent expedients; but it was of the highest importance that England should be saved from religious civil war, and it could only be saved by a despotic government. It was necessary for the future development of England that its governmental system should be centralized and unified, that the authority of the monarchy should be more firmly extended over Wales and the western and northern borders, and that the still existing feudal franchises should be crushed; and these objects were worth the price paid in the methods of the Star Chamber and of the Councils of the North and of Wales. Henry's work on the navy requires no apology; without it Elizabeth's victory over the Spanish Armada, the liberation of the Netherlands and the development of English colonies would have been impossible; and "of all others the year 1545 best marks the birth of the English naval power " (Corbett, Drake, i. 59). His judgment was more at fault when he conquered Boulogne and sought by violence to bring Scotland into union with England. But at least Henry appreciated the necessity of union within the British Isles; and his work in Ireland relaid the foundations of English rule. No less important was his development of the parliamentary system. Representation was extended to Wales, Cheshire, Berwick and Calais; and parliamentary authority was enhanced, largely that it might deal with the church, until men began to complain of this new parliamentary infallibility. The privileges of the two Houses were encouraged and expanded, and parliament was led to exercise ever wider powers. This policy was not due to any belief on Henry's part in parliamentary government, but to opportunism, to the circumstance that parliament was willing to do most of the things which Henry desired, while competing authorities, the church and the old nobility, were not. Nevertheless, to the encouragement given by Henry VIII. parliament owed not a little of its future growth, and to the aid rendered by parliament Henry owed his success. He has been described as a " despot under the forms of law "; and it is apparently true that he committed no illegal act. His despotism consists not in any attempt to rule unconstitutionally, but in the extraordinary degree to which he was able to use constitutional means in the furtherance of his own personal ends. His industry, his remarkable political insight, his lack of scruple, and his combined strength of will and subtlety of intellect enabled him to utilize all the forces which tended at that time towards strong government throughout western Europe. In Michelet's words, " le nouveau Messie est le roi "; and the monarchy alone seemed capable of guiding the state through the social and political anarchy which threatened all nations in their transition from medieval to modern organization. The king was the emblem, the focus and the bond of national unity; and to preserve it men were ready to put up with vagaries which to other ages seem intolerable. Henry could thus behead ministers and divorce wives with comparative impunity, because the individual appeared to be of little importance compared with the state. This impunity provoked a licence which is responsible for the unlovely features of Henry's reign and character. The elevation and the isolation of his position fostered a detachment from ordinary virtues and compassion, 290 HENRY I. and he was a remorseless incarnation of Machiavelli's Prince. He had an elastic conscience which was always at the beck and call of his desire, and he cared little for principle. But he had a passion for efficiency, and for the greatness of England and himself. His mind, in spite of its clinging to the outward forms of the old faith, was intensely secular; and he was as devoid of a moral sense as he was of a genuine religious temperament. His greatness consists in his practical aptitude, in his political perception, and in the self-restraint which enabled him to confine within limits tolerable to his people an insatiable appetite for power. The original materials for Henry VIII. 's biography are practically all incorporated in the monumental Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII. (21 vols.), edited by Brewer and Gairdner and com- pleted after fifty years' labour in 1910. A few further details may be gleaned from such contemporary sources as Hall's Chronicle, Cavendish's Life of Wolsey, W. Thomas's The Pilgrim and others; and some additions have been made to the documentary sources contained in the Letters and Papers by recent works, such as Ehses' Romische Dokumente, and Merriman s Life and Letters of Thomas Cromwell. Lord Herbert of Cherbury's Life and Reign of Henry VIII. (1649), while good for its time, is based upon a very partial knowledge of the sources and somewhat antiquated principles of historical scholarship. Froude's famous portraiture of Henry is coloured by the ideas of hero-worship and history which the author imbibed from Carlyle, and the rival portraits in Lingard, R. W. Dixon's Church History and Gasquet's Henry VIII. and the Monas- teries by strong religious feeling. A more discriminating estimate is attempted by H. A. L. Fisher in Messrs Longmans' Political History of England, vol. v. (1906). Of the numerous paintings of Henry none is by Holbein, who, however, executed the striking chalk-drawing of Henry's head, now at Munich, and the famous but decaying cartoon at Devonshire House. The well-known three- quarter length at Windsor, usually attributed to Holbein, is by an inferior artist. The best collection of Henry's portraits was exhibited at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1909, and the catalogue of that exhibition contains the best description of them; several are re- produced in Pollard's Henry VIII. (Goupil) (1902), the letterpress of which was published by Longmans in a cheaper edition (1905). Henry composed numerous state papers still extant; his only book was his Assertio septem sacramentorum, contra M. Lutherum (1521), a copy of which, signed by Henry himself, is at Windsor. Several anthems composed by him are extant; and one at least, 0 Lord, the Maker of all Things, is still occasionally rendered in English cathedrals. (A. F. P.) HENRY I. (1214-1217), king of Castile, son of Alphonso VIII. of Castile, and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, daughter of Henry II. of England, after whom he was named, was born about 1207. He was killed, while still a boy, by the fall of a tile from a roof. HENRY II. of Trastamara (1369-1379), king of Castile, founder of the dynasty known as " the new kings," was the eldest son of Alphonso XI. and of his mistress Leonora de Guzman. He was born in 1333. His father endowed him with great lordships in northern Spain, and made him count of Trastamara. After the death of Alphonso XI. in 1350, Leonora was murdered to satisfy the revenge of the king's neglected wife. Several of the numerous children she had borne to Alphonso were slain at different times by Peter the Cruel, the king's legitimate son and successor. Henry preserved his life by submissions and by keeping out of the king's way. At last, after taking part in several internal commotions, he fled to France in 1356. In 1366 he persuaded the mercenary soldiers paid off by the kings of England and France to accompany him on an expedition to upset Peter, who was driven out. The Black Prince having intervened on behalf of Peter, Henry was defeated at Najera (3rd of April 1367) and had again to flee to Aragon. When the Black Prince was told that " the Bastard " had neither been slain nor taken, he said that nothing had been done. And so it turned out; for, when the Black Prince had left Spain, Henry came back with a body of French soldiers of fortune under du Guesclin, and drove his brother into the castle of Montiel in La Mancha. Peter was tempted out by du Guesclin, and the half brothers met in the Frenchman's tent. They rushed at one another, and Peter, the stronger man, threw Henry down, and fell on him. One of Henry's pages seized the king by the leg and threw him on his back. Henry then pulled up Peter's hauberk and stabbed him mortally in the stomach, on the 23rd of March 1369. He reigned for ten years, with some success both in pacifying the kingdom and in war with Portugal. But as his title was disputed he was compelled to purchase support by vast grants to the nobles and concessions to the cities, by which he gained the title of El de las Mercedes — he of the largesse. Henry was a strong ally of the French king in his wars with the English, who supported the claims of Peter's natural daughters. He died on the 3oth of May 1379. HENRY III. (1390-1406) king of Castile, called El Doliente, the Sufferer, was the son of John I. of Castile and Leon, and of his wife Beatrice, daughter of Ferdinand of Portugal. He was born in 1379. The period of minority was exceptionally anarchi- cal, even for Castile, but as the cities, always the best supporters of the royal authority, were growing in strength, Henry was able to reduce his kingdom to obedience, and, when he took the government into his own hands after 1393, to compel his nobles with comparative ease to surrender the crown lands they had seized. The meeting of the Cortes summoned by him at Madrid in 1394 marked a great epoch in the establishment of a practically despotic royal authority, based on the consent of the commons, who looked to the crown to protect them against the excesses of the nobles. Henry strengthened his position still further by his marriage with Catherine, daughter of John of Gaunt and of Constance, elder daughter of Peter the Cruel and Maria de Padilla. This union combined the rival claims of the descendants of Peter and of Henry of Trastamara. The king's bodily weak- ness limited his real capacity, and his early death on the 25th of December 1406 cut short the promise of his reign. HENRY IV. (1453-1474), kingof Castile, surnamed the Impotent, or the Spendthrift, was the son of John II. of Castile and Leon, and of his wife, Mary, daughter of Ferdinand I. of Aragon and Sicily. He was born at Valladolid on the 6th of January 1425. The surnames given to this king by his subjects are of much more than usual accuracy. His personal character was one of mere weakness, bodily and mental. Henry was an undutiful son, and his reign was one long period of confusion, marked by incidents of the most ignominious kind. He divorced his first wife Blanche of Navarre in 1453 on the ground of " mutual impotence." Yet in 1468 he married Joan of Portugal, and when she bore a daughter, first repudiated her as adulterine, and then claimed her for his own. In 1468 he was solemnly deposed in favour of his brother Alphonso, on whose death in the same year his authority was again recognized. The last years of his life were spent in vain endeavours, first to force his half-sister Isabella, afterwards queen, to marry his favourite, the Master of Santiago, and then to exclude her from the throne. Henry died at Madrid on the 1 2th of December 1474. HENRY I. (1008-1060), kingof France, son of King Robert and his queen, Constance of Aquitaine, and grandson of Hugh Capet, came to the throne upon the death of his father in 1031, although in 1027 he had been anointed king at Reims and associated in the government with his father. His mother, who favoured her younger son Robert, and had retired from court upon Henry's coronation, formed a powerful league against him, and he was forced to take refuge with Robert II., duke of Normandy. In the civil war which resulted, Henry was able to break up the league of his opponents in 1032. Constance died in 1034, and the rebel brother Robert was given the duchy of Burgundy, thus founding that great collateral line which was to rival the kings of France for three centuries. Henry atoned for this by a reign marked by unceasing struggle against the great barons. From 1033 to 1043 he was involved in a life and death contest with those nobles whose territory adjoined the royal domains, especially with the great house of Blois, whose count, Odo II., had been the centre of the league of Constance, and with the counts of Champagne. Henry's success in these wars was largely due to the help given him by Robert of Normandy, but upon the accession of Robert's son William (the Conqueror), Normandy itself became the chief danger. From 1047 to the year of his death, Henry was almost constantly at war with William, who held his own against the king's formidable leagues and beat back two royal invasions, in 1055 and 1058. Henry's reign HENRY II.— HENRY III. 291 marks the height of feudalism. The Normans were independent of him, with their frontier barely 25 m. west of Paris; to the south his authority was really bounded by the Loire; in the east the count of Champagne was little more than nominally his subject, and the duchy of Burgundy was almost entirely cut off from the king. Yet Henry maintained the independence of the clergy against the pope Leo IX., and claimed Lorraine from the emperor Henry III. In an interview at Ivois, he reproached the emperor with the violation of promises, and Henry III. challenged him to a single combat. According to the German chronicle — which French historians doubt—the king of France declined the combat and fled from Ivois during the night. In 1059 he had his eldest son Philip crowned as joint king, and died the following year. Henry's first wife was Maud, niece of the emperor Henry III., whom he married in 1043. She died child- less in 1044. Historians have sometimes confused her with Maud (or Matilda), the emperor Conrad II. 's daughter, to whom Henry was affianced in 1033, but who died before the marriage. In 1051 Henry married the Russian princess Anne, daughter of Yaroslav I., grand duke of Kiev. She bore him two sons, Philip, his successor, and Hugh the great, count of Vermandois. See the Historiae of Rudolph Glaber, edited by M. Prou (Paris, 1886); F. Sochn6e, Catalogue des actes d'Henri I" (1907); de Caiz de Saint Aymour, Anne de Russie, reine de France (1896) ; E. Lavisse, Histoire de France, tome ii. (1901), and the article on Henry I. in La Grande Encyclopedie by M. Prou. HENRY II. (1519-1559), king of France, the second son of Francis I. and Claude, succeeded to the throne in 1547. When only seven years old he was sent by his father, with his brother the dauphin Francis, as a hostage to Spain in 1526, whence they returned after the conclusion of the peace of Cambrai in 1530. Henry was too young to have carried away any abiding impres- sions, yet throughout his life his character, dress and bearing were far more Spanish than French. In 1 533 his father married him to Catherine de' Medici, from which match, as he said, Francis hoped to gain great advantage, even though it might be somewhat of a misalliance. In 1536 Henry, hitherto duke of Orleans, became dauphin by the death of his elder brother Francis. From that time he was under the influence of two personages, who dominated him completely for the remainder of his life — Diane de Poitiers, his mistress, and Anne de Mont- morency, his mentor. Moreover, his younger brother, Charles of Orleans, who was of a more sprightly temperament, was his father's favourite; and the rivalry of Diane and the duchesse d'Etampes helped to make still wider the breach between the king and the dauphin. Henry supported the constable Mont- morency when he was disgraced in 1541; protested against the treaty of Crepy in 1544; and at the end of the reign held himself completely aloof. His accession in 1547 gave rise to a veritable revolution at the court. Diane, Montmorency and the Guises were all-powerful, and dismissed Cardinal de Tournon, de Longueval, the duchesse d'fitampes and all the late king's friends and officials. At that time Henry was twenty-eight years old. He was a robust man, and inherited his father's love of violent exercise; but his character was weak and his intelligence mediocre, and he had none of the superficial and brilliant gifts of Francis I. He was cold, haughty, melancholy and dull. He was a bigoted Catholic, and showed to the Protestants even less mercy than his father. During his reign the royal authority became more severe and more absolute than ever. Resistance to the financial extortions of the government was cruelly chastised, and the " Chambre Ardente " was instituted against the Re- formers. Abroad, the struggle was continued against Charles V. and Philip II., which ended in the much-discussed treaty of Cateau-Cambresis. Some weeks afterwards high feast was held on the occasion of the double marriage of the king's daughter Elizabeth with the king of Spain, and of his sister Margaret with the duke of Savoy. On the 3oth of June 1559, when tilting with the count of Montgomery, Henry was wounded in the temple by a lance. In spite of the attentions of Ambroise Pare he died on the loth of July. By his wife Catherine de' Medici he had seven children living: Elizabeth, queen of Spain; Claude, duchess of Lorraine; Francis (II.), Charles (IX.) and Henry (III.), all of whom came to the throne; Marguerite, who became queen of Navarre in 1572; and Francis, duke of Alenfon and afterwards of Anjou, who died in 1584. The bulk of the documents for the reign of Henry II. are un- published, and are in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Of the published documents, see especially the correspondence of Catherine de' Medici (ed. by de la Ferri&re, Paris, 1880), of Diane de Poitiers (ed. by Guiffrey, Paris, 1866), of Antoine de Bourbon and Jeanne d'Albret (ed. by Rochambeau, Paris, 1877), of Odet de Sclve, ambassador to England (ed. by Lefevre-Pontalis, Paris, 1888) and of Dominique du Gabre, ambassador to Venice (ed. by Vitalis, Paris, 1903); Ribier, Lettres el memoires d'estat (Paris, 1666); Relations des ambassadeurs jieniliens, &c. Of the contemporary memoirs and histories, see Brant6me (ed. by Lalanne, Paris, 1864-1882), Francois de Lorraine (ed. by Michaud and Poujoulat, Paris, 1839), Montluc (ed. by de Ruble, Paris, 1864), F. de Boyvin du Villars (Michaud and Poujoulat), F. de Rabutin (Pantheon litteraire, Paris, 1836). See also de Thou, Historic, sui temporis . . . (London, 1733); Decrue, Anne de Montmorency (Pans, 1889); H. Forneron, Les Dues de Guise et leur epoque, vol. i. (Paris, 1877) ; and H. Lemonnier, " La France sous Henri II " (Paris, 1904), in the Histoire de France, by E. Lavisse, which contains a fuller bibliography of the subject. HENRY III. ( 1 5 5 i-i 589) , king of France, third son of Henry II. and Catherine de' Medici, was born at Fontainebleau on the th of September 1551, and succeeded to the throne of France on the death of his brother Charles IX. in 1574. In his youth, as duke of Anjou, he was warmly attached to the Huguenot opinions, as we learn from his sister Marguerite de Valois; but his unstable character soon gave way before his mother's will, and both Henry and Marguerite remained choice ornaments of the Catholic Church. Henry won, under the direction of Marshal de Tavannes, two brilliant victories at Jarnac and Moncontour ( 1 569) . He was the favourite son of his mother, and took part with her in organizing the massacre of St Bartholomew.^ In 1573 Catherine procured his election to the throne of PolandT Passionately enamoured of the princess of Conde, he set out reluctantly to Warsaw, but, on the death of his brother Charles IX. in 1574, he escaped from his Polish subjects, who endeavoured to retain him by force, came back to France and assumed the crown. He returned to a wretched kingdom, torn with civil war. In spite of his good intentions, he was incapable of govern- ing, and abandoned the power to his mother and his favourites. Yet he was no dullard. He was a man of keen intelligence and cultivated mind, and deserves as much as Francis I. the title of patron of letters and art. But his incurable indolence and love of pleasure prevented him from taking any active part in affairs. Surrounded by his mignons, he scandalized the people by his effeminate manners. He dressed himself in women's clothes, made a collection of little dogs and hid in the cellars when it thundered. The disgust aroused by the vices and effeminacy of the king increased the popularity of Henry of Guise. After the " day of the barricades " (the i2th of May 1588), the king, perceiving that his influence was lost, resolved to rid himself of Guise by assassination; and on the 23rd of December 1588 his faithful bodyguard, the " forty-five," carried out his design at the chiteau of Blois. But the fanatical preachers of the League clamoured furiously for vengeance, and on the ist of August 1589, while Henry III. was investing Paris with Henry of Navarre, Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar, was introduced into his presence on false letters of recommendation, and plunged a knife into the lower part of his body. He died a few hours afterwards with great fortitude. By his wife Louise of Lorraine, daughter of the count of Vaudemont, he had no children, and on his deathbed he recognized Henry of Navarre as his successor. See the memoirs and chronicles of 1'Estoile, Villeroy, Ph. Hurault de Cheverny, Brantdme, Marguerite de Valois, la Huguerye, du Plessis-Mornay, &c.; Archives curieuses of Cimber and Danjou, vols. x. and xi.; Memoires de la Ligue (new ed., Amsterdam, 1758); the histories of T. A. d'Aubignd and J. A. de Thou; Correspondence of Catherine de' Medici and of Henry IV. (in the Collection de docu- ments inedits), and of the Venetian ambassadors, &c. ; P. Matthieu, Histoire de France, vol. i. (1631); Scipion Dupleix, Histoire de Henri III (1633); Robiquet, Paris et la Ligue (1886); and J. H. Manejol, " La ReTorme et la Ligue," in the Histoire de France, by E. Lavisse (Paris, 1904), which contains a more complete bibliography. 292 HENRY IV. HENRY IV. (1553-1610), king of France, the son of Antoine de Bourbon, duke of Vendome, head of the younger branch of the Bourbons, descendant of Robert of Clermont, sixth son of St Louis and of Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, was born at Pau (Basses Pyrenees) on the i4th of December 1553. He was educated as a Protestant, and in 1557 was sent to the court at Amiens. In 1561 hi entered the College de Navarre at Paris, returning in 1565 to Beam. During the third war of religion in France (1568-1570) he was taken by his mother to Gaspard de Coligny, leader of the Protestant forces since the death of Louis I., prince of Conde, at Jarnac, and distinguished himself at the battle of Arnay-le-Duc in Burgundy in 1569. On the 9th of June 1572, Jeanne d'Albret died and Henry became king of Navarre, marrying Margaret of Valois, sister of Charles IX. of France, on the i8th of August of that year. He escaped the massacre of St Bartholomew on the 24th of August by a feigned abjuration. On the 2nd of February 1576, after several vain attempts, he escaped from the court, joined the combined forces of Protestants and of opponents of the king, and obtained by the treaty of Beaulieu (1576) the government of Guienne. In 1577 he secured the treaty of Bergerac, which foreshadowed the edict of Nantes. As a result of quarrels with his unworthy wife, and the unwelcome intervention of Henry III., he undertook the seventh war of religion, known as the " war of the lovers " (des amoureux), seized Cahors on the 5th of May 1580, and signed the treaty of Fleix on the 26th of November 1580. On the loth ot June 1584 the death of Monsieur, the duke of Anjou, brother of King Henry III., made Henry of Navarre heir presumptive to the throne of France. Excluded from it by the treaty of Nemours (1585) he began the " war of the three Henrys " by a campaign in Guienne (1586) and defeated Anne, due de Joyeuse, at Coutras on the zoth of October 1587. Then Henry III., driven from Paris by the League on account of his murder of the duke of Guise at Blois ( 1 588) , sought the aid of the king of Navarre to win back his capital, recognizing him as his heir. The assassi- nation of Henry III. on the ist of August 1589 left Henry king of France; but he had to struggle for ten more years against the League and against Spain before he won his kingdom. The main events in that long struggle were the victory of Arques over Charles, duke of Mayenne, on the 28th of September 1589; of Ivry, on the i4th of March 1590; the siege of Paris (1590); of Rouen (1592) ; the meeting of the Estates of the League (1593), which the Satire Menippee turned to ridicule; and finally the conversion of Henry IV. to Catholicism in July 1593 — an act of political wisdom, since it brought about the collapse of all opposition. Paris gave in to him on the '22nd of March 1594 and province by province yielded to arms or negotiations; while the victory of Fontaine-Franc.aise (1595) and the capture of Amiens forced Philip II. of Spain to sign the peace of Vervins on the 2nd of May 1598. On the i3th of April of that year Henry IV. had promulgated the Edict of Nantes. Then Henry set to work to pacify and restore prosperity to his kingdom. Convinced by the experience of the wars that France needed an energetic central power, he pushed at times his royal prerogatives to excess, raising taxes in spite of the Estates, interfering in the administration of the towns, reforming their constitutions, and holding himself free to reject the advice of the notables if he consulted them. Aided by his faithful friend Maximilien de Bethune, baron de Rosny and due de Sully (q.v.), he reformed the finances, repressed abuses, suppressed useless offices, extinguished the formidable debt and realized a reserve of eighteen milb'ons. To alleviate the distress of the people he undertook to develop both agriculture and industry: planting colonies of Dutch and Flemish settlers to drain the marshes of Saintonge, issuing prohibitive measures against the importation of foreign goods (i 597), introducing the silk industry, encouraging the manufacture of cloth, of glass-ware, of tapestries (Gobelins), and under the direction of Sully — named grand-voyer de France — improving and increasing the routes for commerce. A complete system of canals was planned, that of Briare partly dug. New capitulations were concluded with the sultan Ahmed I. (1604) and treaties of commerce with England (1606), with Spain and Holland. Attempts were made in 1604 and 1608 to colonize Canada (see CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE). The army was reorganized, its pay raised and assured, a school of cadets formed to supply it with officers, artillery constituted and strongholds on the frontier fortified. While lacking the artistic tastes of the Valois, Henry beautified Paris, building the great gallery of the Louvre, finishing the Tuileries, building the Pont Neuf, the H6tel-de-Ville and the Place Royale. The foreign policy of Henry IV. was directed against the Habsburgs. Without declaring war, he did all possible harm to them by alliances and diplomacy. In Italy he gained the grand duke of Tuscany — marrying his niece Marie de' Medici in 1600 — the duke of Mantua, the republic of Venice and Pope Paul V. The duke of Savoy, who had held back from the treaty of Vervins in 1598, signed tbe treaty of Lyons in 1601; in ex- change for the marquisate of Saluzzo, France acquired Bresse, Bugey, Valromey and the bailliage of Gex. In the Low Countries, Henry sent subsidies to the Dutch in their struggle against Spain. He concluded alliances with the Protestant princes in Germany, with the duke of Lorraine, the Swiss cantons (treaty of Soleure, 1602) and with Sweden. The opening on the 25th of March 1609 of the question of the succession of John William the Good, duke of Cleves, of Jiilich and of Berg, led Henry, in spite of his own hesitations and those of his German allies, to declare war on the emperor Rudolph II. But he was assassinated by Ravaillac (?.:'.) on the I4th of May 1 6 10, upon the eve of his great enterprise, leaving hisjwlicy to be followed up later by Richelieu. Sully in his Economies royales attributes to his master the " great design " of constitut- ing, after having defeated Austria, a vast European confedera- tion of fifteen states — a " Christian Republic " — directed by a general council of sixty deputies reappointed every three years. But this " design " has been attributed rather to the imagination of Sully himself than to the more practical policy of the king. No figure in France has been more popular than that of " Henry the Great." He was affable to the point of familiarity, quick-witted like a true Gascon, good-hearted, indulgent, yet skilled in reading the character of those around him, and he could at times show himself severe and unyielding. His courage amounted almost to recklessness. He was a better soldier than strategist. Although at bottom authoritative he surrounded himself with admirable advisers (Sully, Sillery, Villeroy, Jeannin) and profited from their co-operation. His love affairs, un- doubtedly too numerous (notably with Gabrielle d'Estrees and Henriette d'Entragues), if they injure his personal reputation, had no bad effect on his policy as king, in which he was guided only by an exalted ideal of his royal office, and by a sympathy for the common people, his reputation for which has perhaps been exaggerated somewhat in popular tradition by the circum- stances of his reign. Henry IV. had no children by his first wife, Margaret of Valois. By Marie de' Medici he had Louis, later Louis XIII.; Gaston, duke of Orleans; Elizabeth, who married Philip IV. of Spain; Christine, duchess of Savoy; and Henrietta, wife of Charles I. of England. Among his bastards the most famous were the children of Gabrielle d'Estrees — Caesar, duke of Vend&me, Alexander of Vend&me, and Catherine Henriette, duchess of Elbeuf. Several portraits of Henry are preserved at Paris, in the Bibliotheque Nationale (cf . Bouchot, Portraits au crayon, p. 189), at the Louvre (by Probus, bust by Barthelemy Prieur) at Versailles, Geneva (Henry at the age of fifteen), at Hampton Court, at Munich and at Florence. The works dealing with Henry IV. and his reign are too numerous to be enumerated here. For sources, see the Recueil des lettres missives de Henri IV, published from 1839 to 1853 by B. de Xivrey, in the Collection de documents inedits relatifs a I'histoire de France, and the various researches of Galitzin, Bautiot, Ha'phen, Dussieux and others. Besides their historic interest, the letters written personally by Henry, whether love notes or letters of state, reveal a charming writer. Mention should be made of Auguste Poirson's .Histoire du regne de Henri IV (2nd ed.. 4 vpls., Paris, 1862-1867) and of J. H. Mari6jol's volume (vi.) in the Histoire de France, edited by Ernest Lavisse (Paris, 1905), where main sources and literature HENRY I.— HENRY THE PROUD 293 arc given with each chapter. A Revue Henri IV has been founded at Paris (1905). Finally, a complete survey of the sources for the period 1494-1610 is given by Henri Hauser in vol. vii. of Sources de Ihistoire de France (Paris, 1906) in continuation of A. Molinier's collection of the sources for French history during the middle ages. HENRY I. (c. 1210-1274), surnamed le Gros, king of Navarre and count of Champagne, was the youngest son of Theobald I. king of Navarre by Margaret of Foix, and succeeded his eldest brother Theobald III. as king of Navarre and count of Champagne in December 1270. His proclamation at Pamplona, however, did not take place till March of the following year, and his coronation was delayed until May 1273. After a brief reign, characterized, it is said, by dignity and talent, he died in July 1274, suffocated, according to the generally received accounts, by his own fat. In him the male line of the counts of Champagne and kings of Navarre, became extinct. He married in 1269 Blanche, daughter of Robert, count of Artois, and niece of King Louis IX. and was succeeded by his only legitimate child, Jeanne or Joanna, by whose marriage to Philip IV. afterwards king of France in 1284, the crown of Navarre became united to that of France. HENRY II. (1503-1555), titular king of Navarre, was the eldest son of Jean d'Albret (d. 1516) by his wife Catherine de Foix, sister and heiress of Francis Phoebus, king of Navarre, and was born at Sanquesa in April 1503. When Catherine died in exile in 1517 Henry succeeded her in her claim on Navarre, which was disputed by Ferdinand I. king of Spain; and under the protection of Francis I. of France he assumed the title of king. After ineffectual conferences at Noyon in 1516 and at Montpellier in 1 5 1 8, an active effort was made in 1 5 2 1 to establish him in the de facto sovereignty; but the French troops which had seized the country were ultimately expelled by the Spaniards. In 1525 Henry was taken prisoner at the battle of Pa via, but he contrived to escape, and in 1526 married Margaret, the sister of Francis I. and widow of Charles, duke of Alencon. By her he was the father of Jeanne d'Albret (d. 1572), and was conse- quently the grandfather of Henry IV. of France. Henry, who had some sympathy with the Huguenots, died at Pau on the 25th of May 1555. HENRY I. (1512-1580), king of Portugal, third son of Emanuel the Fortunate, was born in Lisbon, on the 3ist of January 1512. He was destined for the church, and in 1532 was raised to the archiepiscopal see of Braga. In 1542 he received the cardinal's hat, and in 1578 when he was called to succeed his grandnephew Sebastian on the throne, he held the archbishoprics of Lisbon and Coimbra as well as that of Braga, in addition to the wealthy abbacy of Alcobazar. As an ecclesiastic he was pious, pure, simple in his mode of life, charitable, and a learned and liberal patron of letters; but as a sovereign he proved weak, timid and incapable. On his death in 1580, after a brief reign of seventeen months, the male line of the royal family which traced its descent from Henry, first count 6f Portugal (c. noo), came to an end; and all attempts to fix the succession during his lifetime having ignominiously failed, Portugal became an easy prey to Philip II. of Spain. HENRY II. (1489-1568), duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, was a son of Duke Henry I. , and was born on the loth of November 1489. He began to reign in 1514, but his brother William objected to the indivisibility of the duchy which had been decreed by the elder Henry, and it was only in 1535, after an im- prisonment of eleven years, that William recognized his brother's title. Sharing in an attack on John, bishop of Hildesheim, Henry was defeated at the battle of Soltau in June 1519, but afterwards he was more successful, and when peace was made received some lands from the bishop. In 1525 he assisted Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to crush the rising of the peasants in north Germany, and in 1528 took help to Charles V. in Italy, where he narrowly escaped capture. As a pronounced opponent of the reformed doctrines, he joined the Catholic princes in concerting measures for defence at Dessau and elsewhere, but on the other hand promised Philip of Hesse to aid him in restoring his own brother-in-law Ulrich, duke of Wiirttemberg, to his duchy. However he gave no assistance when this enterprise was undertaken in 1534, and subsequently the hostility between Philip and himself was very marked. Henry was attacked by Luther with unmeasured violence in a writing Wider Hans Worst ; but more serious was his isolation in north Germany. The duke soon came into collision with the Protestant towns of Goslar and Brunswick, against the former of which a sentence of restitution had been pronounced by the imperial court of justice (Reichskammergerichf). To conciliate the Protestants Charles V. had suspended the execution of this sentence, a proceeding which Henry declared was ultra vires. The league of Schmalkalden, led by Philip of Hesse and John Frederick, elector of Saxony, then took up arms to defend the towns; and in 1542 Brunswick was overrun and the duke forced to flee. In September 1545 he made an attempt to regain his duchy, but was taken prisoner by Philip, and only released after the victory of Charles V. at Miihlberg in April 1 547. Returning to Brunswick , where he was very unpopular, he soon quarrelled with his subjects both on political and religious questions, while his duchy was ravaged by Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth. Henry was among the princes who banded themselves together to crush Albert, and after the death of Maurice, elector of Saxony, at Sievershausen in July 1553, he took command of the allied troops and defeated Albert in two engagements. In his later years he became more tolerant, and was reconciled with his Protestant subjects. He died at Wolfenbuttel on the nth of June 1568. The duke was twice married, firstly in 1515 to Maria (d. 1541), sister of Ulrich of Wiirttemberg, and secondly in 1556 to Sophia (d. 1575) daughter of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He attained some notoriety through his romantic attachment to Eva von Trott, whom he represented as dead and afterwards kept con- cealed at Staufenburg. Henry was succeeded by his only surviving son, Julius (1528-1589). See F. Koldewey, Heinz von Wolfenbuttel (Halle, 1883); and F. Bruns, Die Vertreibung Herzog Heinrichs von Braunschweig durch den Schmalkaldischen Bund (Marburg, 1889). HENRY (c. 1108-1139), surnamed the "Proud," duke of Saxony and Bavaria, second son of Henry the Black, duke of Bavaria, and Wulfhild, daughter of Magnus Billung, duke of Saxony, was a member of the Welf family. His father and mother both died in 1126, and as his elder brother Conrad had entered the church, Henry became duke of Bavaria and shared the family possessions in Saxony, Bavaria and Swabia with his younger brother, Welf. At Whitsuntide 1127 he was married to Gertrude, the only child of the German king, Lothair the Saxon, and at once took part in the warfare between the king and the Hohenstaufen brothers, Frederick II., duke of Swabia, and Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III. While engaged in this struggle Henry was also occupied in suppressing a rising in Bavaria, led by Frederick, count of Bogen, during which both duke and count sought to establish their own candi- dates in the bishopric of Regensburg. After a war of devastation, Frederick submitted in 1133, and two years later the Hohen- staufen brothers made their peace with Lothair. In 1136 Henry accompanied his father-in-law to Italy, and taking command of one division of the German army marched into southern Italy, devastating the land as he went. It was probably about this time that he was invested with the margraviate of Tuscany and the lands of Matilda, the late margravine. Having distinguished himself by his military genius during this campaign Henry left Italy with the German troops, and was appointed by the emperor as his successor in the dukedom of Saxony. When Lothair died in December 1137 Henry's wealth and position made him a formidable candidate for the German throne; but the same qualities which earned for him the surname of " Proud," aroused the jealousy of the princes, and so prevented his election. The new king, Conrad III., demanded the imperial insignia which were in Henry's possession, and the duke in return asked for his investiture with the Saxon duchy. But Conrad, who feared his power, refused to assent to this on the pretext that it was unlawful for two duchies to be in one hand. Attempts at a settlement failed, and in July 1138 the duke was placed 294 HENRY THE LION under the ban, and Saxony was given to Albert the Bear, after- wards margrave of Brandenburg. War broke out in Saxony and Bavaria, but was cut short by Henry's sudden death at Quedlinburg on the 2oth of October 1139. He was buried at Kb'nigslutter. Henry was a man of great ability, and his early death alone prevented him from playing an important part in German history. Conrad the Priest, the author of the Rolands- lied, was in Henry's service, and probably wrote this poem at the request of the duchess, Gertrude. See S. Riezler, Geschichte Bayerns, Band i. (Gotha, 1878); W. Bernhardi, Lothar von Supplinburg (Leipzig, 1879); W. von Giese- brecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877). HENRY (1120-1195), surnamed the " Lion," duke of Saxony and Bavaria, only son of Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, and Gertrude, daughter of the emperor Lothair the Saxon, was born at Ravensburg, and was a member of the family of Welf. In 1138 the German king Conrad III. had sought to deprive Henry the Proud of his duchies, and when the duke died in the following year the interests of his young son were maintained in Saxony by his mother, and his grandmother Richenza, widow of Lothair, and in Bavaria by his uncle, Count Welf VI. This struggle ended in May 1142 when Henry was invested as duke of Saxony at Frankfort, and Bavaria was given to Henry II., Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria, who married his mother Gertrude. In 1147 he married dementia, daughter of Conrad, duke of Zahringen (d. 1152), and began to take an active part in administering his dukedom and extending its area. He engaged in a successful expedition against the Abo- trites, or Obotrites, in 1147, and won a considerable tract of land beyond the Elbe, in which were re-established the bishoprics of Mecklenburg,1 Oldenburg2 and Ratzeburg. Hartwig, arch- bishop of Bremen, wished these sees to be under his authority, but Henry contested this claim, and won the right to invest these bishops himself, a privilege afterwards confirmed by the emperor Frederick I. Henry, meanwhile, had not forgotten Bavaria. In 1147 he made a formal claim on this duchy, and in 1151 sought to take possession, but failing to obtain the aid of his uncle Welf, did not effect his purpose. The situation was changed in his favour when Frederick I., who was anxious to count the duke among his supporters, succeeded Conrad as German king in February 1152. Frederick was unable at first to persuade Henry Jasomirgott to abandon Bavaria, but in June 1154 he recognized the claim of Henry the Lion, who accom- panied him on his first Italian campaign and distinguished himself in suppressing a rising at Rome, Henry's formal in- vestiture as duke of Bavaria taking place in September 1156 on the emperor's return to Germany. Henry soon returned to Saxony, where he found full scope for his untiring energy. Adolph II., count of Holstein, was compelled to cede Ltibeck to him in 1158; campaigns in 1163 and 1164 beat 'down further resistance of the Abotrites; and Saxon garrisons were estab- lished in the conquered lands. The duke was aided in this work by the alliance of Valdemar I., king of Denmark, and, it is said, by engines of war brought from Italy. During these years he had also helped Frederick I. in his expedition of 1157 against the Poles, and in July 1159 had gone to his assistance in Italy, where he remained for about two years. The vigorous measures taken by Henry to increase his power aroused considerable opposition. In 1 166 a coalition was formed against him at Merseburg under the leadership of Albert the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg, and Archbishop Hartwig. Neither side met with much success in the desultory warfare that ensued, and Frederick made peace between the combatants at Wiirzburg in June 1168. Having obtained a divorce from his first wife in 1162, Henry was married at Minden in February 1168 to Matilda (1156-1189), daughter of Henry II., king of England, and was soon afterwards sent by the emperor Frederick I. on an embassy to the kings of England and France. A war with Valdemar of Denmark, caused by a quarrel over the booty obtained from 1The see was transferred to Schwerin by Henry in 1167. J Transferred to Lubeck in 1163. the conquest of Rugen, engaged Henry's activity until June 1171, when, in pursuance of a treaty which restored peace, Henry's daughter, Gertrude, married the Danish prince, Canute. Henry, whose position was now very strong, made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1172, was received with great respect by the eastern emperor Manuel Comnenus at Constantinople, and returned to Saxony in 1173. A variety of reasons were leading to a rupture in the har- monious relations between Frederick and Henry, whose increasing power could not escape the emperor's notice, and who showed little inclination to sacrifice his interests in Germany in order to help the imperial cause in Italy. He was not pleased when he heard that his uncle, Welf, had bequeathed his Italian and Swabian lands to the emperor, and the crisis came after Frederick's check before Alessandria in 1175. The emperor appealed personally to Henry for help in February, or March 1176, but Henry made no move in response, and his defection contributed in some measure to the emperor's defeat at Legnano. The peace of Venice provided for the restoration of Ulalrich to his see of Halberstadt. Henry, however, refused to give up the lands which he had seized belonging to the bishopric, and this conduct provoked a war in which Ulalrich was soon joined by Philip, archbishop of Cologne. No attack on Henry appears to have been contemplated by Frederick to whom both parties carried their complaints, and a day was fixed for the settlement of the dispute at Worms. But neither then, nor on two further occasions, did Henry appear to answer the charges preferred against him; accordingly in January 1180 he was placed under the imperial ban at Wiirzburg, and was declared deprived of all his lands. Meanwhile the war with Ulalrich continued, but after his victory at Weissensee Henry's allies began to fall away, and his cause to decline. When Frederick took the field in June 1181 the struggle was soon over. Henry sought for peace, and the conditions were settled at Erfurt in November 1181, when he was granted the counties of Liinebiirg and Brunswick, but was banished under oath not to return without the emperor's per- mission. In July 1182 he went to his father-in-law's court in Normandy, and afterwards to England, returning to Germany with Frederick's permission in 1 185. He was soon regarded once more as a menace to the peace of Germany, and of the three alternatives presented to him by the emperor in 1188 h'e rejected the idea of making a formal renunciation of his claim, or of participating in the crusade, and chose exile, going again to England in 1189. In October of the same year, however, he returned to Saxony, excusing himself by asserting that his lands had not been defended according to the emperor's promise. He found many allies, took Lubeck, and soon almost the whole of Saxony was in his power. King Henry VI. was obliged to take the field against him, after which the duke's cause declined, and in July 1190 a peace was arranged at Fulda, by which he retained Brunswick and Liineburg, received half the revenues of Lubeck, and gave two of his sons as hostages. Still hoping to regain his former position, he took advantage of a league against Henry VI. in 1193 to engage in a further revolt; but the cap- tivity of his brother-in-law Richard I., king of England, led to a reconciliation. Henry passed his later years mainly at his castle of Brunswick, where he died on the 6th of August 1195, and was buried in the church of St Blasius which he had founded in the town. He had by his first wife a son and a daughter, and by his second wife five sons and a daughter. One of his sons was Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., and another was Henry (d. 1227) count palatine of the Rhine. Henry was a man of great ambition, and won his surname of " Lion " by his personal bravery. His influence on the fortunes of Saxony and northern Germany was very considerable. He planted Flemish and Dutch settlers in the land between the Elbe and the Oder, fostered the growth and trade of Lubeck, and in other ways encouraged trade and agriculture. He sought to spread Christianity by introducing the Cistercians, founding bishoprics, and building churches and monasteries. In 1874 a colossal statue was erected to his memory at Brunswick. HENRY OF BATTENBERG— HENRY STUART 295 The authorities for the life of Henry the Lion are those dealing with the reign of the emperor Frederick I., and the early years of his son King Henry VI. The chief modern works are H. Prutz, 'Heinrich der Lowe (Leipzig, 1865); M. Philippson, Geschichle Heinrichs des Lowen (Leipzig, 1867); and L. Weiland, Das sdchsische Herzogthum unter Lothar und Heinrich dent Lowen (Greifswald, 1866). HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896), was the third son of Prince Alexander of Hesse and his morganatic wife, the beautiful Countess Julia von Hauke, to whom was granted in 1858 the title of princess of Battenberg, which her children inherited. He was born at Milan on the sth of October 1858, was educated with a special view to military service, and in due time became a lieutenant in the first regiment of Rhenish hussars. By their relationship to the grand dukes of Hesse the princes of Battenberg were brought into close contact with the English court, and Prince Henry paid several visits to England, where he soon became popular both in public and in private circles. It therefore created but little surprise when, towards the close of 1884, it was announced that Queen Victoria had sanctioned his engagement to the Princess Beatrice. The wedding took place at Whippingham on the 23rd of July 1885, and after the honeymoon the prince and princess settled down to a quiet home life with the queen, being seldom absent from the court, and accompanying her majesty in her annual visits to the continent. Three sons and a daughter were the issue of the marriage. On the 3ist of July 1885 a bill to naturalize Prince Henry was passed by the House of Lords, and he received the title of royal highness. He was made a Knight of the Garter and a member of the Privy Council, and also appointed a colonel in the army, and afterwards captain-general and governor of the Isle of Wight and governor of Carisbrooke Castle. He adapted himself very readily to English country life, for he was an excellent shot and an enthusiastic yachtsman. Coming of a martial race, the prince would gladly have embraced an active military career, and when the Ashanti expedition was organized in November 1895 he volunteered to join it. But when the expedition reached Prahsu, about 30 m. from Kumasi, he was struck down by fever, and being promptly conveyed back to the coast, was placed on board H.M.S. " Blonde." On the i;th of January he seemed to recover slightly, but a relapse occurred on the igth, and he died on the evening of the 2oth off the coast of Sierra Leone. HENRY FITZ HENRY (1155-1183), second son of Henry II., king of England, by Eleanor of Aquitaine, became heir to the throne on the death of his brother William (1156), and at the age of five was married to Marguerite, the infant daughter of Louis VII. In 1170 he was crowned at Westminster by Roger of York. The protests of Becket against this usurpation of the rights of Canterbury were the ultimate cause of the primate's murder. The young king soon quarrelled with his father, who allowed him no power and a wholly inadequate revenue, and headed the great baronial revolt of 1173. He was assisted by his father-in-law, to whose court he had repaired; but, failing to shake the old king's power either in Normandy or England, made peace in 1174. Despite the generous terms which he received, he continued to intrigue with Louis VII:, and was in consequence jealously watched by his father. In 1182 he and his younger brother Geoffrey took up arms, on the side of the Poitevin rebels, against Richard Cceur de Lion; apparently from resentment at the favour which Henry II. had shown to Richard in giving him the government of Poitou while they were virtually landless. Henry II. took the field in aid of Richard; but the young king and Geoffrey had no scruples about withstanding their father, and continued to aid the Aquitanian rising until the young king fell ill of a fever which proved fatal to him (June n, 1183). His death was bitterly regretted by his father and by all who had known him. Though of a fickle and treacherous nature, he had all the personal fascina- tion of his family, and is extolled by his contemporaries as a mirror of chivalry. His train was full of knights who served him without pay for the honour of being associated with his exploits in the tilting-lists and in war. The original authorities for Henry's life are Robert de Torigni, Chronica; Giraldus Cambrensis, De instructione principum, Guil- laume le Marechal (ed. P. Meyer, Paris, 1891, &c.); Benedict, Gesta Henrici, William of Newburgh. See also Kate Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings (1887) ; Sir James Ramsay, Angevin Empire (1903); and C. E. Hodgson, Jung Heinrich, Konig von England (Jena, 1906). HENRY, or in full, HENRY BENEDICT MARIA CLEMENT STUART (1725-1807), usually known as Cardinal York, the last prince of the royal house of Stuart, was the younger son of James Stuart, and was born in the Palazzo Muti at Rome on the 6th of March 1725. He was created duke of York by his father soon after his birth, and by this title he was always alluded to by Jacobite adherents of his house. British visitors to Rome speak of him as a merry high-spirited boy with martial instincts; nevertheless, he grew up studious, peace-loving and serious. In order to be of assistance to his brother Charles, who was then campaigning in Scotland, Henry was despatched in the summer of 1745 to France, where he was placed in nominal command of French troops at Dunkirk, with which the marquis d'Argenson had some vague idea of invading England. Seven months after Charles's return from Scotland Henry secretly departed to Rome and, with the full approval of his father, but to the intense disgust of his brother, was created a cardinal deacon under the title of the cardinal of York by Pope Benedict XIV. on the 3rd of July 1747. In the following year he was ordained priest, and nominated arch-priest of the Vatican Basilica. In 1759 he was consecrated archbishop of Corinth inpattibus, and in 1761 bishop of Frascati (the ancient Tus- culum) in the Alban Hills near Rome. Six years later he was appointed vice-chancellor of the Holy See. Henry Stuart likewise held sinecure benefices in France, Spain and Spanish America, so that he became one of the wealthiest churchmen of the period, his annual revenue being said to amount to £30,000 sterling. On the death of his father, James Stuart (whose affairs he had managed during the last five years of his life), Henry nlade persistent attempts to induce Pope Clement XIII. to acknowledge his brother Charles as legitimate king of Great Britain, but his efforts were defeated, chiefly through the adverse influence of Cardinal Alessandro Albani, who was bitterly opposed to the Stuart cause. On Charles's death in 1788 Henry issued a manifesto asserting his hereditary right to the British crown, and likewise struck a medal, commemorative of the event, with the legend " Hen. IX. Mag. Brit. Fr. et Hib. Rex. Fid. Def . Card. Ep. Tusc: " (Henry the Ninth of Great Britain, France and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, Cardinal, Bishop of Frascati). In February 1798, at the approach of the invading French forces, Henry was forced to fly from Frascati to Naples, whence at the close of the same year he sailed to Messina. From Messina he proceeded by sea in order to be present at the ex- pected conclave at Venice, where he arrived in the spring of 1799, aged, ill and almost penniless. His sad plight was now made known by Cardinal Stefano Borgia to Sir John Coxe Hippisley (d. 1825), who had formerly acted semi-officially on behalf of the British government at the court of Pius VI. Sir John Hippisley appealed to George III., who "on the warm recommendation of Prince Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex, gave orders for the annual payment of a pension of £4000 to the last of the Royal Stuarts. Henry received the proffered assist- ance gratefully, and in return for the king's kindness subsequently left by his will certain British crown jewels in his possession to the prince regent. In 1800 Henry was able to return to Rome, and in 1803, being now senior cardinal bishop, he became ipso facto dean of the Sacred College and bishop of Ostia and Velletri. He died at Frascati on the I3th of July 1807, and was buried in the Grolte Vaticane of St Peter's in an urn bearing the title of "Henry IX."; he is also commemorated in Canova's well- known monument to the Royal Stuarts (see JAMES). The Stuart archives, once the property of Cardinal York, were subsequently presented by Pope Pius VII. to the prince regent, who placed them in the royal library at Windsor Castle. See B. W. Kelly, Life of Cardinal York; H. M. Vaughan, Last of the Royal Stuarts; and A. Shield, Henry Stuart, Cardinal of York, and his Times (1908). (H. M. V.) 296 HENRY OF PORTUGAL HENRY OF PORTUGAL, surnamed the " Navigator " (1394- 1460), duke of Viseu, governor of the Algarve, was born at Oporto on the 4th of March 1394. He wag the third (or, counting children who died in infancy, the fifth) son of John (Joao) I., the founder of the Aviz dynasty, under whom Portugal, victorious against Castile and against the Moors of Morocco, began to take a prominent place among European nations; his mother was Philippa, daughter of John of Gaunt. When Ceuta, the " African Gibraltar," was taken in 1415, Prince Henry performed the most distinguished service of any Portuguese leader, and received knighthood; he was now created duke of Viseu and lord of Covilham, and about the same time began his explorations, which, however, limited in their original conception, certainly developed into a search for a better knowledge of the western ocean and for a sea-way along the unknown coast of Africa to the supposed western Nile (our Senegal), to the rich negro lands beyond the Sahara desert, to the half-true, half-fabled realm of Prester John, and so ultimately to the Indies. Disregarding the traditions which assign 1412 or even 1410 as the commencement of these explorations, it appears that in 1415, the year of Ceuta, the prince sent out one John de Trasto on a voyage which brought the Portuguese to Grand Canary. There was no discovery here, for the whole Canarian archipelago was now pretty well known to French and Spanish mariners, especially since the conquest of 1402-06 by French adventurers under Castilian overlordship ; but in 1418 Henry's captain, Joao Goncalvez Zarco rediscovered Porto Santo, and in 1420 Madeira, the chief members of an island group which had originally been discovered (probably by Genoese pioneers) before 1351 or perhaps even before 1339, but had rather faded from Christian knowledge since. The story of the rediscovery of Madeira by the Englishman Robert Machim or Machin, elooing from Bristol with his lady-love, Anne d'Arfet, in the reign of Edward III. (about 1370), has been the subject of much con- troversy; in any case it does not affect the original Italian discovery, nor the first sighting of Porto Santo by Zarco, who, while exploring the west African mainland coast, was driven by storms to this island. In 1424-1425 Prince Henry attempted to purchase the Canaries, and began the colonization of the Madeira group, both in Madeira itself and in Porto Santo; to aid this latter movement he procured the famous charters of 1430 and 1433 from the Portuguese crown. In 1427, again, with the co-operation of his father King John, he seems to have sent out the royal pilot Diogo de Sevill, followed in 1431 by Goncalo Velho Cabral, to explore the Azores, first mentioned and depicted in a Spanish treatise of 1345 (the Conos$imiento de lodos los Reynos) and in an Italian map of 1351 (the Laurentian Portolano, also the first cartographical work to give us the Madeiras with modern names), but probably almost unvisited from that time to the advent of Sevill. This rediscovery of the far western archipelago, and the expeditions which, even within Prince Henry's life (as in 1452) pushed still deeper into the Atlantic, seem to show that the infante was not entirely forgetful of the possibility of such a western route to Asia as Columbus attempted in 1492, only to find America across his path. Mean- time, in 1418, Henry had gone in person to relieve Ceuta from an attack of Morocco and Granada Mussulmans; had accomplished his task, and had planned, though he did not carry out, a seizure of Gibraltar. About this time, moreover, it is probable that he had begun to gather information from the Moors with regard to the coast of " Guinea " and the interior of Africa. In 1419, after his return to Portugal, he was created governor of the " kingdom " of Algarve, the southernmost province of Portugal; and his connexion now appears to have begun with what after- wards became known as the " Infante's Town " ( Villa do If ante) at Sagres, close to Cape St Vincent; where, before 1438, a Tercena Nabal or naval arsenal grew up; where, from 1438, after the Tangier expedition, the prince certainly resided for a great part of his later life; and where he died in 1460. In 1433 died King John, exhorting his son not to abandon those schemes which were now, in the long-continued failure to round Cape Bojador, ridiculed by many as costly absurdities; and in 1434 one of the prince's ships, commanded by Gil Eannes, at length doubled the cape. In. 143 5 Affonso Goncalvez Baldaya, the prince's cup-bearer, passed fifty leagues beyond; and before- the close of 1436 the Portuguese had almost reached Cape Blanco. Plans of further conquest in Morocco, resulting in 1437 in the disastrous attack upon Tangier, and followed in 1438 by the death of King Edward (Duarte) and the domestic troubles of the earlier minority of Affonso V., now interrupted Atlantic and African exploration down to 1441, except only in the Azores. Here rediscovery and colonization both progressed, as is shown by the royal licence of the 2nd of July 1439, to people " the seven islands " of the group then known. In 1441 exploration began again in earnest with the venture of Antam Goncalvez, who brought to Portugal the first slaves and gold-dust from the Guinea coasts beyond Bojador; while Nuno Tristam in the same year pushed on to Cape Blanco. These successes produced a great effect; the cause of discovery, now connected with boundless hopes of profit, became popular; and many volunteers, especially merchants and seamen from Lisbon and Lagos, came forward. In 1442 Nuno Tristam reached the Bay or Bight of Arguim, where the infante erected a fort in 1448, and where for years the Portuguese carried on vigorous slave-raiding. Meantime the prince, who had now, in 1443, been created by Henry VI. a knight of the Garter of England, proceeded with his Sagres buildings, especially the palace, church and observatory (the first in Portugal) which formed the nucleus of the " Infante's Town," and which were certainly commenced soon after the Tangier fiasco (1437), if not earlier. In 1444-1446 there was an immense burst of maritime and exploring activity; more than 30 ships sailed with Henry's licence to Guinea; and several of their commanders achieved notable success. Thus Diniz Diaz, Nuno Tristam, and others reached the Senegal in 1445; Diaz rounded Cape Verde in the same year; and in 1446 Alvaro Fernandez pushed on almost to our Sierra Leone, to a point no leagues beyond Cape Verde. This was perhaps the most distant point reached before 1461. In 1444, moreover, the island of St Michael in the Azores was sighted (May 8), and in 1445 its colonization was begun. During this latter year also John Fernandez (q.ii.) spent seven months among the natives, of the Arguim coast, and brought back the first trustworthy first-hand European account of the Sahara hinterland. Slave- raiding continued ceaselessly; by 1446 the Portuguese had carried off nearly a thousand captives from the newly surveyed coasts; but between this time and the voyages of Cadamosto (q.v.) in 1455-1456, the prince altered his policy, forbade the kidnapping of the natives (which had brought about fierce reprisals, causing the death of Nuno Tristam in 1446, and of other pioneers in 1445, 1448, &c.), and endeavoured to promote their peaceful inter- course with his men. In 1445-1446, again, Dom Henry renewed his earlier attempts (which had failed in 1424-1425) to purchase or seize the Canaries for Portugal; by these he brought his country to the verge of war with Castile; but the home govern- ment refused to support him, and the project was again abandoned. After 1446 our most voluminous authority, Azurara, records but little; his narrative ceases altogether in 1448; one of the latest expeditions noticed by him is that of a foreigner in the prince's service, " Vallarte the Dane," which ended in utter destruction near the Gambia, after passing Cape Verde in 1448. after this the chief matters worth notice in Dom Henry's life are, first, the progress of discovery and colonization in the Azores — where Terceira was discovered before 1450, perhaps in 1445, and apparently by a Fleming, called " Jacques de Bruges " in the prince's charter of the 2nd of March 1450 (by this charter Jacques receives the captaincy of this isle as its intending colonizer) ; secondly, the rapid progress of civilization in Madeira, evidenced by its timber trade to Portugal, by its sugar, corn and honey, and above all by its wine, produced from the Malvoisie or Malmsey grape, introduced from Crete; and thirdly, the explorations of Cadamosto and Diogo Gomez (q.v.). Of these the former, in his two voyages of 1455 and 1456, explored part of the courses of the Senegal and the Gambia, discovered the Cape Verde Islands (1456), named and mapped more carefully than HENRY OF ALMAIN— HENRY OF BLOIS 297 before a considerable section of the African littoral beyond Cape Verde, and gave much new information on the trade-routes of north-west Africa and on the native races; while Gomez, in his first important venture (after 1448 and before 1458), though not accomplishing the full Indian purpose of his voyage (he took a native interpreter with him for use " in the event of reaching India "), explored and observed in the Gambia valley and along the adjacent coasts with fully as much care and profit. As a result of these expeditions the infante seems to have sent out in 1458 a mission to convert the Gambia negroes. Gomez' second voyage, resulting in another " discovery " of the Cape Verde Islands, was probably in 1462, after the death of Prince Henry; it is likely that among the infante's last occupations were the necessary measures for the equipment and despatch of this venture, as well as of Pedro de Sintra's important expedi- tion of 1461. The infante's share in home politics was considerable, especially in the years of Affonso V.'s minority (1438, &c.) when he helped to make his elder brother Pedro regent, reconciled him with the queen-mother, and worked together with them both in a council of regency. But when Dom Pedro rose in revolt (1447), Henry stood by the king and allowed his brother to be crushed. In the Morocco campaigns of his last years, especially at the capture of Alcazar the Little (1458), he restored the military fame which he had founded at Ceuta and compromised at Tangier, and which brought him invitations from the pope, the emperor and the kings of Castile and England, to take command of their armies. The prince was also grand master of the Order of Christ, the successor of the Templars in Portugal; and most of his Atlantic and African expeditions sailed under the flag of his order, whose revenues were at the service of his explorations, in whose name he asked and obtained the official recognition of Pope Eugenius IV. for his work, and on which he bestowed many privileges in the new-won lands — the tithes of St Michael in the Azores and one- half of its sugar revenues, the tithe of all merchandise from Guinea, the ecclesiastical dues of Madeira, &c. As " protector of Portuguese studies," Dom Henry is credited with having founded a professorship of theology, and perhaps also chairs of mathematics and medicine, in Lisbon — where also, in 1431, he is said to have provided house-room for the university teachers and students. To instruct his captains, pilots and other pioneers more fully in the art of navigation and the making of maps and instruments he procured, says Barros, the aid of one Master Jacome from Majorca, together with that of certain Arab and Jewish mathematicians. We hear also of one Master Peter, who inscribed and illuminated maps for the infante; the mathematician Pedro Nunes declares that the prince's mariners were well taught and provided with instruments and rules of astronomy and geometry " which all map-makers should know "; Cadamosto tells us that the Portuguese caravels in his day were the best sailing ships afloat; while, from several matters recorded by Henry's biographers, it is clear that he devoted great attention to the study of earlier charts and of any available information he could gain upon the trade-routes of north-west Africa. Thus we find an Oran merchant corresponding with him about events happening in the negro-world of the Gambia basin in 1458. Even if there, were never a formal " geographical school " at Sagres, or elsewhere in Portugal, founded by Prince Henry, it appears certain that his court was the centre of active and useful geographical study, as well as the source of the best practical exploration of the time. The prince died on the i3th of November 1460, in his town near Cape St Vincent, and was buried in the church of St Mary in Lagos, but a year later his body was removed to the superb monastery of Batalha. His great-nephew, King Dom Manuel, had a statue of him placed over the centre column of the side gate of the church of Belem. On the 24th of July 1840, a monu- ment was erected to him at Sagres at the instance of the marquis de Sa da Bandeira. The glory attaching to the name of Prince Henry does not rest merely on the achievements effected during his own lifetime, but on the subsequent results to which his genius and perseverance had lent the primary inspiration. To him the human race is indebted, in large measure, for the maritime exploration, within one century (1420-1522), of more than half the globe, and especially of the great waterways from Europe to Asia both by east and by west. His own life only sufficed for the accomplish- ment of a small portion of his task. The complete opening out of the African or south-east route to the Indies needed nearly forty years of somewhat intermittent labour after his death (1460- 1498), and the prince's share has often been forgotten in that of pioneers who were really his executors — Diogo Cam, Bartholomew Diaz or Vasco da Gama. Less directly, other sides of his activity may be considered as fulfilled by the Portuguese penetration of inland Africa, especially of Abyssinia, the land of the " Prester John " for whom Dom Henry sought, and even by the finding of a western route to Asia through the discoveries of Columbus, Balboa and Magellan. See Alguns documentos do archivo national da Torre do Tombo acerca das navegafoes . . . portuguezas (Lisbon, 1892); Alves, Dom Henrique o Infante (Oporto, 1894); Archivo dos Azores (Ponta Delgada, 1878-1894); Gomes Eannes de Azurara, Chronica do descobrimento e conquista de Guine, ed. Carreira and Santarem (Paris, 1841; Eng. trans, by Raymond Beazley and Edgar Prestage, Hakluyt Society, London, 1896-1899); Joao de Barros, Decadas da Asia (Lisbon, 1652); Raymond Beazley, Prince Henry the Navigator (London, 1895), and introduction to Azurara, vol. ii., in Hakluyt Soc. trans, (see above) ; Antonio Cordeirp, Historia Insultana (Lisbon, I7J7); Freire (Candido Lusitano), Vida do Infante D. Henrique (Lisbon, 1858); " Diogo Gomez," in Dr Schmeller's Ober Valentim Fernandez Alemao, vol. iv. pt. iii., in the publications of the 1st class of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences (Munich, 1845); R. H. Major, The Life of Henry of Portugal, surnamed the Navigator (London, 1868); Jules Mees, Henri le Navigateur et I'academie . . . de Sagres (Brussels, 1901), and Histoire de la decouverte des ties Azores (Ghent, 1901); Duarte Pacheco Pereira, Esmeraldo de situ orbis (Lisbon, 1892); Sophus Ruge, "Prinz Heinrich der See- fahrer," in vol. 65 of Globus, p. 153 (Brunswick, 1894); Gustav de Veer, Prinz Heinrich der Seefahrer (Danzig, 1863); H. E. Wauwer- man, Henri le Navigateur et I'academie portugaise de Sagres (Antwerp and Brussels, 1890). (C. R. B.) HENRY OF ALMAIN (1235-1271), so called from his father's German connexions, was the son of Richard, earl of Cornwall and king of the Romans. As a nephew of both Henry III. and Simon de Montfort he wavered between the two at the beginning of the Barons' War, but finally took the royah'st side and was among the prisoners taken by Montfort at Lewes (1264). In 1268 he took the cross with his cousin Edward, who, however, sent him back from Sicily to pacify the unruly province of Gascony. Henry took the land route with the kings of France and Sicily. While attending mass at Viterbo (13 March 1271) he was attacked by Guy and Simon de Montfort, sons of Earl Simon, and foully murdered. This revenge was the more outrageous since Henry had personally exerted himself on behalf of the Montforts after Evesham. The deed is mentioned by Dante, who put Guy de Montfort in the seventh circle of hell. See W. H. Blaauw's The Barons' War (ed. 1871); Ch. B<5mont's Simon de Montfort (1884). HENRY OF BLOIS, bishop of Winchester (1101-1171), was the son of Stephen, count of Blois, by Adela, daughter of William I., and brother of King Stephen. He was educated at Cluny, and consistently exerted himself for the principles of Cluniac reform. If these involved high claims of independence and power for the Church, they also asserted a high standard of devotion and discipline. Henry was brought to England by Henry I. and made abbot of Glastonbury. In 1129 he was given the bishopric of Winchester and allowed to hold his abbey in conjunction with it. His hopes of the see of Canterbury were disappointed, but he obtained in 1139 a legatine commission which gave him a higher rank than the primate. In fact as well as in theory he became the master of the Church in England. He even con- templated the erection of a new province, with Winchester as its centre, which was to be independent of Canterbury. Owing both to local and to general causes the power of the Church in England has never been higher than in the reign of Stephen (1135-1154). Henry as its leader and a legate of the pope was the real " lord of England," as the chronicles call him. Indeed, one of the ecclesi- astical councils over which he presided formally declared that the election of the king in England was the special privilege of the HENRY OF GHENT— HENRY OF LAUSANNE clergy. Stephen owed his crown to Henry (1135), but they quarrelled when Stephen refused to give Henry the primacy; and the bishop took up the cause of Roger of Salisbury (1139). After the battle of Lincoln (1141) Henry declared for Matilda; but finding his advice treated with contempt, rejoined his brother's side, and his successful defence of Winchester against the empress (Aug.-Sept. 1141) was the turning-point of the civil war. The expiration of bis legatine commission of 1 144 deprived him of much of his power. He spent the rest of Stephen's reign in trying to procure its renewal. But his efforts were unsuccessful, though he made a personal visit to Rome. At the accession of Henry II. (1154) he retired from the world and spent the rest of his life in works of charity and penitence. He died in 1171. Henry seems to have been a man of high character, great courage, resolution and ability. Like most great bishops of his age he had a passion for architecture. He built, among other castles, that of Farnham ; and he began the hospital of St Cross at Winchester. AUTHORITIES. — Original: William of Malmesbury, De gestis regum; the Gesta Stephani. Modern: Sir James Ramsay, Founda- tions of England, vol. ii. ; Kate Norgate's Angevin Kings; Kitchin's Winchester. HENRY OF GHENT [Henricus a Gandavo] (c. 1217-1293), scholastic philosopher, known as " Doctor Solennis," was born in the district of Mude, near Ghent, and died at Tournai (or Paris). He is said to have belonged to an Italian family named Bonicolli, in Flemish Goethals, but the question of his name has been much discussed (see authorities below). He studied at Ghent and then at Cologne under Albertus Magnus. After obtaining the degree of doctor he returned to Ghent, and is said to have been the first to lecture there publicly on philosophy and theology. Attracted to Paris by the fame of the university, he took part in the many disputes between the orders and the secular priests, and warmly defended the latter. A contemporary of Aquinas, he opposed several of the dominant theories of the time, and united with the current Aristotelian doctrines a strong infusion of Platonism. He distinguished between knowledge of actual objects and the divine inspiration by which we cognize the being and existence of God. The first throws no light upon the second. Individuals are constituted not by the material element but by their independent existence, i.e. ultimately by the fact that they are created as separate entities. Universals must be distinguished according as they have reference to our minds or to the divine mind. In the divine intelligence exist exemplars or types of the genera and species of natural objects. On this subject Henry is far from clear; but he defends Plato against the current Aristotelian criticism, and endeavours to show that the two views are in harmony. In psychology, his view of the intimate union of soul and body is remarkable. The body he regards as forming part of the substance of the soul, which through this union is more perfect and complete. WORKS. — Quodlibeta theologica (Paris, 1518; Venice, 1608 and 1613); Summa theologiae (Paris, 1520; Ferrara, 1646); De scriptori- bus ecclesiasticis (Cologne, 1580). AUTHORITIES. — F. Huet's Recherches hist, el crit. . . . de H. de G. (Paris, 1838) has been superseded by F. Ehrle's monograph in Archiv fur Lit. u. Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters, i. (1885); see also A. Wauters and N. de Pauw in the Bull, de la Com. royale d'histoire de Belgique (4th series, xiv., xv., xvi., 1887-1889); H. Delehaye, Nouvelles Recherches sur Henri de Gand (1886) ; C.Werner, Heinrich von Gent als Reprasentant des christlichen Platonismus im I3ten Jahrh. (Vienna, 1878); A. Stockl, Phil. d. Mittelalters, ii. 738-758; C. Brdehillet Jourdain, La Philosophie de St Thomas d'Aquin (1858), ii. 29-46; Alphonse le Roy in Biographic nationale de Belgique, vii. (Brussels, 1880); and article SCHOLASTICISM. HENRY OF HUNTINGDON, English chronicler of the i2th century, was born, apparently, between the years 1080 and 1090. His father, by name Nicholas, was a clerk, who became archdeacon of Cambridge, Hertford and Huntingdon, in the time of Remigius, bishop of Lincoln (d. 1092). The celibacy of the clergy was not strictly enforced in England before 1102. Hence the chronicler makes no secret of his antecedents, nor did they interfere with his career. At an early age Henry entered the household of Bishop Robert Bloet, who appointed him, immediately after the death of Nicholas (mo), archdeacon of Hertford and Huntingdon. Henry was on familiar terms with his patron; and also, it would seem, with Bloet's successor, by whom he was encouraged to undertake the writing of an English history from the time of Julius Caesar. This work, undertaken before 1130, was first published in that year; the author subsequently published in succession four more editions, of which the last ends in 1 154 with the accession of Henry II. The only recorded fact of the chronicler's later life is that he went with Archbishop Theobald to Rome in 1139. On the way Henry halted at Bee, and there made the acquaintance of Robert de Torigni, who mentions their encounter in the preface to his Chronicle. The Historia Anglorum was first printed in Savile, Rerum Angli- carum scriptores post Bedam (London, 1596). The first six books, excepting the third, which is almost entirely taken from Bede, are given in Monumenta historica Britannica, vol. i. (ed. H. Petrie and J. Sharpe, London, 1848). The standard edition is that of T. Arnold in the Rolls Series (London, 1879). There is a translation by T. Forester in Bonn's Antiquarian Library (London, 1853). The Historia is of little independent value before 1126. Up to that point the author compiles from Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Nennius, Bede and the English chronicles, particularly that of Peterborough; in some cases he professes to supplement these sources from oral tradition; but most of his amplifications are pure rhetoric (see F. Liebermann in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte for 1878, pp. 265 seq.). Arnold prints, in an appendix, a minor work from Henry's pen, the Epistola ad Walterum de contemptu mundi, which was written in 1135. It is a moralizing tract, but contains some interesting anecdotes about contemporaries. Henry also wrote epistles to Henry I. (on the succession of kings and emperors in the great monarchies of the world) and to " Warinus, a Briton " (on the early British kings, after Geoffrey of Monmouth). A book, De miraculis, composed of extracts from Bede, was appended along with these three epistles to the later recensions of the Historia. Henry composed eight books of Latin epigrams; two books survive in the Lambeth MS., No. 118. His value as a historian, formerly much overrated, is discussed at length by Liebermann and in T. Arnold's introduction to the Rolls edition of the Historia. (H. W. C. D.) HENRY OF LAUSANNE (variously known as of Bruys, of Cluny, of Toulouse, and as the Deacon), French heresiarch of the first half of the 1 2th century. Practically nothing is known of his origin or early life. He may have been one of those hermits who at that time swarmed in the forests of western Europe, and particularly in France, always surrounded by popular veneration, and sometimes the founders of monasteries or religious orders, such as those of Premontre or Fontevrault. If St Bernard's reproach (Ep. 241) be well founded, Henry was an apostate monk — a " black monk " (Benedictine) according to the chronicler Alberic de Trois Fontaines. The information we possess as to his degree of instruction is scarcely more precise or less conflicting. When he arrived at Le Mans in 1101, his terminus a quo was probably Lausanne. At that moment Hildebert, the bishop of Le Mans, was absent from his episcopal town, and this is one of the reasons why Henry was granted permission to preach (March to July 1101), a function jealously guarded by the regular clergy. Whether by his prestige as a hermit and ascetic or by his personal charm, he soon acquired enormous influence over the people. His doctrine at that date appears to have been very vague; he seemingly rejected the invocation of saints and also second marriages, and preached penitence. Women, inflamed by his words, gave up their jewels and luxurious apparel, and young men married courtesans in the hope of reclaiming them. Henry was peculiarly fitted for a popular preacher. In person he was tall and had a long beard; his voice was sonorous, and his eyes flashed fire. He went bare-footed, preceded by a man carrying a staff surmounted with an iron cross; he slept on the bare ground, and lived by alms. At his instigation the inhabitants of Le Mans soon began to slight the clergy of their town and to reject all ecclesiastical authority. On his return from Rome, Hildebert had a public disputation with Henry, in which, according to the bishop's A eta episcoporum Cenomannensium, Henry was shown to be less guilty of heresy than of ignorance. He, however, was forced to leave Le Mans, and went probably to Poitiers and afterwards to Bordeaux. Later we find him in the diocese of Aries, where the archbishop arrested him and had his case referred to the tribunal of the pope. In 1134 Henry appeared before Pope Innocent III. at the council of Pisa, where he was compelled HENRY, E. L.— HENRY, J. to abjure his errors and was sentenced to imprisonment. It appears that St Bernard offered him an asylum at Clairvaux; but it is not known if he reached Clairvaux, nor do we know when or in what circumstances he resumed his activities. Towards 1139, however, Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, wrote a treatise called Epistola sen traclatus adversus Petrobru- sianos (Migne, Pair. Lai. clxxxix.) against the disciples of Peter of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne, whom he calls Henry of Bruys, and whom, at the moment of writing, he accuses of preaching, in all the dioceses in the south of France, errors which he had inherited from Peter of Bruys. According to Peter the Venerable, Henry's teaching is summed up as follows: rejection of the doctrinal and disciplinary authority of the church; recognition of the Gospel freely interpreted as the sole rule of faith; condemnation of the baptism of infants, of the eucharist, of the sacrifice of the mass, of the communion of saints, and of prayers for the dead; and refusal to recognize any form of worship or liturgy. The success of this teaching spread very rapidly in the south of France. Speaking of this region, St Bernard (Ep. 241) says: " The churches are without flocks, the flocks without priests, the priests without honour; in a word, nothing remains save Christians without Christ." On several occasions St Bernard was begged to fight the innovator on the scene of his exploits, and in 1145, at the instance of the legate Alberic, cardinal bishop of Ostia, he set out , passing through the diocese of Angouleme and Limoges, sojourning for some time at Bordeaux, and finally reaching the heretical towns of Bergerac, Perigueux, Sarlat, Cahors and Toulouse. At Bernard's approach Henry quitted Toulouse, leaving there many adherents, both of noble and humble birth, and especially among the weavers. But Bernard's eloquence and miracles made many converts, and Toulouse and Albi were quickly restored to orthodoxy. After inviting Henry to a disputation, which he refused to attend, St Bernard returned to Clairvaux. Soon afterwards the heresi- arch was arrested, brought before the bishop of Toulouse, and probably imprisoned for life. In a letter to the people of Toulouse, undoubtedly written at the end of 1146, St Bernard calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the heresy. In 1151, however, some Henricians still remained in Languedoc, for Matthew Paris relates (Chron. maj., at date 1151) that a young girl, who gave herself out to be miraculously inspired by the Virgin Mary, was reputed to have converted a great number of the disciples of Henry of Lausanne. It is impossible to designate definitely as Henricians one of the two sects discovered at Cologne and described by Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, in his letter to St Bernard (Migne, Pair. Lot., clxxxii. 676-680), or the heretics of Perigord mentioned by a certain monk Heribert (Martin Bouquet, Recueil des hisloriens des Gaules el de la France, xii- 550-551)- See " Les Origines de 1'he're'sie albigeoise," by Vacandard in the Revue des questions historiques (Paris, 1894, pp. 67-83). (P. A.) HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841- ), American genre painter, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the I2th of January 1841. He was a pupil of the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia, and of Gleyre and Courbet in Paris, and in 1870 was elected to the National Academy of Design, New York. As a painter of colonial and early American themes and incidents of rural life, he displays a quaint humour and a profound knowledge of human nature. Among his best- known compositions are some of early railroad travel, incidents of stage coach and canal boat journeys, rendered with much detail on a minute scale. HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876), Irish classical scholar, was born in Dublin on the i3th of December 1798. He was educated at Trinity College, and until 1845 practised as a physician in the city. In spite of his unconventionality and unorthodox views on religion and his own profession, he was very successful. His accession to a large fortune enabled him to devote himself entirely to the absorbing occupation of his life — the study of Virgil. Accompanied by his wife and daughter, he visited all those parts of Europe where he was likely to find rare editions or MSS. of the poet. He died near Dublin on the i4th of July 299 1876. As a commentator on Virgil Henry will always deserve to be remembered, notwithstanding the occasional eccentricity of his notes and remarks. The first fruits of his researches were published at Dresden in 1853 under the quaint title Notes of a Twelve Years' Voyage of Discovery in the first six Books of the Eneis. These were embodied, with alterations and additions, in the Aeneidea, or Critical, Exegetical and Aesthetical Remarks on the Aeneis (1873-1892), of which only the notes on the first book were published during the author's lifetime. As a textual critic Henry was exceedingly conservative. His notes, written in a racy and interesting style, are especially valuable for their wealth of illustration and references to the less-known classical authors. Henry was also the author of several poems, some of them descriptive accounts of his travels, and of various pamphlets of a satirical nature. See obituary notice by J. P. Mahaffy in the Academy of the I2th of August 1876, where a list of his works, nearly all of which were privately printed, is given. HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878), American physicist, was born in Albany, N.Y., on the i7th of December 1797. He received his education at an ordinary school, and afterwards at the Albany Academy, which enjoyed considerable reputation for the thoroughness of its classical and mathematical courses. On finishing his academic studies he contemplated adopting the medical profession, and prosecuted his studies in chemistry, anatomy and physiology with that view. He occasionally contributed papers to the Albany Institute, in the years 1824 and 1825, on chemical and mechanical subjects; and in the latter year, having been unexpectedly appointed assistant engineer on the survey of a route for a state road from the Hudson river to Lake Erie, a distance somewhat over 300 m., he at once embarked with zeal and success in the new enterprise. This diversion from his original bent gave him an inclination to the career of civil and mechanical engineering; and in the spring of 1826 he was elected by the trustees of the Albany Academy to the chair of mathematics and natural philosophy in that institution. In the latter part of 1827 he read before the Albany Institute his first important contribution," On Some Modifications of the Electro-Magnetic Apparatus." Struck with the great improvements then recently introduced into such apparatus by William Sturgeon of Woolwich, he had still further extended their efficiency, with considerable reduction of battery- power, by adopting in all the experimental circuits (where applicable) the principle of J. S. C. Schweigger's " multiplier," that is, by substituting for single wire circuits, voluminous coils (Trans. Albany Institute, 1827, i, p. 22). In June 1828 and in March 1829 he exhibited before the institute small electro- magnets closely and repeatedly wound with silk-covered wire, which had a far greater lifting power than any then known. Henry appears to have been the first to adopt insulated or silk- covered wire for the magnetic coil; and also the first to employ what may be called the " spool " winding for the limbs of the magnet. He was also the first to demonstrate experimentally the difference of action between what he called a " quantity " magnet excited by a " quantity " battery of a single pair, and an " intensity " magnet with long fine wire coil excited by an " intensity " battery of many elements, having their resistances suitably proportioned. He pointed out that the latter form alone was applicable to telegraphic purposes. A detailed account of these experiments and exhibitions was not, however, published till 1831 (Sill.Journ., 19, p. 400). Henry's" quantity "magnets acquired considerable celebrity at the time, from their un- precedented attractive power — one (August 1830) lifting 750 Ib, another (March 1831) 2300, and a third (1834) 3500. Early in 1831 he arranged a small office- bell to be tapped by the polarized armature of an " intensity " magnet, whose coil was in continuation of a mile of insulated copper wire, suspended about one of the rooms of his academy. This was the first instance of magnetizing iron at a distance, or of a suitable combination of magnet and battery being so arranged as to be capable of such action. It was, therefore, the earliest example of a true " magnetic " telegraph, all preceding experiments to 300 HENRY, M.— HENRY, P. this end having been on the galvanometer or needle principle. About the same time he devised and constructed the first electromagnetic engine with automatic polechanger (Sill. Journ., 1831, 20, p. 340; and Sturgeon's Annals Electr., 1839, 3,»p. 554). Early in 1832 he discovered the induction of a current on itself, in a long helical wire, giving greatly increased intensity of discharge (Sill. Journ., 1832, 22, p. 408). In 1832 he was elected to the chair of natural philosophy in the New Jersey college at Princeton. In 1834 he continued and extended his researches " On the Influence of a Spiral Conductor in increasing the Intensity of Electricity from a Galvanic Arrangement of a Single Pair," a memoir of which was read before the American Philo- sophical Society on the 5th of February 1835. In 1835 he combined the short circuit of his monster magnet (of 1834) with the small " intensity " magnet of an experimental telegraph wire, thereby establishing the fact that very powerful mechanical effects could be produced at a great distance by the agency of a very feeble magnet used as a circuit maker and breaker, or as a " trigger " — the precursor of later forms of relay and receiving magnets. In 1837 he paid his first visit to England and Europe. In 1838 he made important investigations in regard to the conditions and range of induction from electrical currents — showing that induced currents, although merely momentary, produce still other or tertiary currents, and thus on through successive orders of induction, with alternating signs, and with reversed initial and terminal signs. He also discovered similar successive orders of induction in the case of the passage of frictional electricity (Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., 6, pp. 303-337). Among many minor observations, he discovered in 1842 the oscillatory nature of the electrical discharge, magnetizing about a thousand needles in the course of his experiments (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., I, p. 301). He traced the influence of induction to sur- prising distances, magnetizing needles in the lower story of a house through several intervening floors by means of electrical discharges in the upper story, and also by the secondary current in a wire 220 ft. distant from the wire of the primary circuit. The five numbers of his Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism (1835-1842) were separately republished from the Transactions. In 1843 he made some interesting- original observations on "Phosphorescence" (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. ,3, pp.38-44). In 1844, by experiments on the tenacity of soap-bubbles, he showed that the molecular cohesion of water is equal (if not superior) to that of ice, and hence, generally, that solids and their liquids have practically the same amount of cohesion (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 4, pp. 56 and 84). In 1845 he showed, by means of a thermo-galvano- meter, that the solar spots radiate less heat than the general solar surface (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 4, pp. 173-176). In December 1846 Henry was elected secretary and director of the Smithsonian Institution, then just established. While closely occupied with the exacting duties of that office, he still found time to prosecute many original inquiries — as into the application of acoustics to public buildings, and the best construction and arrangement of lecture-rooms, into the strength of various building 'materials, &c. Having early devoted much attention to meteorology, both in observing and in reducing and discussing observations, he (among his.first administrative acts) organized a large and widespread corps of observers, and made arrange- ments for simultaneous reports by means of the electric telegraph, which was yet in its infancy (Smithson. Report for 1847, pp. 146, 147). He was the first to apply the telegraph to meteorological research, to have the atmospheric conditions daily indicated on a large map, to utilize the generalizations made in weather forecasts, and to embrace a continent under a single system — British America and Mexico being included in the field of observa- tion. In 1852, on the reorganization of the American lighthouse system, he was appointed a member of the new board; and in 1871 he became the presiding officer of the establishment — a position he continued to hold during the rest of his life. His diligent investigations into the efficiency of various illuminants in differing circumstances, and into the best conditions for developing their several maximum powers of brilliancy, while greatly improving the usefulness of the line of beacons along the extensive coast of the United States, effected at the same time a great economy of administration. His equally careful experi- ments on various acoustic instruments also resulted in giving to his country the most serviceable system of fog-signals known to maritime powers. In the course of these varied and prolonged researches from 1865 to 1877, he also made important contribu- tions to the science of acoustics; and he established by several series of laborious observations, extending over many years and along a wide coast range, the correctness of G. G. Stokes's hypothesis (Report Brit. Assoc., 1857, part ii. 27) that the wind exerts a very marked influence in refracting sound-beams. From 1868 Henry continued to be annually chosen as president of the National Academy of Sciences; and he was also president of the Philosophical Society of Washington from the date of its organization in 1871. . Henry was by general concession the foremost of American physicists. He was a man of varied culture, of large breadth and liberality of views, of generous impulses, of great gentleness and courtesy of manner, combined with equal firmness of purpose and energy of action. He died at Washington on the i3th of May 1878. (S. F. B.) HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714), English nonconformist divine, was born at Broad Oak, a farm-house on the confines of Flintshire and Shropshire, on the i8th of October 1662. He was the son of Philip Henry, who had, two months earlier, been ejected by the Act of Uniformity. Unlike most of his fellow- sufferers, Philip Henry possessed some private means, and was thus enabled to give a good education to his son, who went first to a school at Islington, and then to Gray's Inn. He soon relinquished his legal studies for theology, and in 1687 became minister of a Presbyterian congregation at Chester, removing in 1712 to Mare Street, Hackney. Two years later (22nd of June 1714), he died suddenly of apoplexy at Nantwich while on a journey from Chester to London. Henry's well-known Exposi- tion of the Old and New Testaments (1708-1710) is a commentary of a practical and devotional rather than of a critical kind, covering the whole of the Old Testament, and the Gospels and Acts in the New. Here it was broken off by the author's death, but the work was finished by a number of ministers, and edited by G. Burder and John Hughes in 181 1. Of no value as criticism, its unfailing good sense, its discriminating thought, its high moral tone, its simple piety and its singular felicity of practical application, combine with the well-sustained flow of its racy English style to secure for it the foremost place among works of its class. His Miscellaneous Writings, including a Life of Mr Philip Henry, The Communicant's Companion, Directions for Daily Communion with God, A Method for Prayer, A Scriptural Cate- chism, and numerous sermons, were edited in 1809 and in 1830. See biographies by' W. Tong (1816), C. Chapman (1859), J. B. Williams (1828, new ed. 1865); and M. H. Lee's Diaries and Letters of Philip Henry (1883). HENRY, PATRICK (1736-1799), American statesman and orator, was born at Studley, Hanover county, Virginia, on the 29th of May 1736. He was the son of John Henry, a well- educated Scotsman, among whose relatives was the historian William Robertson, and who served in Virginia as county surveyor, colonel and judge of a county court. His mother was one of a family named Winston, of Welsh descent, noted for conversational and musical talent. At the age of ten Patrick was making slow progress in the study of reading, writing and arithmetic at a small country school, when his father became his tutor and taught him Latin, Greek and mathematics for five years, but with limited success. His school days being then terminated, he was employed as a store-clerk for one year. Within the seven years next following he failed twice as a store- keeper and once as a. farmer; but in the meantime acquired a taste for reading, of history especially, and read and re-read the history of Greece and Rome, -of England, and of her American colonies. Then, poor but not discouraged, he resolved to be a lawyer, and after reading Coke upon Littleton and the Virginia laws for a few weeks only, he strongly impressed one of his HENRY, R.— HENRY, V. 301 examiners, and was admitted to the bar at the age of twenty- four, on condition that he spend more time in study before beginning to practise. He rapidly acquired a considerable practice, his fee books shewing that for the first three years he charged fees in 1185 cases. Then in 1763 was delivered his speech in " The Parson's Cause " — a suit brought by a clergy- man, Rev. James Maury, in the Hanover County Court, to secure restitution for money considered by him to be due on account of his salary (16,000 pounds of tobacco by law) having been paid in money calculated at a rate less than the current market price of tobacco. This speech, which, according to reports, was extremely radical and denied the right of the king to disallow acts of the colonial legislature, made Henry the idol of the common people of Virginia and procured for him an enormous practice. In 1765 he was elected a member of the Virginia legislature, where he became in the same year the author of the " Virginia Resolutions," which were no less than a declara- tion of resistance to the Stamp Act and an assertion of the right of the colonies to legislate for themselves independently of the control of the British parliament, and gave a most powerful impetus to the movement resulting m the War of Independence. In a speech urging their adoption appear the often-quoted' words: " Tarquin and Caesar had each his Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third [here he was interrupted by cries of " Treason "] and Geotge the Third may profit by their example! If Ms be treason, make the most of it." Until 1775 he continued to sit in the House of Burgesses, as a leader during all that eventful period. He was prominent as a radical in all measures in opposition to the British government, and was a member of the first Virginia committee of correspondence. In 1774 and 1775 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress and served on three of its most important committees: that on colonial trade and manufactures, that for drawing up an address to the king, and that for stating the rights of the colonies. In 1775, in the second revolutionary convention of Virginia, Henry, regarding war as inevitable, presented resolutions for arming the Virginia militia. The more conservative members strongly opposed them as premature, whereupon Henry supported them in a speech familiar to the American school-boy for several generations following, closing with the words, " Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains and. slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death! " The resolutions were passed and their author was made chairman of the committee for which they provided. The chief command of the newly organized army was also given to him, but previously, at the head of a body of militia, he had demanded satisfaction for powder removed from the public store by order of Lord Dunmore, the royal governor, with the result that £330 was paid in compensation. But his military appointment required obedience to the Committee of Public Safety, and this body, largely dominated by Edmund Pendleton, so restrained him from active service that he resigned on the aStlji of February 1776. In the Virginia convention of 1776 he favoured the postponement of a declaration of independence, until a firm union of the colonies and the friendship of France and Spain haq\. been secured. In the same convention he served on the com- mittee which drafted the first constitution for Virginia, and was elected governor of the State — to which office he was re-elected in 1777 and 1778, thus serving as long as the new constitution allowed any man to serve continuously. As governor he gave Washington able support and sent out the expedition under George Rogers Clark (q.v.) into the Illinois country. In 1778 he was chosen a delegate to Congress, but declined to serve. From 1780 to 1784 and from 1787 to 1790 he was again a member of his State legislature; and from 1784 to 1786 was again governor. Until 1786 he was a leading advocate of a stronger central government but when chosen a delegate to the Philadelphia constitutional convention of 1787, he had become cold in the cause and declined to serve. Moreover, in the state convention called to decide whether Virginia should ratify the Federal Constitution he led the opposition, contending that the proposed Constitution, because of its centralizing character, was dangerous to the liberties of the country. This change of attitude is thought to have been due chiefly to his suspicion of the North aroused by John Jay's proposal to surrender to Spain for twenty- five or thirty years the navigation of the Mississippi. From 1794 until his death he declined in succession the following offices: United States senator (1794), secretary of state in Washington's cabinet (1795), chief justice of the United States Supreme Court (1795), governor of Virginia (1796), to which office he had been electe'd by the Assembly, and envoy to France (1799). In 1799, however, he consented to serve again in his State legislature, where he wished to combat the Virginia Resolutions; he never took his seat, since he died, on his Red Hill estate in Charlotte county, Virginia, on the 6th of June of that year. Henry was twice married, first to Sarah Skelton, and second to Dorothea Spotswood Dandridge, a grand-daughter of Governor Alexander Spotswood. See Moses Coit Tyler, Patrick Henry (Boston, 1887; new ed., 1899), and William Wirt Henry (Patrick Henry's grandson), Patrick Henry: Life, Correspondence and Speeches (New York, 1890-1891); these supersede the very unsatisfactory biography by William Wirt, Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry (Philadelphia, 1817). See also George Morgan, The True Patrick Henry (Phila- delphia, 1907). (N. D. M.) HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790), British historian, was the son of James Henry, a farmer of Muirton, near Stirling. Born on the 1 8th of February 1718 he was educated at the parish school of St Ninians, and at the grammar school of Stirling, and, after completing his course at Edinburgh University, became master of the grammar school at Annan. In 1746 he was licensed to preach, and in 1748 was chosen minister of a Presby- terian-congregation at Carlisle, where he remained until 1760, when he removed to a similar charge at Berwick-on-Tweed. In 1768 he became minister of the New Greyfriars' Church, Edinburgh, and having received the degree of D.D. from Edin- burgh University in 1771, and served as moderator of the general assembly of the church of Scotland in 1774, he was appointed one of the ministers of the Old Greyfriars' Church, Edinburgh, in 1776, remaining in this charge until his death on the 24th of November 1 790. During his residence in Berwick, Henry commenced his History of Great Britain, written on a new plan; but, owing to the difficulty of consulting the original authorities, he did not make much progress with the work until his removal to Edinburgh in 1768. The first five volumes appeared between 1771 and 1785, and the sixth, edited and completed by Malcolm Laing, was published three years after the author's death. A life of Henry was prefixed to this volume. The History covers the years between the Roman invasion and the death of Henry VIII., and the " new plan " is the combina- tion of an account of the domestic life and commercial and social progress of the people with the narrative of the political events of each period. The work was virulently assailed by Dr Gilbert Stuart (1742-1786), who appeared anxious to damage the sale of the book; but the injury thus effected was only slight, as Henry received £3300 for the volumes published during his lifetime. In 1781, through the influence of the earl of Mans- field, he obtained a pension of £100 a year from the British government. The History of Great Britain has been translated into French, and has passed into several English editions. An account of Stuart's attack on Henry is given in Isaac D'Israeli's Calamities of Authors. HENRY, VICTOR (1850- ); French philologist, was born at Colmar in Alsace. Having held appointments at Douai and Lille, he was appointed professor of Sanskrit and comparative grammar in the university of Paris. A prolific and versatile writer, he is probably best known by the English translations of his Precis de Grammaire comparee de I' anglais et de I'allemand and Precis . . . du Grec et du Latin. Important works by him on India and Indian languages are: Manuel pour etudier le Sanscrit vedique (with A. Bergaigne, 1890); Elements de Sanscrit classique (1902); Precis de grammaire Pdlie (1904); Les Littera- tures dt I'Inde: Sanscrit, Pali, Prdcril (1904); La Magie dans I'Inde antique (1904); Le Parsisme (1903); L'Agni^toma (1906). 302 HENRY, W.— HENSELT Obscure languages (such as Innok, Quichua, Greenland) and local dialects (Lexique itymologique du Breton moderne; Le Dicuecle Alaman de Colmar) also claimed his attention. Le Langage Martien is a curious book. It contains a discussion of some 40 phrases (amounting to about 300 words), which a certain Mademoiselle Helene Smith (a well-known spiritualist medium of Geneva), while on a hypnotic visit to the planet Mars, learnt and repeated and even wrote down during her trance as specimens of a language spoken there, explained to her by a disembodied interpreter. HENRY, WILLIAM (1775-1836), English chemist, son of Thomas Henry (1734-1816), an apothecary and writer on chemistry, was born at Manchester on the i2th of December 1775. He began to study medicine at Edinburgh in 1795, taking his doctor's degree in 1807, but ill-health interrupted his practice as a physician, and he devoted his time mainly to chemical research, especially in regard to gases. One of his best-known papers (Phil. Trans., 1803) describes experiments on the quantity of gases absorbed by water at different tempera- tures and under different pressures, the conclusion he reached (" Henry's law ") being that " water takes up of gas condensed by one, two or more additional atmospheres, a quantity which, ordinarily compressed, would be equal to twice, thrice, &c. the volume absorbed under the common pressure of the atmosphere." Others of his papers deal with gas-analysis, fire-damp, illuminating gas, the composition of hydrochloric acid and of ammonia, urinary and other morbid concretions, and the disinfecting powers of heat. His Elements of Experimental Chemistry (1799) enjoyed considerable vogue in its day, going through 1 1 editions in 30 years. He died at Pendlebury, near Manchester, on the 2nd of September 1836. HENRYSON, ROBERT (c. 1425-0. 1500), Scottish poet, was born about 1425. It has been surmised that he was connected with the family of Henderson of Fordell, but of this there is no evidence. He is described, on the title-page of the 1570 edition of his Fables, as " scholemaister of Dunfermeling," probably of the grammar-school of the Benedictine Abbey there. There is no record of his having studied at St Andrews, the only Scottish university at this time; but in 1462 a " Master Robert Henryson " is named among those incorporated in the recently founded university of Glasgow. It is therefore likely that his first studies were completed abroad, at Paris or Louvain. He would appear to have been in lower orders, if, in addition to being master of the grammar-school, he is the notary Robert Henryson who subscribes certain deeds in 1478. As Dunbar (q.v.) refers to him as deceased in his Lament for the Makaris, his death may be dated about 1500. Efforts have been made to draw up a chronology of his poems; but every scheme of this kind, is, in a stronger sense than in the case of Dunbar, mere guess-work. There are no biographical or bibliographical facts to guide us, and the " internal evidence " is inconclusive. Henryson's longest, and -in many respects his most original and effective work, is his Morall Fabillis of Esope, a collection of thirteen fables, chiefly based on the versions of Anonymus, Lydgate and Caxton. The outstanding merit of the work is its freshness of treatment. The old themes are retold with such vivacity, such fresh lights on human character, and with so much local " atmosphere," that they deserve the credit of original productions. They are certainly unrivalled in English fabulistic literature. The earliest available texts are the Char- teris text printed by Lekpreuik in Edinburgh in 1570 and the Harleian MS. No. 3865 in the British Museum. In the Testament of Cresseid Henryson supplements Chaucer's tale of Troilus with the story of the tragedy of Cresseid. Here again his literary craftsmanship saves him from the disaster which must have overcome another poet in undertaking to con- tinue the part of the story which Chaucer had intentionally left untold. The description of Cresseid's leprosy, of ner meeting with Troilus, of his sorrow and charity, and of her death, give the poem a high place in writings of this genre. The poem entitled Orpheus and Eurydice, which is drawn from Boethius, contains some good passages, especially the lyrical lament of Orpheus, with the refrains " Quhar art thow gane, my luf Erudices?" and " My lady quene and luf, Erudices." It is followed by a long moralitas, in the manner of the Fables. Thirteen shorter poems have been ascribed to Henryson. Of these the pastoral dialogue " Robene and Makyne," perhaps the best known of his work, is the most successful. Its model may perhaps be found in the pastourclles, but it stands safely on its own merits. Unlike most of the minor poems it is inde- pendent of Chaucerian tradition. The other pieces deal with the conventional 15th-century topics, Age: Death, Hasty Credence, Want of Wise Men and the like. The verses entitled " Sum Practysis of Medecyne," in which some have failed to see Henry- son's hand, is an example of that boisterous alliterative burlesque which is represented by a single specimen in the work of the greatest makers, Dunbar, Douglas and Lyndsay. For this reason, if not for others, the difference of its manner is no argu- ment against its authenticity. The MS. authorities for the text are the Asloan, Bannatyne, Maitland Folio, Makculloch, Gray and Riddell. Chepman and Myllar's Prints (1508) have preserved two of the minor poems and a fragment of Orpheus and Eurydice. The first complete edition was prepared by David Laing (l vol., Edinburgh, 1865). A more ex- haustive edition in three volumes, containing all the texts, was undertaken by the Scottish Text Society (ed. G. Gregory Smith), the first volume of the text (vol. ii. of the work) appearing in 1907. For a critical account of Henryson, see Irving's History of Scottish Poetry, Henderson's Vernacular Scottish Literature, Gregory Smith's Transition Period, J. H. Millar's Literary History of Scotland, and the second volume of the Cambridge History of English Literature (1908). (G. G. S.) HENSCHEL, GEORGE [ISIDOR GEORG] (1850- ), English musician (naturalized 1890), of German family, was born at Breslau, and educated as a pianist, making his first public appearance in Berlin in 1862. He subsequently, however, took up singing, having developed a fine baritone voice; and in 1868 he sang the part of Hans Sachs in Meister -singer at Munich. In 1877 he began a successful career in England, singing at the principal concerts; and in 1881 he married the American soprano, Lilian Bailey (d. 1901), who was associated with him in a number of vocal recitals. He was also prominent as a con- ductor, starting the London symphony concerts in 1886, and both in England and America (where he was the first conductor of the Boston symphony concerts, 1881) he took a leading part in advancing his art. He composed a number of instrumental works, a fine Stabat Mater (Birmingham festival, 1894), &c., and an opera, Nubia (Dresden, 1899). HENSELT, ADOLF VON (1814-1889), German composer, was born at Schwabach, in Bavaria, on the i2th of May 1814. At three years old he began to learn the violin, and at five the pianoforte under Frau v. Fladt. On obtaining financial help from King Louis I. he went to study under Hummel in Weimar, and thence in 1832 to Vienna, where, besides studying composition under Simon Sechter, he made a great success as a concert pianist. In order to recruit his health he made a prolonged tour in 1836 through the chief German towns. In 1837 he settled at Breslau, where he had married, but in the following year he migrated to St Petersburg, where previous visits had made him persona grata at Court. He then became court pianist and inspector of musical studies in the Imperial Institute of Female Education, and was ennobled. In 1852 and again in 1867 he visited England, though in the latter year he made no public appearance. St Petersburg was his home practically until his death, which took place at Warmbrunn on the loth of October 1889. The characteristic of Henselt's playing was a combination of Liszt's sonority with Hummel's smoothness. It was full of poetry, remarkable for the great use he made of extended chords, and for his perfect technique. He excelled in his own works and in those of Weber and Chopin. His concerto in F minor is frequently played on the continent; and of his many valuable studies, Si oiseau j'elais is very familiar. His A minor trio deserves to be better kncwn. At one time Henselt was second to Rubinstein in the direction of the St Petersburg. Conservatorium. HENSLOW— HENWOOD 303 HENSLOW, JOHN STEVENS (1796-1861), English botanist and geologist, was born at Rochester on the 6th of February 1796. From his father, who was a solicitor in that city, he imbibed a love of natural history which largely influenced his career. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated as sixteenth wrangler in 1818, the year in which Sedgwick became Woodwardian professor of geology. He accompanied Sedgwick in 1819 during a tour in the Isle of Wight, and there he learned his first lessons in geology. He also studied chemistry under Professor James Gumming and mineralogy under E. D. Clarke. In the autumn of 1819 he made some valuable observations on the geology of the Isle of Man (Trans. Geol. Soc., 1821), and in 1821 he investigated the geology of parts of Anglesey, the results being printed in the first volume of the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (1821), the foundation of which society was originated by Sedgwick and Henslow. Meanwhile, Henslow had studied mineralogy with considerable zeal, so that on the death of Clarke he was in 1822 appointed professor of mineralogy in the university at Cambridge. Two years later he took holy orders. Botany, how- ever, had claimed much of his attention, and to this science he became more and more attached, so that he gladly resigned the chair of mineralogy in 1825, to succeed to that of botany. As a teacher both in the class-room and in the field he was eminently successful. To him Darwin largely owed his attachment to natural history, and also his introduction to Captain Fitzroy of H.M.S. " Beagle." In 1832 Henslow was appointed vicar of Cholsey- cum-Moulsford in Berkshire, and in 1837 rector of Hitcham in Suffolk, and at this latter parish he lived and laboured, endeared to all who knew him, until the close of his life. His energies were devoted to the improvement of his parishioners, but his influence was felt far and wide. In 1843 he discovered nodules of coprolitic origin in the Red Crag at Felixstowe in Suffolk, and two years later he called attention to those also in the Cambridge Greensand and remarked that they might be of use in agriculture. Although Henslow derived no benefit, these discoveries led to the establish- ment of the phosphate industry in Suffolk and Cambridgeshire; and the works proved lucrative until the introduction of foreign phosphates. The museum at Ipswich, which was established in 1847, owed much to Henslow, who was elected president in 1850, and then superintended the arrangement of the collections. He died at Hitcham on the i6th of May 1861. His publications included A Catalogue of British Plants (1829; ed. 2, 1835); Principles of Descriptive and Physiological Botany (1835); Flora of Suffolk (with E. Skepper) (1860). Memoir, by the Rev. Leonard Jenyns (1862). HENSLOWE, PHILIP (d. 1616), English theatrical manager, was the son of Edmund Henslowe of Lindfield, Sussex, master of the game in Ashdown Forest and Broil Park. He was originally a servant in the employment of the bailiff to Viscount Montague, whose property included Montague House in Southwark, and his duties led him to settle there before 1577. He subsequently married the bailiff's widow, and, with the fortune he got with her, he developed into a clever business man and became a consider- able owner of Southwark property. He started his connexion with the stage when, on the 24th of March 1584, he bought land near what is now the southern end of Southwark Bridge, on which stood the Little Rose playhouse, afterwards rebuilt as the Rose. Successive companies played in it under Henslowe's financial management between 1592 and 1603. The theatre at Newington Butts was also under him in 1594. A share of the control in the Swan theatre, which like the Rose was on the Bankside, fell to Henslowe before the close of the i6th century. With the actor Edward Alleyn, who married his step-daughter Joan Woodward, he built in Golden Lane, Cripplegate Without, the Fortune Playhouse, opened in November 1600. In December of 1594, they had secured the Paris Garden, a place for bear- baiting, on the Bankside, and in 1604 they bought the office of master of the royal game of bears, bulls and mastiffs from the holder, and obtained a patent. Alleyn sold his share to Henslowe in February 1610, and three years later Henslowe formed a new partnership with Jacob Meade and built the Hope playhouse, designed for stage performances as well as bull and bear-baiting, and managed by Meade. /In Henslowe's theatres were first produced many plays by the famous Elizabethan dramatist^] What is known as " Henslowe's Diary " contains some accounts referring to Ashdown Forest between 1576 and 1581, entered by John Henslowe, while the later entries by Philip Henslowe from 1592 to 1609 are those which throw light on the theatrical matters of the time, and which have been subjected to much controversial criticism as a result of injuries done to the manuscript. " Henslowe's Diary " passed into the hands of Edward Alleyn, and thence into the Library of Dulwich College, where the manuscript remained intact for more than a hundred and fifty years. In 1780 Malone tried to borrow it, but it had been mislaid; in 1790 it was discovered and given into his charge. He was then at work on his Variorum Shake- speare. Malone had a transcript made of certain portions, and collated it with the original; and this transcript, with various notes and corrections by Malone, is now in the Dulwich Library. An abstract of this transcript he also published with his Variorum Shakespeare. The MS. of the diary was eventually returned to the library in 1812 by Malone's executor. In 1840 it was lent to J. P. Collier, who in 1845 printed for the Shakespeare Society what purported to be a full edition, but it was afterwards shown by G. F. Warner (Catalogue of the Dulwich Library, 1881) that a number of forged interpolations have been made, the responsibility for which rests on Collier. The complicated history of the forgeries and their detection has been exhaustively treated in Walter W. Greg's edition of Henslowe's Diary (London, 1904; enlarged 1908). HENTY, GEORGE ALFRED (1832-1902), English war- correspondent and author, was born at Trumpington, near Cambridge, in December 1832, and educated at Westminster School and Caius College, Cambridge. He served in the Crimea in the Purveyor's department, and after the peace filled various posts in the department in England and Ireland, but he found the routine little to his taste, and drifted into journalism for the London Standard. He volunteered as Special Correspondent for the Austro-Italian War of 1866, accompanied Garibaldi in his Tirolese Campaign, followed Lord Napier through the mountain gorges to Magdala, and Lord Wolseley across bush and swamp to Kumassi. Next he reported the Franco-German War, starved in Paris through the siege of the Commune, and then turned south to rough it in the Pyrenees during the Carlist insurrection. He was in Asiatic Russia at the time of the Khiva expedition, and later saw the desperate hand-to-hand fighting of the Turks in the Servian War. He found his real vocation in middle life. Invited to edit a magazine for boys called the Union Jack, he became the mainstay of the new periodical, to which he contributed several serials in succession. The stories pleased their public, and had ever increasing circulation in book form, until Henty became a name to conjure with in juvenile circles. Altogether he wrote about eighty of these books. Henty was an enthusiastic yachts- man, having spent at least six months afloat each year, and he died on board his yacht in Weymouth Harbour on the i6th of November 1902. HENWOOD, WILLIAM JORY (1805-1875), English mining geologist, was born at Perron Wharf, Cornwall, on the i6th of January 1805. In 182 2 he commenced work as a clerk in a mining office, and soon took an active interest in the working of mines and in the metalliferous deposits. In 183 2 he was appointed to the office of assay-master and supervisor of tin in the duchy of Cornwall, a post from which he retired in 1838. Meanwhile he had commenced in 1826 to communicate papers on mining sub- jects to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and the Geological Society of London, and in 1840 he was elected F.R.S. In 1843 he went to take charge of the Gongo-Soco mines in Brazil ; afterwards he proceeded to India to report on certain metalliferous deposits for the Indian government; and in 1858, impaired in health, he retired and settled at Penzance. His most important memoirs on the metalliferous deposits of Cornwall and Devon were published in 1843 by the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. At a much later date he communicated with enlarged 304 HENZADA— HEPHAESTUS experience a second series of Observations on Metalliferous Deposits, and on Subterranean Temperature (reprinted from Trans. R. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, 2 vols., 1871). In 1874 he con- tributed a paper on the Detrital Tin-ore of Cornwall (Journ. R. Inst. Cornwall). The Murchison medal of the Geological Society was awarded to him in 1875, and the mineral Henwoodite was named after him. He died at Penzance on the 5th of August 1875- HENZADA, a district of Lower Burma, formerly in the Pegu, but now in the Irrawaddy division. Area, 2870 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 484,558. It stretches from north to south in. one vast plain, forming the valley of the Irrawaddy, and is divided by that river into two nearly equal portions. This country is protected from inundation by immense embankments, so that almost the whole area is suitable for rice cultivation. The chief mountains are the Arakan and Pegu Yoma ranges. The greatest elevation of the Arakan Yomas in Henzada, attained in the latitude of Myan-aung, is 4003 ft. above sea-level. Numerous torrents pour down from the two boundary ranges, and unite in the plains to form large streams, which fall into the chief streams of the district, which are the Irrawaddy, Hlaing and Bassein, all of them branches of the Irrawaddy. The forests comprise almost every variety of timber found in Burma. The bulk of the cultivation is rice, but a number of acres are under tobacco. The chief town of the district is HENZADA, which had in 1901 a population of 24,756. It is a municipal town, with ten elective and three ex-officio members. Other municipal towns in the district are Zalun, with a population of 6642; Myan-aung, with a population of 6351 ; and Kyangin, with a population of 7183, according to the 1901 census. The town of Lemyethna had a population of 5831. The steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company call at Henzada and Myan-aung. The district was once a portion of the Talaing kingdom of Pegu, afterwards annexed to the Burmese empire in 1753, and has no history of its own. During the second Burmese war, after Prome had been seized, the Burmese on the right bank of the Irrawaddy crossed the river and offered resistance to the British, but were completely routed. Meanwhile, in Tharawaddy, or the country east of the Irrawaddy, and in the south of Henzada, much disorder was caused by a revolt, the leaders of which were, however, defeated by the British and their gangs dispersed. HEPBURN, SIR JOHN (c. 1598-1636), Scottish soldier in the Thirty Years' War, was a son of George Hepburn of Athel- staneford near Haddington. In 1620 and in the following years he served in Bohemia, on the lower Rhine and in the Netherlands, and in 1623 he entered the service of Gustavus Adolphus, who, two years later, appointed him colonel of a Scottish regiment of his army. He took part with his regiment in Gustavus's Polish wars, and in 1631, a few months before the battle of Breitenfeld he was placed in command of the " Scots " or " Green " brigade of the Swedish army. At Breitenfeld it was Hepburn's brigade which delivered the decisive stroke, and after this he remained with the king, who placed the fullest reliance on his skill and courage, until the battle of the Alte Veste near Nuremberg. He then entered the French service, and raised two thousand men in Scotland for the French army, to which force was added in France the historic Scottish archer bodyguard of the French kings. The existing Royal Scots (Lothian) regiment (late ist Foot) represents in the British army of to-day Hepburn's French regiment, and indirectly, through the amalgamation referred to, the Scottish contingent of the Hundred Years,' War. Hepburn's claim to the right of the line of battle was bitterly resented by the senior French regiments. Shortly after this, in 1633, Hepburn was under a marechal de camp, and he took part in the campaigns in Alsace and Lorraine (1634-36). In 1635 Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, on entering the French service, brought with him Hepburn's former Swedish regiment, which was at once amalgamated with the French " regiment d'Hebron," the latter thus attaining the unusual strength of 8300 men. Sir John Hepburn was killed shortly afterwards during the siege of Saverne (Zabern) on the 8th of July 1636. He was buried in Toul cathedral. With his friend Sir Robert Monro, Hepburn was the foremost of the Scottish soldiers of fortune who bore so conspicuous a part in the Thirty Years' War. He was a sincere Roman Catholic. It is stated that he left Gustavuc owing to a jest about his religion, and at any rate he found in the French service, in which he ended his days, the opportunity of reconciling his beliefs with the desire of military glory which had led him into the Swedish army, and with the patriotic feeling which had first brought him out to the wars to fight for the Stuart princess, Queen Elizabeth of Bohemia. See James Grant, Memoirs of Sir John Hepburn. HEPHAESTION, a Macedonian general, celebrated as the friend of Alexander the Great, who, comparing himself with Achilles, called Hephaestion his Patroclus. In the later cam- paigns in Bactria and India, he was entrusted with the task of founding cities and colonies, and built the fleet intended to sail down the Indus. He was rewarded with a golden crown and the hand of Drypetis, the sister of Alexander's wife Stateira (324). In the same year he died suddenly at Ecbatana. A general mourning was ordered throughout Asia; at Babylon a funeral pile was erected at enormous cost, and temples were built in his honour (see ALEXANDER THE GREAT). HEPHAESTION, a grammarian of Alexandria, who flourished in the age of the Antonines. He was the author of a manual (abridged from a larger work in 48 books) of Greek metres (''Eyxtiptiiov irepl ij.krpwv), which is most valuable as the only complete treatise on the subject that has been preserved. The concluding chapter (Ilept ironwares) discusses the various kinds of poetical composition. It is written in a clear and simple style, and was much used as a school-book. Editions by T. Gaisford (1855, with the valuable scholia), R. Westphal (1886, in Scriptores metrici Graeci) and M. Consbruch (1906); translation by T. F. Barham (1843); see also W. Christ, Gesch. der griech. Litt. (1898); M. Consbruch, De veterum Utpl iron7/iaTos doctrina (1890) ; J. E. Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. i. (1906). HEPHAESTUS, in Greek mythology, the god of fire, analogous to, and by the ancients often confused with, the Roman god Vulcan (q.v.); the derivation of the name is uncertain, but it may well be of Greek origin. The elemental character of Hephaestus is far more apparent than is the case with the majority of the Olympian gods; the word Hephaestus was used as a synonym for fire not only in poetry (Homer, //. ii. 426 and later), but also in common speech (Diod. v. 74). It is doubtful whether the origin of the god can be traced to any specific form of fire. As all earthly fire was thought to have come from heaven, Hephaestus has been identified with the lightning. This is supported by the myth of his fall from heaven, and by the fact that, according to the Homeric tradition, his father was Zeus, the heaven-god. On the other hand, the lightning is not associated with him in literature or cult, and his connexion with volcanic fires is so close as to suggest that he was originally a volcano-god. The connexion, however, though it may be early, is probably not primitive, and it seems reasonable to conclude that Hephaestus was a general fire-god, though some of his characteristics were due to particular manifestations of the element. In Homer the fire-god was the son of Zeus and Hera, and found a place in the Olympian system as the divine smith. The Iliad contains two versions of his fall from heaven. In one account (i. 590) he was cast out by Zeus and fell on Lemnos; in the other, Hera threw him down immediately after his birth in disgust at his lameness, and he was received by the sea-god- desses Eurynome and Thetis. The Lemnian version is due to the prominence of his cult at Lemnos in very early times; and his fall into the sea may have been suggested by volcanic activity in Mediterranean islands, as at Lipara and Thera. The subsequent return of Hephaestus to Olympus is a favourite theme in early art. His wife was Charis, one of the Graces (in the Iliad) or Aphrodite (in the Odyssey). The connexion of the rough Hephaestus with these goddesses is curious; it may be due to the beautiful works of the smith-god (xo.pLtvra tpyo.), but it is possibly derived from the supposed fertilizing and productive power of fire, in which case Hephaestus is a natural mate of Charis, a goddess of spring, and Aphrodite the goddess HEPPENHEIM— HEPPLEWHITE 305 of love. In Homer, the skill of Hephaestus in metallurgy is often mentioned; his forge was on Olympus, where he was served by images of golden handmaids which he had animated. Similar myths are found in relation to the Finnish smith-god Ilmarinen, who made a golden woman, and the Teutonic Wieland; a belief in the magical power of metal-workers is a common survival from an age in which their art was new and mysterious. In epic poetry Hephaestus is rather a comic figure, and his limping gait provokes " Homeric laughter " among the gods. In Vedic poetry Agni, the fire-god, is footless; and the ancients themselves attributed this lameness to the crooked appearance of flame (Servius on Aen. viii. 814), and possibly no better explanation can be found, though it has been suggested that in an early stage of society the trade of a smith would be suitable for the lame; Hephaestus and the lame Wieland would thus conform to the type of their human counterparts. . Except in Lemnos and Attica, there are few indications of any cult of Hephaestus. His association with Lemnos can be traced from Homer to the Roman age. A town in the island was called Hephaestia, and the functions of the god must have been wide, as we are told that his Lemnian priests could cure snake- bites. Once a year every fire was extinguished on the island for nine days, during which period sacrifice was offered to the gods of the underworld and the dead. After the nine days were passed, new fire was brought from the sacred hearth at Delos. The significance of this and similar customs is examined by J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough, iii. ch. 4. The close connexion of Hephaestus with Lemnos and especially with its mountain Mosychlus has been explained by the supposed existence of a volcano; but no crater or other sign of volcanic agency is now apparent, and the " Lemnian fire " — a phenomenon attributed to Hephaestus — may have been due to natural gas (see LCMNOS). In Sicily, however, the volcanic nature of the god is prominent in his cult at Etna, as well as in the neighbouring Liparaean isles. The Olympian forge had been transferred to Etna or some other volcano, and Hephaestus had become a subterranean rather than a celestial power. The divine smith naturally became a " culture-god "; in Crete the invention of forging in iron was attributed to him, and he was honoured by all metal-workers. But we have little record of his cult in this aspect, except at Athens, where his worship was of real importance, belonging to the oldest stratum of Attic religion. A tribe was called after his name, and Erich- thonius, the mythical father of the Attic people, was the son of Hephaestus. Terra-cotta statuettes of the god seem to have been placed before the hearths of Athenian houses. This temple has been identified, not improbably, with the so-called " Theseum "; it contained a statue of Athena, and the two deities are often associated, in literature and cult, as the joint givers of civilization to the Athenians. The class of artisans was under their special protection; and the joint festival of the two divinities — the Chalceia — commemorated the invention of bronze-working by Hephaestus. In the Hephaesteia (the particular festival of the god) there was a torch race, a ceremonial not indeed confined to fire-gods like Hephaestus and Prometheus, but probably in its origin connected with them, whether its object was to purify and quicken the land, or (according to another theory) to transmit a new fire with all possible speed to places where the fire was polluted. If the latter view is correct, the torch race would be closely akin to the Lemnian fire-ritual which has been mentioned. The relation between Hephaestus and Prometheus is in some respects close, though the distinction between these gods is clearly marked. The fire, as an element, belongs to the Olympian Hephaestus; the Titan Prometheus, a more human character, steals it for the use of man. Prometheus resembles the Polynesian Maui, who went down to fetch fire from the volcano of Mahuika, the fire-god. Hephaestus is a culture-god mainly in his secondary aspect as the craftsman, whereas Prometheus originates all civilization with the gift of fire. But the importance of Prometheus is mainly mythological; the Titan belonged to a fallen dynasty, and in actual cult was largely superseded by Hephaestus. In archaic art Hephaestus is generally represented as bearded, though occasionally a younger beardless type is found, as on a vase (in the British Museum), on which he appears as a young man assisting Athena in the creation of Pandora. At a later time the bearded type prevails. The god is usually clothed in a short sleeveless tunic, and wears a round close-fitting cap. His face is that of a middle-aged man, with unkempt hair. He is in fact represented as an idealized Greek craftsman, with the hammer, and sometimes the pincers. Some mythologists have compared the hammer of Hephaestus with that of Thor, and have explained it as the emblem of a thunder-god; but it is Zeus, not Hephaestus, who causes the thunder, and the emblems of the latter god are merely the signs of his occupation as a smith. In art no attempt was made, as a rule, to indicate the lameness of Hephaestus; but one sculptor (Alcamenes) is said to have suggested the deformity without spoiling the statue. AUTHORITIES.— L. Preller (ed. C. Robert), Griech. Mythologie, i. 174 f. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, Lex. der griech. u. rom. Mythologie, s.v. " Hephaistos " (Leipzig, 1884-1886); Harrison, Myth, and Man. of Ancient Athens, p. 119 f. (London, 1890); O. Gruppe, Griech. Mythologie u. Religionsgesch. p. 1304 f. (Munich, 1906) ; O. Schrader and F. B. Jevons, Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan People, p. 161, &c. (London, 1890); L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, v. (1909). (E. E. S.) HEPPENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Bergstrasse, between Darmstadt and Heidelberg, 21 m. N. of the latter by rail. Pop. (1905), 6364. It possesses a parish church, occupying the site of one reputed to have been built by Charlemagne about 803, an interesting town hall and several schools. On an isolated hill close by stand the extensive ruins of the castle of Starkenburg, built by the abbot, Ulrich von Lorsch, about 1064 and destroyed during the Seven Years' War, and another hill, the Landberg, was a place of assembly in the middle ages. Heppenheim, at first the property of the abbey of Lorsch, became a town in 1318. After belonging to the Rhenish Palatinate, it came into the possession of Hesse- Darmstadt in 1803. Hops, wine and tobacco are grown, and there are large stone quarries, and several small industries in the town. HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE (d. 1786), one of the most famous English cabinet-makers oftheiSth century. There is practically no biographical material relating to Hepplewhite. The only facts that are known with certainty are that he was apprenticed to Gillow at Lancaster, that he carried on business in the parish of Saint Giles, Cripplegate, and that administration of his estate was granted to his widow Alice on the 27th of June 1786. The administrator's accounts, which were filed in the Prerogative Court of Canterbury a year later, indicate that his property was of considerable value. After his death the business was continued by his widow under the style of A. Hepplewhite & Co. Our only approximate means of identifying his work are The Cabinet- Maker and Upholsterer's Guide, which was first published in 1788, two years after his death, and ten designs in The Cabinet- maker's London Book of Prices (1788), issued by the London Society of Cabinet-Makers. It is, however, exceedingly difficult to earmark any given piece of furniture as being the actual work or design of Hepplewhite, since it is generally recognized that to a very large extent the name represents rather a fashion than a man. Lightness, delicacy and grace are the distinguishing characteristics of Hepplewhite work. The massiveness of Chippendale had given place to conceptions that, especially in regard to chairs — which had become smaller as hoops went out of fashion — depended for their effect more upon inlay than upon carving. In one respect at least the Hepplewhite style was akin to that of Chippendale — in both cases the utmost ingenuity was lavished upon the chair, and if Hepplewhite was not the originator he appears to have been the most constant and success- ful user of the shield back. This elegant form was employed by the school in a great variety of designs, and nearly always in a way artistically satisfying. Where Chippendale, his contem- poraries and his immediate successors had used the cabriole and the square leg with a good deal of carving, the Hepplewhite manner preferred a slighter leg, plain, fluted or reeded, tapering to 306 HEPTARCHY— HERA a spade foot which often became the " spider leg " that character- ized much of the late iSth-century furniture; this form of leg was indeed not confined to chairs but was used also for tables and sideboards. Of the dainty drawing-room grace of the style there can be no question. The great majority of modern chairs are of Hepplewhite inspiration, while he, or those who worked with him, appears to have a clear claim to have originated, or at all events popularized, the winged easy-chair, in which the sides are continued to the same height as the back. This is probably the most comfortable type of chair that has ever been made. The backs of Hepplewhite chairs were often adorned with galleries and festoons of wheat-ears or pointed fern leaves, and not infrequently with the prince of Wales's feathers in some more or less decorative form. The frequency with which this badge was used has led to the suggestion either that A. Hepple- white & Co. were employed by George IV. when prince of Wales, or that the feathers were used as a political emblem. The former suggestion is obviously the more feasible, but there is little doubt that the feathers were used by other makers working in the same style. It has been objected as an artistic flaw in Hepplewhite 's chairs that they have the appearance of fragility. They are, however, constructionally sound as a rule. The painted and japanned work has been criticized on safer grounds. This delicate type of furniture, often made of satinwood, and painted with wreaths and festoons, with amorini and musical instruments or floral motives, is the most elegant and pleasing that can be imagined. It has, however, no elements of decorative perman- ence. With comparatively little use the paintings wear off and have to be renewed. A piece of untouched painted satin- wood is almost unknown, and one of the essential charms of old furniture as of all other antiques is that it should retain the patina of time. A large proportion of Hepplewhite furniture is inlaid with the exotic woods which had come into high favour by the third quarter of the i8th century. While the decorative use upon furniture of so evanescent a medium as paint is always open to criticism, any form of marquetry is obviously legitimate, and, if inlaid furniture be less ravishing to the eye, its beauty is but enhanced by time. It was not in chairs alone that the Hepplewhite manner excelled. It acquired, for instance, a speciality of seats for the tall, narrow Georgian sash windows, which in the Hepplewhite period had almost entirely superseded the more picturesque forms of an earlier time. These window- seats had ends rolling over outwards, and no backs, and despite their skimpiness their elegant simplicity is decidedly pleasing. Elegance, in fact, was the note of a style which on the whole was more distinctly English than that which preceded or immediately followed it. The smaller Hepplewhite pieces are much prized by collectors. Among these may be included urn-shaped knife- boxes in mahogany and satinwood, charming in form and decorative in the extreme; inlaid tea-caddies, varying greatly in shape and material, but always appropriate and coquet; delicate little fire-screens with shaped poles; painted work- tables, and inlaid stands. Hepplewhite's bedsteads with carved and fluted pillars were very handsome and attractive. The evolution of the dining-room sideboard made rapid progress towards the end of the i8th century, but neither Hepplewhite nor those who worked in his style did much to advance it. Indeed they somewhat retarded its development by causing it to revert to little more than that side-table which had been its original form. It was, however, a very delightful table with its undulat- ing front, its many elegant spade-footed legs and its delicate carving. If we were dealing with a less elusive personality it would be just to say that Hepplewhite's work varies from the extreme of elegance and the most delicious simplicity to an unimaginative commonplace, and sometimes to actual ugliness. As it is, this summary may well be applied to the style as a whole — a style which was assuredly not the creation of any one man, but owed much alike of excellence and of defect to a school of cabinet-makers who were under the influence of conflicting tastes and changing ideals. At its best the taste was so fine and so full of distinction, so simple, modest and sufficient, that it amounted tc genius. On its lower planes it was clearly influenced by commercialism and the desire to make what tasteless people preferred. Yet this is no more than to say that the Hepplewhite style succumbed sometimes, perhaps very often, to the eternal enemy of all art — the uninspired banality of the average man. (J. P.-B.) HEPTARCHY (Gr. brTO. seven, and dpx^, rule), a word which is frequently used to designate the period of English history between the coming of the Anglo-Saxons in 449 and the union of the kingdoms under Ecgbert in 828. It was first used during the i6th century because of the belief held by Camden and other older historians, that during this period there were exactly seven kingdoms in England, these being Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex. This belief is erroneous, as the number of kingdoms varied consider- ably from time to time; nevertheless the word still serves a useful purpose to denote the period. HERA, in Greek mythology, the sister and wife of Zeus and queen of the Olympian gods; she was identified by the Romans with Juno. The derivation of the name is obscure, but there is no reason to doubt that she was a genuine Greek deity. There are no signs of Oriental influence in her cults, except at Corinth, where she seems to have been identified with Astarte. It is probable that she was originally a personification of some depart- ment of nature; but the traces of her primitive significance are vague, and have been interpreted to suit various theories. Some of the ancients connected her with the earth; Plato, followed by the Stoics, derived her name from arjp, the air. Both theories have been revived in modern times, the former notably by F. G. Welcker, the latter by L. Preller. A third view, that Hera is the moon, is held by W. H. Roscher and others. Of these explanations, that advanced by Preller has little to commend it, even if, with O. Gruppe, we understand the air-goddess as a storm deity; some of the arguments in support of the two other theories will be examined in this article. Whatever may have been the origin of Hera, to the historic Greeks (except a few poets or philosophers) she was a purely anthropomorphic goddess, and had no close relation to any province of nature. -In literature, from the times of Homer and Hesiod, she played an important part, appearing most frequently as the jealous and resentful wife of Zeus. In this character she pursues with vindictive hatred the heroines, such as Alcmene, Leto and Semele, who were beloved by Zeus. She visits his sins upon the children born of his intrigues, and is thus the constant enemy of Heracles and Dionysus. This char- acter of the offended wife was borrowed by later poets from the Greek epic; but it belongs to literature rather than to cult, in which the dignity and power of the goddess is naturally more emphasized. The worship of Hera is found, in different degrees of promi- nence, throughout the Greek world. It was especially important in the ancient Achaean centres, Argos, Mycenae and Sparta, which she claims in the Iliad (iv. 51) as her three dearest cities. Whether Hera was also worshipped by the early Dorians is un- certain; after the Dorian invasion she remained the chief deity of Argos, but her cult at Sparta was not so conspicuous. She received honour, however, in other parts of the Peloponnese, particularly in Olympia, where her temple was the oldest, and in Arcadia. In several Boeotian cities she seems to have been one of the principal objects of worship, while the neighbouring island of Euboea probably derived its name from a title of Hera, who was " rich in cows " (Eu/3oia). Among the islands of the Aegean, Samos was celebrated for the cult of Hera; according to the local tradition, she was born in the island. As Hera Lacinia (from her Lacinian temple near Croton) she was extensively worshipped in Magna Graecia. The connexion of Zeus and Hera was probably not primitive, since Dione seems to have preceded Hera as the wife of Zeus at Dodona. The origin of the connexion may possibly be due to the fusion of two " Pelasgic " tribes, worshipping Zeus and Hera respectively; but speculation on the earliest cult of the goddess, before she became the wife of Zeus, must be largely conjectural. The close relation of the two deities appears in a HERA 307 frequent community of altars and sacrifices, and also in the itpos 7s which was hereditary in his family, and presented it to his brother. It is probable, however, that he did occasionally intervene in the affairs of the city at the period when the rule of Persia had given place to autonomy; it is said that he compelled the usurper Melancomas to abdicate. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the extreme profundity of his philosophy and his contempt for mankind in general, he was called the " Dark Philosopher " (6 anorfivos), or the " Weeping Philosopher," in contrast to Democritus, the " Laughing Philosopher." Heraclitus is in a real sense the founder of metaphysics. Starting from the physical standpoint of the Ionian physicists, he accepted their general idea of the unity of nature, but entirely denied their theory of being. The fundamental uniform fact in nature is constant change (iravra x^P^ Kc" ovdtv ntvti); everything both is and is not at the same time. He thus arrives at the principle of Relativity; harmony and unity consist in diversity and multiplicity. The senses are " bad witnesses " (naKol ftapTvp€s) ; only the wise man can obtain knowledge. To appreciate the significance of the doctrines of Heraclitus, it must be borne in mind that to Greek philosophy the sharp distinction between subject and object which pervades modern thought was foreign, a consideration which suggests the conclusion that, while it is a great mistake to reckon Heraclitus with the materialistic cosmologists of the Ionic schools, it is, on the other hand, going too far to treat his theory, with Hegel and Lassalle, as one of pure Panlogism. I Accordingly, when he denies the reality of Being, and declares Becoming, or eternal flux and change, to be the sole actuality, Heraclitus must be understood to enunciate not only the unreality of the abstract notion of being, except as the correlative of that of not-being, but also the physical doctrine that all phenomena are in a state of continuous transition from non-existence to existence, and vice versa, without either distinguishing these propositions or qualifying them by any reference to the relation of thought to experience. " Every thing is and is not "; all things are, and nothing remains. So far he is in general agreement with Anaximander (q.v.), but he differs from him in the solution of the problem, disliking, as a poet and a mystic, trie primary matter which satisfied the patient researcher, and demanding a more vivid and picturesque element. 'Naturally he selects fire, according to him the most complete embodiment of the process of Becoming, as the principle of empirical existence, out of which all things, including even the souj, grow by way of a quasi condensation, and into which all things must in course of time be again resolved. But this primordial fire is in itself that divine rational process, the harmony of which constitutes the law of the universe (see LOGOS). Real knowledge consists in comprehending this all-pervading harmony as embodied in the manifold of perception, and the senses are " bad- witnesses," because they apprehend phenomena, 310 HERACLIUS— HERALD not as its manifestation, but as " stiff and dead." In like manner real virtue consists in the subordination of the individual to the laws of this harmony as the universal reason wherein alone true freedom is to be found. '-' The law of things is a law of Reason Universal (Xoyos), but most men live as though they had a wisdom of their own." Ethics here stands to sociology in a close relation, similar, in many respects, to that which we find in Hegel and in Comte. For Heraclitus the soul approaches most nearly to perfection when it is most akin to the fiery vapour out of which it was originally created, and as this is most so in death, " while we live our souls are dead in us, but when we die our souls are restored to life." The doctrine of immortality comes prominently forward in his ethics, but whether this must not be reckoned with the figurative accommodation to the popular theology of Greece which pervades his ethical teaching, is very doubtful. The school of disciples founded by Heraclitus flourished for long after his death, the chief exponent of his teaching being Cratylus. A good deal of the information in regard to his doctrines has been gathered from the later Greek philosophy, which was deeply influenced by it. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The only authentic extant work of Heraclitus is the irtpl 0us. The best edition (containing also the probably spurious 'EjrioToAai) is that of I. Bywater, Heracliti Ephesii reliquiae (Oxford, 1877); of the epistles alone by A. Westermann (Leipzig, 1857). See also in A. H. Ritter and L. Preller's Historia philosophiae Graecae (8th ed. by E. Wellmann, 1898); F. W. A. Mullach, Fragm. philos. Graec. (Paris, 1860); A. Fairbanks, The First Philo- sophers of Greece (1898); H. Diels, Heraklit von Ephesus (2nd ed., 1909), Greek and German. English translation of Bywater's edition with introduction by G. T. W. Patrick (Baltimore, 1889). For criticism see, in addition to the histories of philosophy, F. Lassalle, Die Philosophic Herakleitos' des Dunklen (Berlin, 1858; 2nd ed., 1892), which, however, is too strongly dominated by modern Hegelianism ; Paul Schuster, Heraklit von Ephesus (Leipzig, 1873); J. Bernays, Die heraklitischen Briefe (Berlin, 1869); T. Gomperz, Zu Heraclits Lehre und den Oberresten seines Werkes (Vienna, 1887), and in his Greek Thinkers (English translation, L. Magnus, vol. i. 1901) ; J. Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (1892) ; A. Patin, Heraklits Einheitslehre (Leipzig, 1886); E. Pfleiderer, Die Philosophic des Hsraklitus von Ephesus im Lichte der Mysterienidee (Berlin, 1886); G. T. Schafer, Die Philosophic des Heraklit von Ephesus und die moderne Heraklitforschung (Leipzig, 1902) ; Wolfgang Schultz, Studien zur antiken Kultur, i. ; Pythagoras und Heraklit (Leipzig, 1905); O. Spengler, Heraklit. Eine Studie uber den energetischen Grund- gedanken seiner Philosophic (Halle, 1904); A. Brieger, " Die Grund- ztige der heraklitischen Physik " in Hermes, xxxix. (1904) 182-223, and " Heraklit der Dunkle " in Neue Jahrb. f. das klass. Altertum (1904), p. 687. For his place in the development of early philosophy see also articles IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY and LOGOS. Ancient authorities: Diog. Laert. ix. ; Sext. Empiric., Adv. mathem. vii. 126, 127, 133; Plato, Cratylus, 402 A and Theaetetus, 152 E; Plutarch, Isis and Osiris, 45, 48; Arist. Nic. Eth. vii. 3, 4; Clement of Alex- andria, Stromata, v. 599, 603 (ed. Paris). (J. M. M.) HERACLIUS ('HpaKXetos) (c. 575-642), East Roman emperor, was born in Cappadocia. His father held high military command under the emperor Maurice, and as governor of Africa maintained his independence against the usurper Phocas (q.ii.). When invited to head a rebellion against the latter, he sent his son with a fleet which reached Constantinople unopposed, and precipitated the dethronement of Phocas. Proclaimed emperor, Heraclius set himself to reorganize the utterly disordered administration. At first he found himself helpless before the Persian armies (see PERSIA: Ancient History; and CHOSROES II.) of Chosroes II., which conquered Syria and Egypt and since 616 had encamped opposite Constantinople; in 618 he even proposed in despair to abandon his capital and seek a refuge in Carthage, but at the entreaty of the patriarch he took courage. By securing a loan from the Church and suspending the corn-distribution at Constantinople, he raised sufficient funds for war, and after making a treaty with the Avars, who had nearly surprised the capital during an incursion in 619, he was at last able to take the field against Persia. During his first expedition (622) he failed to secure a footing in Armenia, whence he had hoped to take the Persians in flank, but by his unwearied energy he restored the discipline and efficiency of the army. In his second campaign (624-26) he penetrated into Armenia and Albania, and beat the enemy in the open field. After a short stay at Constantinople, which his son Constantine had successfully defended against renewed incursions by the Avars, Heraclius resumed his attacks upon the Persians (627). Though deserted by the Khazars, with whom he had made an alliance upon entering into Pontus, he gained a decisive advantage by a brilliant march across the Armenian highlands into the Tigris plain, and a hard-fought victory over Chosroes' general, Shahrbaraz, in which Heraclius distinguished himself by his personal bravery. A subsequent revolution at the Persian court led to the dethronement of Chosroes in favour of his son Kavadh II. (q.v.); the new king promptly made peace with the emperor, whose troops were already advancing upon the Persian capital Ctesiphon (628). Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Heraclius returned to Constantinople with ample spoils, including the true cross, which in 629 he brought back in person to Jerusalem. On the northern frontier of the empire he kept the Avars in check by inducing the Serbs to migrate from the Carpathians to the Balkan lands so as to divert the attention of the Avars. The triumphs which Heraclius had won through his own energy and skill did not bring him lasting popularity. In his civil administration he followed out his own ideas without deferring to the nobles or the Church, and the opposition which he encountered from these quarters went far to paralyse his attempts at reform. Worn out by continuous fighting and weakened by dropsy, Heraclius failed to show sufficient energy against the new peril that menaced his eastern provinces towards the end of his reign. In 629 the Saracens made their first in- cursion into Syria (see CALIPHATE, section A, § i); in 636 they won a notable victory on the Yermuk (Hieromax), and in the following years conquered all Syria, Palestine and Egypt. Heraclius made no attempt to retrieve the misfortunes of his generals, but evacuated his possessions in sullen despair. The remaining years of his life he devoted to theological speculation and ecclesiastical reforms. His religious enthusiasm led him to oppress his Jewish subjects; on the other hand he sought to reconcile the Christian sects, and to this effect propounded in his Ecthesis a conciliatory doctrine of monothelism. Heraclius died of his disease in 642. He had been twice married; his second union, with his niece Martina, was frequently made a matter of reproach to him. In spite of his partial failures, Heraclius must be regarded as one of the greatest of Byzantine emperors, and his early campaigns were the means of saving the realm from almost certain destruction. AUTHORITIES. — G. Finlay, History of Greece (Oxford, 1877) i. 311-358; J. B. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (London, 1889), ii. 207-273; T. E. Evangelides, 'Hpo/cX«os 6 alrroKparup TOV Bufacriou (Odessa, 1903) ; A. Pernice, L' Imperatore Eraclio (Florence, 1905). On the Persian campaigns: the epic of George Pisides (ed. 1836, Bonn); F. Macler, Histoire d' Heraclius par I'eveque Sebeos (Paris, 1904) ; E. Gerland in Byzantinische Zeit- schrift, iii. (1894) 330-337; N. H. Baynes in the English Historical Review (1904), pp. 694-702. (M. O. B. C.) HERALD (O. Fr. heraut, herawlt; the origin is uncertain, but O.H.G. heren, to call, or hariwald, leader of an army, have been proposed; the Gr. equivalent is Krjpv^: Lat. praeco, caduceator, Jetialis), in Greek and Roman antiquities, the term for the officials described below; in modern usage, while the word " herald " is often used generally in a sense analogous to that of the ancients, it is more specially restricted to that dealt with in the article HERALDRY. The Greek heralds, who claimed descent from Hermes, the messenger of the gods, through his son Keryx, were public functionaries of high importance in early times. Like Hermes, they carried a staff of olive or laurel wood surrounded by two snakes (or with wool as messengers of peace) ; their persons were inviolable ; and they formed a kind of priesthood or corpora- tion. In the Homeric age, they summoned the assemblies of the people, at which they preserved order and silence; pro- claimed war; arranged the cessation of hostilities and the conclusion of peace; and assisted at public sacrifices and banquets. They also performed certain menial offices for the kings (mixing and pouring out the wine for the guests), by whom they were treated as confidential servants. In later timesv HERALDRY their position was a less honourable one; they were recruited from the poorer classes, and were mostly paid servants of the various officials. Pollux in his Onomasticon distinguishes four classes of heralds: (i) the sacred heralds at the Eleusinian mysteries;1 (2) the heralds at the public games, who announced the names of the competitors and victors; (3) those who super- intended the arrangements of festal processions; (4) those who proclaimed goods for sale in the market (for which purpose they mounted a stone), and gave notice of lost children and run- away slaves. To these should be added (5) the heralds of the boule and demos, who summoned the members of the council and. ecclesia, recited the solemn formula of prayer before the opening of the meeting, called upon the orators to speak, counted the votes and announced the results; (6) the heralds of the law courts, who gave notice of the time of trials and summoned the parties. The heralds received payment from the state and free meals together with the officials to whom they were attached. Their appointment was subject to some kind of examination, probably of the quality of their voice. Like the earlier heralds, they were also employed in negotiations connected with war and peace. Among the Romans the praecones or " criers " exercised their profession both in private and official business. As private criers they were especially concerned with auctions; they adver- tized the time, place and conditions of sale, called out the various bids, and like the modern auctioneer varied the proceedings with jokes. They gave notice in the streets of things that had been lost, and took over various commissions, such as funeral arrange- ments. Although the calling was held in little estimation, some of these criers amassed great wealth. The state criers, who were mostly freedmen and well paid, formed the lowest class of apparitores (attendants on various magistrates). On the whole, their functions resembled those of the Greek heralds. They called the popular assemblies together, proclaimed silence and made known the result of the voting; in judicial cases, they summoned the plaintiff, defendant, advocates and witnesses; in criminal executions they gave out the reasons for the punishment and called on the executioner to perform his duty; they invited the people to the games and announced the names of the victors. Public criers were also employed at state auctions in themunicipia and colonies, but, according to the lex Julia municipalis of Caesar, they were prohibited from holding office. Amongst the Romans the settlement of matters relating to war and peace was entrusted to a special class of heralds called Petioles (not Feciales), a word of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with/a/, an official connected with the service at the altar (see L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, iii. 161 ; J. Topffer, Attische Genealogie (1889); Ditten- berger in Hermes, xx. ; P. Foucart, " Les Grands Mysteres d'Eleusis " in Mem. de I'lnstitut National de France, xxxvii. (1904). the extension of the Roman empire, it became impossible to carry out this ceremonial, for which was substituted the hurling of a javelin over a column near the temple of Bellona in the direction of the enemy's territory. When the termination of a war was decided upon, the fetiales either made an arrangement for the suspension of hostilities for a definite term of years, after which the war recommenced automatically or they con- cluded a solemn treaty with the enemy. Conditions of peace or alliance proposed by the general on his own responsibility (sponsio) were not binding upon the people, and in case of rejection the general, with hands bound, was delivered by the fetiales to the enemy (Livy ix. 10). But if the terms were agreed to, a deputation carrying the sacred herbs and the flint stones, kept in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius for sacrificial purposes, met a deputation of fetiales from the other side. After the conditions of the treaty had been read, the sacrificial formula was pronounced and the victims slain by a blow from a stone (hence the expression foedus ferire). The treaty was then signed and handed over to the keeping of the fetial college. These ceremonies usually took place in Rome, but in 201 a deputation of fetiales went to Africa to ratify the conclusion of peace with Carthage. From that time little is heard of the fetiales, although they appear to have existed till the end of the 4th century A.D. The caduceator (from caduceus, the latinized form of KypvKtiov) was the name of a person who was sent to treat for peace. His person was considered sacred; and like the fetiales he carried the sacred herbs, instead of the caduceus, which was not in use amongst the Romans. For the Greek heralds, see Ch. Ostermann, De praeconibus Grae- corum (1845); for the Roman Praecones, Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht, i. 363 (3rd ed., 1887) ; also article PRAECONES in Pauly's Realencyclopadie (1852 edition); for the Fetiales, mono- graphs by F. C. Conradi (1734, containing all the necessary material), and G. Fusinato (1884, from Atti della R. Accad. dei Lincei, series iii. vol. 13); also Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii. 415 (3rd ed., 1885), and A. Weiss in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiques. (J. H. F.) HERALDRY. Although the word Heraldry properly belongs to all the business of the herald (q.v.), it has long attached itself to that which in earlier times was known as armory, the science of armorial bearings. History of Armorial Bearings. — In all ages and in all quarters of the world distinguishing symbols have been adopted by tribes or nations, by families or by chieftains. Greek and Roman poets describe the devices borne on the shields of heroes, and many such painted shields are pictured on antique vases. Rabbinical writers have supported the fancy that the standards of the tribes set up in their camps bore figures devised from the prophecy ,of Jacob, the ravening wolf for Benjamin, the lion's whelp for Judah and the ship of Zebulon. In the East we have such ancient symbols as the five-clawed dragon of the Chinese empire and the chrysanthemum of the emperor of Japan. In Japan, indeed, the systematized badges borne by the noble clans may be regarded as akin to the heraldry of the West, and the circle with the three asarum leaves of the Tokugawa shoguns has been made as familiar to us by Japanese lacquer and porcelain as the red pellets of the Medici by old Italian fabrics. Before the landing of the Spaniards in Mexico the Aztec chiefs carried shields and banners, some of whose devices showed after the fashion of a phonetic writing the names of their bearers; and the eagle on the new banner of Mexico may be traced to the eagle that was once carved over the palace of Montezuma. That mysterious business of totemism, which students of folk-lore have discovered among most primitive peoples, must be regarded as another of the fore- runners of true heraldry, the totem of a tribe supplying a badge which was sometimes displayed on the body of the tribesman in paint, scars or tattooing. Totemism so far touches our heraldry that some would trace to its symbols the white horse of West- phalia, the bull's head of the Mecklenburgers and many other ancient armories. When true heraldry begins in Western Europe nothing is more remarkable than the suddenness of its development, once the idea of hereditary armorial symbols was taken by the nobles and 312 HERALDRY knights. Its earliest examples are probably still to be discovered by research, but certain notes may be made which narrow the dates between which we must seek its origin. The older writers on heraldry, lacking exact archaeology, were wont to carry back the beginnings to the dark ages, even if they lacked the assurance of those who distributed blazons among the angelic host before the Creation. Even in our own times old misconceptions give ground slowly. Georg Ruexner's Thurnier Buck of 1522 is still cited for its evidence of the tournament laws of Henry the Fowler, by which those who would contend in tournaments were forced to show four generations of arms-bearing ancestors. Yet modern criticism has shattered the elaborated fiction of Ruexner. In England many legends survive of arms borne by the Conqueror and his companions. But nothing is more certain than that neither armorial banners nor shields of arms were borne on either side at Hastings. The famous record of the Bayeux tapestry shows shields which in some cases suggest rudely devised armorial bearings, but in no case can a shield be identified as one which is recognized in the generations after the Conquest. So far is the idea of personal arms from the artist, that the same warrior, seen in different parts of the tapestry's history, has his shield with differing devices. A generation later, Anna Comnena, the daughter of the Byzantine emperor, describing the shields of the French knights who came to Constantinople, tells us that their polished faces were plain. • Of all men, kings and princes might be the first to be found bearing arms. Yet the first English sovereign who appears on his great seal with arms on his shield is Richard I. His seal of 1189 shows his shield charged with a lion ramping towards the sinister side. Since one half only is seen of the rounded face of the shield, English antiquaries have perhaps too hastily suggested that the whole bearing was two lions face to face. But the mounted figure of Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders, on his seal of 1 164 bears a like shield charged with a like lion, and in this case another shield on the counterseal makes it clear that this is the single lion of Flanders. Therefore we may take it that, in 1189, King Richard bore arms of a lion rampant, while, nine years later, another seal shows him with a shield of the familiar bearings which have been borne as the arms of England by each one of his successors. That seal of Philip of Alsace is the earliest known example of the arms of the great counts of Flanders. The ancient arms of the kings of France, the blue shield powdered with golden fleurs- de-lys, appear even later. Louis le Jeune, on the crowning of his son Philip Augustus, ordered that the young prince should be clad in a blue dalmatic and blue shoes, sewn with golden fleurs- de-lys, a flower whose name, as " Fleur de Leys," played upon that of his own, and possibly upon his epithet name of Florus. A seal of the same king has the device of a single lily. But the first French royal seal with the shield of the lilies is that of Louis VIII. (1223-1226). The eagle of the emperors may well be as ancient a bearing as any in Europe, seeing that Charlemagne is said, as the successor of the Caesars, to have used the eagle as his badge. The emperor Henry III. (1030-1056) has the sceptre on his seal surmounted by an eagle; in the i2th century the eagle was embroidered upon the imperial gloves. At Molsen in 1080 the emperor's banner is said by William of Tyre to have borne the eagle, and with the beginning of regular heraldry this imperial badge would soon be displayed on a shield. The double-headed eagle is not seen on an imperial seal until after 1414, when the bird with one neck becomes the recognized arms of the king of the Romans. There are, however, earlier examples of shields of arms than any of these. A document of the first importance is the descrip- tion by John of Marmoustier of the marriage of Geoffrey of Anjou with Maude the empress, daughter of Henry I., when the king is said to have hung round the neck of his son-in-law a shield with golden " lioncels." Afterwards the monk speaks of Geoffrey in fight, " pictos leones preferens in clypeo." Two notes may be added to this account. The first is that the enamelled plate now in the museum at Le Mans, which is said to have been placed over the tomb of Geoffrey after his death in 1151, shows him bearing a long shield of azure with six golden lioncels, thus confirming the monk's story. The second is the well-known fact that Geoffrey's bastard grandson, William with the Long Sword, undoubtedly bore these same arms of the six lions of gold in a blue field, even as they are still to be seen upon his tomb at Salisbury. Some ten years before Richard I. seals with the three leopards, his brother John, count of Mortain, is found using a seal upon which he bears two leopards, arms which later tradition assigns to the ancient dukes of Normandy and to their descendants the kings of England before Henry II., who is said to have added the third leopard in right of his wife, a legend of no value. Mr Round has pointed out that Gilbert of Clare, earl of Hertford, who died in 1152, bears on his seal to a document sealed after 1138 and not later than 1146, the three cheverons afterwards so well known in England as the bearings of his successors. An old drawing of the seal of his uncle Gilbert, earl of Pembroke (Lansdowne MS. 203), shows a chever- onny shield used between 1138 and 1 148. At some date between 1144 and 1150, Waleran, count of Meulan, shows on his seal a pennon and saddle-cloth with a checkered pattern: the house of Warenne, sprung from his mother's son, bore shields cheeky of gold and azure. If we may trust the inventory of Norman seals made by M. Demay, a careful antiquary, there is among the archives of the Manche a grant by Eudes, seigneur du Pont, sealed with a seal and counterseal of arms, to which M. Demay gives a date as early as 1128. The writer has not examined this seal, the earliest armorial evidence of which he has any knowledge, but it may be remarked that the arms are described as varying on the seal and counterseal, a significant touch of primitive armory. Another type of seal common in this i2th century shows the personal device which had not yet developed into an armorial charge. A good example is that of Enguerrand de Candavene, count of St Pol, where, although the shield of the horseman is uncharged, sheaves of oats, playing on his name, are strewn at the foot of the seal. Five of these sheaves were the arms of Candavene when the house came to display arms. In the same fashion three different members of the family of Armenteres in England show one, two or three swords upon their seals, but here the writer has no evidence of a coat of arms derived from these devices. From the beginning of the i3th century arms upon shields increase in number. Soon the most of the great houses of the west display them with pride. Leaders in the field, whether of a royal army or of a dozen spears, saw the military advantage of a custom which made shield and banner things that might be recognized in the press. Although it is probable that armorial bearings have their first place upon the shield, the charges of the shield are found displayed on the knight's long surcoat, his " coat of arms," on his banner or pennon, on the trappers of his horse and even upon the peaks of his saddle. An attempt has been made to connect the rise of armory with the adoption of the barrel-shaped close helm; but even when wearing the earlier Norman helmet with its long nasal the knight's face was not to be recognized. The Conqueror, as we know, had to bare his head before he could persuade his men at Hastings that he still lived. Armory satisfied a need which had long been felt. When fully armed, one galloping knight was like another; but friend and foe soon learned that the gold and blue checkers meant that Warenne was in the field and that the gold and red vair was for Ferrers. Earl Simon at Evesham sent up his barber to a spying place and, as the barber named in turn the banners which had come up against him, he knew that his last fight was at hand. In spite of these things the growth of the custom of sealing deeds and charters had at least as much in- fluence in the development of armory as any military need. By this way, women and clerks, citizens and men of peace, corporations and colleges, came to share with the fighting man in the use of armorial bearings. Arms in stone, wood and brass decorated the tombs of the dead and the houses of the living; they were broidered in bed-curtains, coverlets and copes, painted on the sails of ships and enamelled upon all manner of gold- smiths' and silversmiths' work. And, even by warriors, the full splendour of armory was at all times displayed more fully HERALDRY PLATE I Ippw 1 I 1 1 ^ PART OF A ROLL OF ARMS PAINTED IN ENGLAND AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 14TH CENTURY THE NAMES HAVE BEEN ADDED BY A SOMEWHAT LATER HAND, AND ARE IN MANY CASES MISTAKEN AND MIS-SPELLED. Drawn by William CM for the ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, ELEVENTH EDITION Niagara Lithe. Co., Buffalo, N. Y. HERALDRY 3*3 in the fantastic magnificence of the tournament than in the rougher business of war. There can be little doubt that ancient armorial bearings were chosen at will by the man who bore them, many reasons guiding his choice. Crosses in plenty were taken. Old writers have erted that these crosses commemorate the badge of the crusaders, yet the fact that the cross was the symbol of the faith was reason enough. No symbolism can be found in such harges as bends and f esses; they are on the shield because a broad band, aslant or athwart, is a charge easily recognized. Medieval wisdom gave every noble and magnanimous quality the lion, and therefore this beast is chosen by hundreds of knights as their bearing. We have already seen how the arms of a Candavene play upon his name. Such an example was nitated on all sides. Salle of Bedfordshire has two ja/amanders so/tirewise; Belet has his namesake the weasel. In ancient shields almost all beasts and birds other than the lion and the agle play upon the bearer's name. No object is so humble bat it is unwelcome to the knight seeking a pun for his shield. Trivet has a three-legged trivet; Trumpington two trumps; and Montbocher three pots. The legends which assert that certain arms were " won in the Holy Land " or granted by ancient kings for heroic deeds in the field are for the most part worthless fancies. Tenants or neighbours of the great feudal lords were wont to make their arms by differencing the lord's shield or by bringing some charge of it into their own bearings. Thus a group of Kentish shields borrow lions from that of Leyborne, which is azure with six lions of silver. Shirland of Minster bore the same arms differenced with an ermine quarter. Detling had the silver lions in a sable field. Rokesle's lions are azure in a golden field with a fesse of gules between them; while Wateringbury has six sable lions in a field of silver, and Tilmanstone six ermine lions in a field of azure. The Vipont ring or annelet is in several shields of Westmorland knights, and the cheverons of Clare, the cinquefoil badge of Beaumont and the sheaves of Chester can be traced in the coats of many of the followers of those houses. Sometimes the lord himself set forth such arms in a formal grant, as when the baron of Greystock grants to Adam of Blencowe a shield in which his own three chaplets are charges. The Whitgreave family of Staffordshire still show a shield granted to their ancestor in 1442 by the earl of Stafford, in which the Stafford red cheveron on a golden field is four times repeated. Differences. — By the custom of the middle ages the " whole coat," which is the undifferenced arms, belonged to one man only and was inherited whole only by his heirs. Younger branches differenced in many ways, following no rule. In modern armory the label is reckoned a difference proper only to an eldest son. But in older times, although the label was very commonly used by the son and heir apparent, he often chose another distinc- tion during his father's lifetime, while the label is sometimes found upon the shields of younger sons. Changing the colours or varying the number of charges, drawing a bend or baston over the shield or adding a border are common differences of cadet lines. Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, bore " Gules with a fesse and six crosslets gold." His cousins are seen changing the crosslets for martlets or for billets. Bastards difference their father's arms, as a rule, in no more striking manner than the legitimate cadets. Towards the end of the i4th century we have the beginning of the custom whereby certain bastards of princely houses differenced the paternal arms by charging them upon a bend, a fesse or a chief, a cheveron or a quarter. Before his legitimation the eldest son of John of Gaunt by Katharine Swinford is said to have borne a shield party silver and azure with the arms of Lancaster on a bend. After his legitimation in 1397 he changed his bearings to the royal arms of France and England within a border gobony of silver and azure. Warren of Poynton, descended from the last earl Warenne and his concubine, Maude of Neirford, bore the checkered shield of Warenne with a quarter charged with the ermine lion of Neirford. By the end of the middle ages the baston under continental influence tended to become a bastard's difference in England and the jingle of the two words may have helped to support the custom. About the same time the border gobony began to acquire a like character. The " bar sinister " of the novelists is probably the baston sinister, with the ends couped, which has since the time of Charles II. been familiar on the arms of certain descendants of the royal house. But it has rarely been seen in England over other shields; and, although the border gobony surrounds the arms granted to a peer of Victorian creation, the modern heralds have fallen into the habit of assigning, in nineteen cases out of twenty, a wavy border as the standard difference for illegitimacy. Although no general register of arms was maintained it is remarkable that there was little conflict between persons who had chanced to assume the same arms. The famous suit in which Scrope, Grosvenor and Carminow all claimed the blue shield with the golden bend is well known, and there are a few cases in the i4th century of like disputes which were never carried to the courts. But the men of the middle ages would seem to have had marvellous memories for blazonry; and we know that rolls of arms for reference, some of them the records of tournaments, existed in great numbers. A few examples of these remain to us, with painted shields or descriptions in French blazon, some of them containing many hundreds of names and arms. To women were assigned, as a rule, the undifferenced arms of their fathers. In the early days of armory married women — well-born spinsters of full age were all but unknown outside the walls of re- ligious houses — have seals on which appear the shield of the husband or the father or both shields side by side. But we have some instances of the shield in which two coats of arms are parted or, to use the modern phrase, " impaled." Early in the reign of King John, Robert de Pinkeny D Shield from seal of i vu Vj u- u f\ • ii Robert de Pinkeny, an seals with a parted shield. On the right oarly e x a m p 1 e o f or dexter side — the right hand of a shield parted arms, is at the right hand of the person covered by it — are two fusils of an indented fesse: on the left or sinister side are three waves. The arms of Pinkeny being an indented fesse, we may see in this shield the parted arms of husband and wife — the latter being probably a Basset. In many of the earliest examples, as in this, the dexter half of ihe husband's shield was united with the sinister half of that of the wife, both coats being, as modern antiquaries have it, dimidiated. This " dimidiation," however, had its incon- venience. With some coats it was impossible. If the wife bore arms with a quarter for the only charge, her half of the shield would be blank. Therefore the practice was early abandoned by the majority of bearers of parted shields although there is a survival of it in the fact that borders and tressures con- tinue to be " dimidiated " in order that the charges within them shall not be cramped. Parted shields came into com- mon use from the reign of Edward II., and the rule is established that the husband's arms should take the dexter side. There are, however, several instances of the con- Shield of Joan atte Pole, trary practice. On the seal widow of Robert of Hcmenhale, (I3io) of Maude, wife of John from her seal (1403), showing Boutetort of Halstead, the pal engrailed saltire of the Boutetorts takes the sinister place. A twice-married woman would sometimes show a shield charged with her paternal arms between those of both of her husbands, as did Beatrice Stafford in 1404, while in 1412 Elizabeth, Lady of Clinton, seals with a shield paled with five coats — her arms 3*4- HERALDRY A A of la Plaunche between those of four husbands. In most cases the parted shield is found on the wife's seal alone. Even in our own time it is recognized that the wife's arms should not appear upon the husband's official seal, upon his banner or surcoat or upon his shield when it is surrounded by the collar of an order. Parted arms, it may be noted, do not always repre- sent a husband and wife. Richard II. parted with his quartered arms of France and England those ascribed to Edward the Confessor, and parting is often used on the continent where quartering would serve in England. In 1497 the seal of Giles Daubeney and Reynold Bray, fellow justices in eyre, shows their arms parted in one shield. English bishops, by a custom begun late in the I4th century, part the see's arms with their own. By modern English custom a husband and wife, where the wife is not Shield of Beatrice Stafford an heir, use the parted coat fromher seal (1404), showing her on a shield, a widow bearing arms of Stafford between those th of her husbands— Thomas, Lord the Roos, and Sir Richard Burley. on which, when a. spinster, she wme. llrlr,n *, which, when a. displayed her father's coat alone. When the wife is an heir, her arms are now borne in a little scocheon above those of her husband. If the husband's arms be in an unquartered shield the central charge is often hidden away by this scocheon. The practice of marshalling arms by quartering spread in England by reason of the example given by Eleanor, wife of Edward I., who displayed the castle of Castile quartered with the lion of Leon. Isabel of France, wife of Edward II., seals with a shield in whose four quarters are the arms of England, France, Navarre and Champagne. Early in the i4th century Simon de Montagu, an ancestor of the earls of Salisbury, quartered with his own arms a coat of azure with a golden griffon. In 1340 we have Laurence Hastings, earl of Pembroke, quartering with the Hastings arms the arms of Valence, as heir of his great-uncle Aymer, earl of Pembroke. In the preceding year the king had already asserted his claim to another kingdom by quartering France with England, and after this quartered shields became common in the great houses whose sons were carefully matched with heirs female. When the wife was an heir the husband would quarter her arms with his own, displaying, as a rule, the more important coat in the first quarter. Marshalling be- comes more elaborate with shields showing both quarterings and partings, as in the seal (1368) of Sibil Arundel, where Arundel (Fitzalan) is quartered with Warenne and parted with the arms of Montagu. In all, save one, of these examples the quart- ering is in its simplest form, with one coat repeated in the first and fourth quarters of the shield and another in the second and third. But to a charter of 1434 Henry Bromflete sets a seal upon which Bromflete quarters Vesci in the second quarter, Aton in the third and St John in the fourth, after the fashion of the much earlier seal of Edward II. 's queen. Another development is that of what armorists style the " grand quarter," a quarter which is itself quartered, as in the shield of Reynold Grey of Ruthyn, which bears Grey in the first and fourth quarters and Hastings quartered with Valence in the third and fourth. Humphrey Bourchier, Lord Cromwell, in 1469, bears one grand Shield of John Talbot, first earl of Shrewsbury (d. 1453). " showing four coats quartered. quarter quartered with another, the first having Bourchier and Lovaine, the second Tatershall and Cromwell. The last detail to be noted in medieval marshalling is the introduction into the shield of another surmounting shield called by old armorists the " innerscocheon " and by modern blazoners the " inescutcheon." John the Fearless, count of Flanders, marshalled his arms in 1409 as a quartered shield of the new and old coats of Burgundy. Above these coats a little scocheon, borne over the crossing of the quartering lines, had the black lion of Flanders, the arms of his mother. Richard Beauchamp, the adventurous earl of Warwick, who had seen most European courts during his wanderings, may have had this shield in mind when, over his arms of Beauchamp quartering Newburgh, he set a scocheon of Clare quartering Despenser, the arms of his wife Isabel Despenser, co-heir of the earls of Gloucester. The seal of his son-in-law, the King-Maker, shows four quarters — Beauchamp quartering Clare, Montagu quartering Monthermer, Nevill alone, and Newburgh quartering Despenser. An interesting use of the scocheon en surtout is that made by Richard Wydvile, Lord Rivers, whose garter stall-plate has a grand quarter of Wydvile and Prouz quartering Beauchamp of Hache, the whole surmounted by a scocheon with the arms of Reviers or Rivers, the house from which he took the title of his barony. On the continent the common use of the scocheon is to bear the paternal arms of a sovereign or noble, surmounting the quarterings of his kingdoms, principalities, fiefs or seigniories. Our own prince of Wales bears the arms of Saxony above those Shield of Richard Beauchamp, of the United Kingdom differ- earl of Warwick, from his garter enced with his silver label. Mar- stall-plate (after 1423). The shalling takes its most elaborate arms are Beauchamp quartering °, Newburgh, with a scocheon of form, the most removed from Clare quartering Despenser. the graceful simplicity of the middle ages, in such shields as the " Great Arms " of the Austrian empire, wherein are nine grand quarters each marshal- ling in various fashions from three to eleven coats, six of the grand-quarters bearing scocheons en surtout, each scocheon ensigned with a different crown. Crests. — The most important accessory of the arms is the crested helm. Like the arms it has its pre-heraldic history in the crests of the Greek helmets, the wings, the wild boar's and bull's heads of Viking headpieces. A little roundel of the arms of a Japanese house was often borne as a crest in the Japanese helmet, stepped in a socket above the middle of the brim. The 12th-century seal of Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders, shows a demi-lion painted or beaten on the side of the upper part of his helm, and on his seal of 1198 our own Richard Cceur de Lion's barrel-helm has a leopard upon the semicircular comb- ridge, the edge of which is set off with feathers arranged as two wings. Crests, however, came slowly into use in England, although before 1250 Roger de Quincy, earl of Winchester, is seen on his seal with a wyver upon his helm. Of the long roll of earls and barons sealing the famous letter to the pope in 1301 only five show true crests on their seals. Two of them are the earl of Lancaster and his brother, each with a wyver crest like that of Quincy. One, and the most remarkable, is John St John of Halnaker, whose crest is a leopard standing between two upright palm branches. Ralph de Monthermer has an eagle crest, while Walter de Money's helm is surmounted by a fox-like beast. In three of these instances the crest is borne, as was often the case, by the horse as well as the rider. Others of these seals to the barons' letter have the fan-shaped crest without any decoration upon it. But as the furniture of tournaments grew more magnificent the crest gave a new field for display, and many strange shapes appear in painted and gilded wood, HERALDRY metal, leather or parchment above the helms of the jousters. The Berkeleys, great patrons of abbeys, bore a mitre as their crest painted with their arms, like crests being sometimes seen on the continent where the wearer was advocatm of a bishopric or abbey. The whole or half figures or the heads and necks of beasts and birds were employed by other families. Saracens' heads topped many helms, that of the great Chandos among them. Astley bore for his crest a silver harpy standing in marsh-sedge, a golden chain fastened to a crown about her neck. Dymoke played pleasantly on his name with a long-eared moke's scalp. Stanley took the eagle's nest in which the eagle is lighting down with a swaddled babe in his claws. Burnell had a burdock bush, la Vache a cow's leg, and Lisle's strange fancy was to perch a huge millstone on edge above his head. Many early helms, as that of Sir John Loterel, painted in the Loterel psalter, repeat the arms on the sides of a fan-crest. Howard bore for a crest his arms painted on a pair of wings, while simple " bushes " or feathers are seen in great plenty. The crest of a cadet is often differenced like the arms, and thus a wyver or a leopard will have a label about its neck. The Montagu griffon on the helm of John, marquess of Montagu, holds in its beak the gimel ring with which he differenced his father's shield. His brother, Ralph de Monthermer (1301), showing shield of arms, helm with crest and mantle, horse-crest and armorial trappers. the King-Maker, following a custom commoner abroad than at home, shows two crested helms on his seal, one for Montagu and one for Beauchamp — none for his father's house of Nevill. It is often stated that a man, unless by some special grace or allowance, can have but one. crest. This, however, is contrary to the spirit of medieval armory in which a man, inheriting the coat of arms of another house than his own, took with it all its belongings, crest, badge and the like. The heraldry books, with more reason, deny crests to women and to the clergy, but examples are not wanting of medieval seals in which even this rule is broken. It is perhaps unfair to cite the case of the bishops of Durham who ride in full harness on their palatinate seals; but Henry Despenser, bishop of Norwich, has a helm on which the winged griffon's head of his house springs from a mitre, while Alexander Nevill, archbishop of York, seals with shield, supporters and crowned and crested helm like those of any lay magnate. Richard Holt, a Northamptonshire clerk in holy orders, bears on his seal in the reign of Henry V. a shield of arms and a mantled helm with the crest of a collared greyhound's head. About the middle of the same century a seal cut for the wife of Thomas Chetwode, a Cheshire squire, has a shield of her husband's arms parted with her own and surmounted by a crowned helm with the crest of a demi-lion; and this is not the only example of such bearings by a woman. Before passing from the crest let us note that in England the i juncture of crest and helm was commonly covered, especially after the beginning of the isth century, by a torse or " wreath " of silk, twisted with one, two or three colours. Coronets or crowns and " hats of estate " often take the place of the wreath as a base for the crest, and there are other curious variants. With the wreath may be considered the mantle, a hanging cloth which, in its earliest form, is seen as two strips of silk or sendal attached to the top of the helm below the crest and streaming like pennants as the rider bent his head and charged. Such strips are often displayed from the conical top of an uncrested helm, and some ancient ex- amples have the air of the two ends of a stole or of the infulae of a bishop's mitre. The general opinion of anti- quaries has been that the mantle originated among the crusaders as a protection for the steel helm from the rays of an Eastern sun; but the fact that mantles take in England their fuller form after our crusading days were over seems against this theory. When the fashion for slittering the edges of hef^'lith" hatband clothing came in, the edges of the mantle of Thomas of mantle were slittered like the edge Hengrave (1401). of the sleeve or skirt, and, flourished out on either side of the helm, it became the delight of the painter of armories and the seal engraver. A worthless tale, repeated by popular manuals, makes the slittered edge represent the shearing work of the enemy's sword, a fancy which takes no account of the like developments in civil dress. Modern heraldry in England paints the mantle with the principal colour of the shield, lining it with the principal metal. This in cases where no old grant of arms is cited as evidence of another usage. The mantles of the king and of the prince of Wales are, however, of gold lined with ermine and those of other members of the royal house of gold lined with silver. In ancient examples there is great variety and freedom. Where the crest is the head of a griffon or bird the feathering of the neck will be carried on to cover the mantle. Other mantles will be powdered with badges or with charges from the shield, others checkered, barred or paled. More than thirty of the mantles enamelled on the stall-plates of the medieval Garter-knights are of red with an ermine lining, tinctures which in most cases have no reference to the shields below them. Supporters. — Shields of arms, especially upon seals, are sometimes figured as hung round the necks of eagles, lions, swans and griffons, as strapped between the horns of a hart or to the boughs of a tree. Badges may fill in the blank spaces at the sides between the shield and the inscription on the rim, but in the later i3th and early I4th centuries the commonest objects so serving are sprigs of plants, lions, leopards, or, still more frequently, lithe-necked wyvers. John of Segrave in 1301 flanks his shields with two of the sheaves of the older coat of Segrave: William Marshal of Hingham does the like with his two marshal's staves. Henry of Lancaster at the same time shows on his seal a shield and a helm crested with a wyver, with two like wyvers ranged on either side of the shield as " supporters." It is uncertain at what time in the I4th century these various fashions crystallize into the recognized use of beasts, birds, reptiles, men or inanimate objects, definitely chosen as " supporters " of the shield, and not to be taken as the ornaments suggested by the fancy of the seal engraver. That supporters originate in the decoration of the seal there can be little doubt. Some writers, the learned Menetrier among them, will have it that they were first the fantastically clad fellows who supported and displayed the knight's shield at the opening of the tournament. If the earliest supporters were wild men, angels or Saracens, this theory might be defended ; but lions, boars and talbots, dogs and trees are guises into which a man would put himself with difficulty. 316 HERALDRY By the middle of the i4th century we find what are clearly recognizable as supporters. These, as in a lesser degree the crest, are often personal rather than hereditary, being changed generation by generation. The same person is found using more Arms of William, Lord Hastings, from his seal (1477), showing shield, crowned and crested helm with mantle and supporters. than one pair of them. The kings of France have had angels as supporters of the shield of the fleurs de lys since the 1 5th century, but the angels have only taken their place as the sole royal supporters since the time of Louis XIV. Sovereigns of England from Henry IV. to Elizabeth changed about between supporters of harts, leopards, antelopes, bulls, greyhounds, boars and dragons. James I. at his accession to the English throne brought the Scottish unicorn to face the English leopard rampant across his shield, and, ever since, the " lion and unicorn " have been the royal supporters. An old herald wrote as his opinion that " there is little or nothing in precedent to direct the use of supporters." Modern custom gives them, as a rule, only to peers, to knights of the Garter, the Thistle and St Patrick, and to knights who are " Grand Badge of John of Whethamstede, Rudder badge of abbot of St Albans (d. 1465), from Willoughby. his tomb in the abbey church. Crosses " or Grand Commanders of other orders. Royal warrants are sometimes issued for the granting of supporters to baronets, and, in rare cases, they have been assigned to un- titled persons. But in spite of the jealousy with which official heraldry hedges about the display of these supporters once assumed so freely, a few old English families still assert their Dacre of I and Dacre of the the right by hereditary prescription to use these ornaments as their forefathers were wont to use them. Badges. — The badge may claim a greater antiquity -and a wider use than armorial bearings. The " Plantagenet " broom is an early example in England, sprigs of it being figured on the seal of Richard I. In the i4th and i$th cen- turies every magnate had his badge, which he displayed on his horse- furniture, on the hangings of his bed, his wall and his chair of state, besides giving it as a " livery " to his servants and followers. Such were the knots of Stafford, Bourchier and Wake, the scabbard - crampet of La Warr, the sickle of Hungerford, the swan of Toesni, Bohun and Lancaster, the dun- bull of Nevill, the blue boar of Vere and the bear and ragged staff of Beauchamp, Nevill of Warwick and Dudley of Northumberland. So well known of all were these symbols that a political ballad of 1440 sings of the misfortunes of the great lords without naming one of them, all men understanding what signified the Falcon, the Water Bowge and the Cresset and the other badges of doggerel. More famous still were the White Hart, the Red Rose, the White Rose, the Sun, the Falcon and Fetterlock, the Port- cullis and the many other badges of the royal house. We still call those wars that blotted out the old baronage the Wars of the Roses, and the Prince of Wales's feathers are as well known to-day as the royal arms. The Flint and Steel of Burgundy make a collar for the order of the Golden Fleece. Mottoes. — The motto now accompanies every coat of arms in these islands. Few of these Latin aphorisms, these bald assertions of virtue, high courage, patriotism, piety and loyalty have any antiquity. Some few, how- ever, like the " Esperance " of Percy, were the war-cries of remote ancestors. " I mak' sicker " of Kirkpatrick recalls pridefully a bloody deed done on a wounded man, and the "Dieu Ayde," "Agincourt" and " D'Accomplir Agincourt " of the Irish " Montmorencys " and the English Wode- houses and Dalisons, glorious traditions badgeof Beaufort, based upon untrustworthy genealogy. The p^a™ ofi^'o^The often-quoted punning mottoes may be illus- silver feather has trated by that of Cust, who says " Qui Cust-odit caveat," a modern example and a fair one. Ancient mottoes as distinct from the war or gathering cry of a house are often cryptic sentences whose meaning might be known to the user and perchance to his mistress. Such are the " Plus est en vous " of Louis de Bruges, the Flemish earl of Winchester, and the " So have I cause " and " Till then thus " of two Englishmen. The word motto is of modern use, our forefathers speaking rather of their " word " or of their " reason." Coronets of Rank. — Among accessories of the shield may now be counted the coronets of peers, whose present form is post- medieval. When Edward III. made dukes of his sons, gold circlets were set upon their heads in token of their new dignity. In 1385 John de Vere, marquess of Dublin, was created in the same fashion. Edward VI. extended the honour of the gold circle to earls. Caps of honour were worn with these circles or coronets, and viscounts wore the cap by appointment of James I., Vincent the herald stating that " a verge of pearls on top of the circulet of gold " was added at the creation of Robert Cecil as Viscount Cranborne. At the coronation of Charles I. the viscounts walked in procession with their caps and coronets. A few days before the coronation of Charles II. the privilege Ostrich feather a quill g silver and obony azure. HERALDRY PLATE II. SIXTEEN SHIELDS FROM A ROLL OF ARMS OF ENGLISH KNIGHTS AND BARONS MADE BY AN ENGLISH PAINTER EARLY IN THE REIGN OF EDWARD III. Drawn by William Gibb. Niagara Lilho. Co.. Buffalo, N. Y. HERALDRY of the cap of honour was given to the lowest rank of the peerage, and letters patent of January 1661 assign to them both cap and coronet. The caps of velvet turned up with miniver, which are nowalways worn with the peer's coronet, are therefore the ancient caps of honour, akin to that " cap of maintenance " worn by English sovereigns on their coronation days when walking to the Abbey Church, and borne before them on occasions of royal state. The ancient circles were enriched according to the taste of the bearer, and, although used at creations as symbols of the rank conferred, were worn in the i4th and isth centuries by men and women of rank without the use signifying a rank in the peerage. Edmund, earl of March, in his will of 1380, named his sercle we roses, emeraudes et rubies d'alisaundre en les roses, and bequeathed it to his daughter. Modern coronets are of silver-gilt, without jewels, set upon caps of crimson velvet turned up with ermine, with a gold tassel at the top. A duke's coronet has the circle decorated with eight gold "strawberry leaves"; that of a marquess has four gold strawberry leaves and four silver balls. The coronet of an earl has eight silver balls, raised upon points, with gold strawberry leaves between the points. A viscount's coronet has on the circle sixteen silver balls, and a baron's coronet six silver balls. On the continent the modern use of coronets is not ordered in the precise English fashion, men of gentle birth displaying coronets which afford but slight indication of the bearer's rank. Lines. — Eleven varieties of lines, other than straight lines, which divide the shield, or edge our cheverons, pales, bars and the like, are pictured in the heraldry books and named as en- grailed, embattled, indented, invected, wavy or undy, nebuly, dancetty, raguly, potente, dovetailed and urdy. As in the case of many other such lists of the later armorists these eleven varieties need some pruning and a new explanation. The most commonly found is the line engrailed, which for the student of medieval armory must be associated with the line indented. In its earliest form the line which a roll of arms will describe indifferently as indented or engrailed takes almost invariably the form to which the name indented is restricted by modern armorists. The cross may serve as our first example. A cross, engrailed or indented, the words being used indifferently, is a cross so deeply notched at the edges that it seems made up of so many lozenge-shaped wedges or fusils. About the middle of the i4th century begins a tendency, resisted in practice by many conserva- tive families, to draw the engrailing lines in the fashion to which modern armorists restrict the word " engrailed," making shallower indentures in the form of lines of half circles. -Thus the engrailed cross of the Mohuns takes either of the two forms which we illustrate. Bends follow the same fashion, early bends engrailed or in- dented being some four or more fusils joined bendwise by their blunt sides, bends of less than four fusils being very rare. Thus also the engrailed or in- dented saltires, pales or cheverons, the exact number of the fusils which go to the making of these being unconsidered. For the fesse there is another law. The fesse indented or engrailed is made up of fusils as is the engrailed bend. But although early rolls of arms sometimes neglect this detail in their blazon, the fusils making a fesse must always be of an ascertained number. Montagu, earl of Salisbury, bore a fesse engrailed or indented of three fusils only, very few shields imitating this. Medieval armorists will describe his arms as a fesse indented of three indentures, as a fesse fusilly of three pieces, or as a fesse engrailed of three points or pieces, all of these blazons having the same value. The indented fesse on the red shield of the Dynhams has four such fusils of ermine. Four, however, is almost as rare a number as three, the normal form of a fesse indented being that of five fusils as borne by Percys, Pinkenys, Newmarches and many other ancient houses. Indeed, accuracy of blazon is served \ Mohun. if the number of fusils in a fesse be named in the cases of threes and fours. Fesses of six fusils are not to be found. Note that bars indented or engrailed are, for a reason which will be evi- dent, never subject to this counting of fusils. Fauconberg, for example, bore " Silver with two bars engrailed, or indented, sable." Displayed on a shield of the flat-iron outline, the lower bar would show fewer fusils than the upper, while on a square banner each bar would have an equal number — usually five or six. While bends, cheverons, crosses, saltires and pales often follow, especially in the isth century, the tendency towards the Montagu. Dynham. Percy. Fauconberg; rounded " engrailing," fesses keep, as a rule, their bold indentures • — neither Percy nor Montagu being ever found with his bearings in aught but their ancient form. Borders take the newer fashion as leaving more room for the charges of the field. But indented chiefs do not change their fashion, although many saw-teeth sometimes take the place of the three or four strong points of early arms, and parti-coloured shields whose party line is indented never lose the bold zig-zag. While bearing in mind that the two words have no distinctive force in ancient armory, the student and the herald of modern times may conveniently allow himself to blazon the sharp and saw-toothed line as " indented " and the scolloped line as " engrailed," especially when dealing with the debased armory in which the distinction is held to be a true one and one of the first importance. One error at least he must avoid, and that is the following of the heraldry-book compilers in their use of the word "dancetty." A "dancetty" line, we are told, is a line having fewer and deeper indentures than the line indented. But no dancetty line could make a bolder dash across the shield than do the lines which the old armorists recognized as " indented." In old armory we have fesses dancy — commonly called " dances " — bends dancy, or cheverons | | dancy; there are no chiefs dancy nor borders dancy, nor are there shields blazoned as parted with a dancy line. Waved lines, battled lines and ragged lines need little explanation that a picture cannot give. The word invecked or invected is sometimes applied by old-fashioned heraldic pedants to engrailed lines; later pedants have given it to a line found in modern grants of arms, an engrailed line reversed. Dove- tailed and urdy lines are mere modernisms. Of the very rare nebuly or clouded line we can only say that the ancient form, which imitated the conventional cloud-bank of the old painters, is now almost forgotten, while the bold " wavy " lines of early armory have the word " nebuly " misapplied to them. The Ordinary Charges. — The writers upon armory have given the name of Ordinaries to certain conventional figures commonly charged upon shields. Also they affect to divide these into Honourable Ordinaries and Sub-Ordinaries without explaining the reason for the superior honour of the Saltire or for the subordination of the Quarter. - Disregarding such distinctions, we may begin with the description of the " Ordinaries " most commonly to be found. From the first the Cross was a common bearing on English shields, " Silver a cross gules " being given early to St George, patron of knights and of England, for his arms; and under St George's red cross the English were wont to fight. Our armorial crosses took many shapes, but the " crosses innumerabill " of the Book of St Albans and its successors may be left to the heraldic dictionary makers who have devised them. It is more West. 3i8 HERALDRY important to define those forms in use during the middle ages, and to name them accurately after the custom of those who bore them in war, a task which the heraldry books have never as yet attempted with success. The cross in its simple form needs no definition, but it will be noted that it is sometimes borne " voided " and that in a very few cases it appears as a lesser charge with its ends cut off square, in which case it must be clearly blazoned as " a plain Cross." Andrew Harcla, the march-warden, whom Edward II. made an earl and executed as a traitor, bore the arms of St George with a martlet sable in the quarter. Crevequer of Kent bore " Gold a voided cross gules." Newsom (Hth century) bore " Azure a fesse silver with three plain crosses gules." Next to the plain Cross may be taken the Cross paty, the croiz patee or pate of old rolls of arms. It has several forms, according to the taste of the artist and the age. So, in the I3th and early i4th centuries, its limbs curve out broadly, while at a later date the limbs become more slender and of even breadth, the ends somewhat resembling fleurs-de-lys. Each of these forms has been seized by the heraldic writers as the type of a distinct cross for which a name must be found, none of them, as a rule, being recognized as a cross paty, a word which has its misapplica- St George. Harcla. Crevequer. Latimer. tion elsewhere. Thus the books have " cross patonce " for the earlier form, while " cross clechee " and " cross fleurie " serve for the others. But the true identification of the various crosses is of the first importance to the antiquary, since without it descriptions of the arms on early seals or monuments must needs be valueless. Many instances of this need might be cited from the British Museum catalogue of seals, where, for example, the cross paty of Latimer is described twice as a " cross flory," six times as a " cross patonce," but not once by its own name, although there is no better known example of this bearing in England. Latimer bore " Gules a cross paty gold." The cross formy follows the lines of the cross paty save that its broadening ends are cut off squarely. Chetwode bore " Quarterly silver and gules with four crosses formy countercoloured " — that is to say, the two crosses in the gules are of silver and the two in the silver of gules. The cross flory or flowered cross, the " cross with the ends flowered " — od les boutes floreles as some of the old rolls have it — is, like the cross paty, a mark for the misapprehension of writers on armory, who describe some shapes of the cross paty by its name. Playing upon discovered or fancied variants of the word, they bid us mark the distinctions between crosses " fleur- de-lisee," " fleury " and " fleurettee," although each author has his own version of the value which must be given these precious words. But the facts of the medieval practice are clear to those who take their armory from ancient examples and not from phrases plagiarized from the hundredth plagiarist. The flowered cross is one whose limbs end in fleur-de-lys, which spring sometimes from a knop or bud but more fre- quently issue from the square ends of a cross of the " formy " type. Swynnerton bore" Silver a flowered cross sable." The mill-rind, which takes its name from the iron of a mill-stone — fer de moline — must be set with the crosses. Some of the old rolls call it croiz recercele, from which armorial writers have leaped to imagine a distinct type. Also they call the mill-rind itself a " cross moline " keeping the word V Mill-rinds. mill-rind for a charge having the same origin but of somewhat differing form. Since this charge became common in Tudor armory it is perhaps better that the original mill-rind should be called for distinction a mill-rind cross. Willoughby bore " Gules a mill-rind cross silver." The crosslet, cross botonny or cross crosletted, is a cross whose limbs, of even breadth, end as trefoils or treble buds. It is rarely found in medieval examples in the shape— that of a cross with limbs ending in squarely cut plain crosses — which it took Chetwode. Swynnerton. Willoughby. Brerelegh. during the 16th-century decadence. As the sole charge of a shield it is very rare; otherwise it is one of the commonest of charges. Brerelegh bore " Silver a crosslet gules." Within these modest limits we have brought the greater part of that monstrous host of crosses which cumber the dictionaries. A few rare varieties may be noticed. Dukinfield bore " Silver a voided cross with sharpened ends." Skirlaw, bishop of Durham (d. 1406), the son of a basket- weaver, bore " Silver a cross of three upright wattles sable, crossed and interwoven by three more." Drury bore " Silver a chief vert with a St Anthony's cross gold between two golden molets, pierced gules." Brytton bore " Gold a patriarch's cross set upon three degrees or steps of gules." Hurlestone of Cheshire bore " Silver a cross of four ermine tails sable." Melton bore " Silver a Toulouse cross gules." By giving this cross Skirlaw. Drury. St Anthony's Cross. Brytton. a name from the counts of Toulouse, its best-known bearers, some elaborate blazonry is spared. The crosses paty and formy, and more especially the crosslets, are often borne fitchy, that is to say, with the lower limb some- what lengthened and ending in a point, for which reason the 15th-century writers call these " crosses fixabill." In the 14th- century rolls the word " potent " is sometimes used for these crosses fitchy, the long foot suggesting a potent or staff. From this source modern English armorists derive many of their " crosses potent," whose four arms have the T heads of old- fashioned walking staves. Howard bore " Silver a bend between six crosslets fitchy gules." Scott of Congerhurst in Kent bore " Silver a crosslet fitchy sable." The Saltire is the cross in the form of that on which St Andrew Hurlestone. Melton. Howard. Scott. suffered, whence it is borne on the banner of Scotland, and by the Andrew family of Northamptonshire. Nevile of Raby bore " Gules a saltire silver." Nicholas Upton, the 15th-century writer on armory, bore " Silver a saltire sable with the ends couped and five golden rings thereon." HERALDRY Aynho bore " Sable a saltire silver having the ends flowered between four leopards gold." " Mayster Elwett of Yorke chyre " in a 15th-century roll bears " Silver a saltire of chains sable with a crescent in the chief." Nevile. Upton. Aynho. Elwett. Fenwick. Restwolde bore " Party saltirewise of gules and ermine." The chief is the upper part of the shield and, marked out by a line of division, it is taken as one of the Ordinaries. Shields with a plain chief and no more are rare in England, but Tichborne of Tichborne has borne since the i3th century " Vair a chief _ gold." According to the heraldry books the chief should be marked off as a third part of the shield, but its depth varies, being broader when charged with devices and narrower when, itself uncharged, it surmounts a charged field. Fenwick bore " Silver a chief gules with six martlets countercoloured," and in this case the chief would be the half of the shield. Clinging to the belief that the chief must not fill more than a third of the shield, the heraldry books abandon the word in such cases, blazoning them as " party per fesse." Hastang bore " Azure a chief gules and a lion with a forked tail over all." Walter Kingston seals in the I3th century with a shield of " Two rings or annelets in the chief." Hilton of Westmoreland bore " Sable three rings gold and two saltires silver in the chief." With the chief may be named the Foot, the nether part of the shield marked off as an Ordinary. So rare is this charge that we can cite but one example of it, that of the shield of John of Skipton, who in the i4th century bore " Silver with the foot indented purple and a lion purple." The foot, however, is a recognized bearing in France, whose heralds gave it the name of champagne. The Pale is a broad stripe running the length of the shield. Of a single pale and of three pales there are several old examples. Four red pales in a golden shield were borne by Eleanor of Provence, queen of Henry III.; but the number did not com- Restwolde. Hastang. Hilton. Provence. mend itself to English armorists. When the field is divided evenly into six pales it is said to be paly; if into four or eight pales, it is blazoned as paly of that number of pieces. But paly of more or less than six pieces is rarely found. The Yorkshire house of Gascoigne bore " Silver a pale sable with a golden conger's head thereon, cut off at the shoulder." Ferlington bore " Gules three pales vair and a chief gold." Strelley bore " Paly silver and azure." Rothinge bore " Paly silver and gules of eight pieces." When the shield or charge is divided palewise down the middle into two tinctures it is said to be " party." " Party silver and gules " are the arms of the Waldegraves. Bermingham bore " Party silver and sable indented." Caldecote bore " Party silver and azure with a chief gules." Such partings of the field often cut through charges whose colours change about on either side of the parting line. Thus Chaucer the poet bore " Party silver and gules with a bend countercoloured." The Fesse is a band athwart the shield, filling, according to the rules of the heraldic writers, a third part of it. By ancient use, however, as in the case of the chief and pale, its width varies with the taste of the painter, narrowing when set in a field full of charges and broadening when charges are displayed on itself. Rothinge. When two or three fesses are borne they are commonly called Bars. " Ermine four bars gules " is given as the shield of Sir John Sully, a 14th-century Garter knight, on his stall-plate at Windsor: but the plate belongs to a later generation, and should probably have three bars only. Little bars borne in couples are styled Gemels (twins). The field divided into an even number of bars of alternate colours is said to be barry, Bermingham. Caldecote. Colevile. Fauconberg. barry of six pieces being the normal number. If four or eight divisions be found the number of pieces must be named; but with ten or more divisions the number is unreckoned and " burely " is the word. Colevile of Bitham bore " Gold a fesse gules." West bore " Silver a dance (or fesse dancy) sable." Fauconberg bore " Gold a fesse azure with three pales gules in the chief." Cayvile bore " Silver a fesse gules, flowered on both sides." Cayvile. Devereux. Chamberlayne. Harcourt. Devereux bore " Gules a fesse silver with three roundels silver in the chief." Chamberlayne of Northamptonshire bore " Gules a fesse and three scallops gold." Harcourt bore " Gules two bars gold." Manners bore " Gold two bars azure and a chief gules." Wake bore " Gold two bars gules with three roundels gules in the chief." Bussy bore " Silver three bars sable." Badlesmere of Kent bore " Silver a fesse between two gemels gules." Melsanby bore " Sable two gemels and a chief silver." Manners. Wake. Melsanby. Grey. Grey bore " Barry of silver and azure." Fitzalan of Bedale bore " Barry of eight pieces gold and gules. Stutevile bore " Burely of silver and gules." 320 HERALDRY The Bend is a band traversing the shield aslant, arms with one, two or three bends being common during the middle ages in England. Bendy shields follow the rule of shields paly and barry, but as many as ten pieces have been counted in them. The bend is often accompanied by a narrow bend on either side, these companions being called Cotices. A single narrow bend, struck over all other charges, is the Baston, which during the i3th and i4th centuries was a common difference for the shields of the younger branches of a family, coming in late? times to suggest itself as a difference for bastards. The Bend Sinister, the bend drawn from right to left beginning at the " sinister " corner of the shield, is reckoned in the heraldry books as a separate Ordinary, and has a peculiar significance Fitzalan of Bedale. Mauley. Harley. Wallop. accorded to it by novelists. Medieval English seals afford a group of examples of Bends Sinister and Bastons Sinister, but there seems no reason for taking them as anything more than cases in which the artist has neglected the common rule. Mauley bore " Gold a bend sable." Harley bore " Gold a bend with two cotices sable." Wallop bore " Silver a bend wavy sable." Ralegh bore " Gules a bend indented, or engrailed, silver." Ralegh. Tracy. Bodrugan. St Philibert. Tracy bore " Gold two bends gules with a scallop sable in the chief between the bends." Bodrugan bore " Gules three bends sable." St Philibert bore " Bendy of six pieces, silver and azure." Bishopsdon bore " Bendy of six pieces, gold and azure, with a quarter ermine." Montfort of Whitchurch bore " Bendy of ten pieces gold and azure." Henry of Lancaster, second son of Edmund Crouchback, bore the Bishopsdon. Montfort. Lancaster. Fraunceys. arms of his cousin, the king of England, with the difference of " a baston azure." Adam Fraunceys (i4th century) bore " Party gold and sable bendwise with a lion countercoloured." The parting line is here commonly shown as " sinister." The Cheveron, a word found in medieval building accounts for the barge-boards of a gable, is an Ordinary whose form is explained by its name. Perhaps the very earliest of English armorial charges, and familiarized by the shield of the great house of Clare, it became exceedingly popular in England. Like the bend and the chief, its width varies in different examples. Likewise its angle varies, being sometimes so acute as to touch the top of the shield, while in post-medieval armory the point is often blunted beyond the right angle. One, two or three cheverons occur in numberless shields, and five cheverons have been found. Also there are some examples of the bearing of cheveronny. The earls of Gloucester of the house of Glare bore " Gold three cheverons gules " and the Staffords derived from them their shield of Gold a cheveron gules.'' Chaworth bore " Azure two cheverons gold." Peytevyn bore " Cheveronny of ermine and gules." St Quintin of Yorkshire bore " Gold two cheverons gules and a chief vair." Sheffield bore " Ermine a cheveron gules between three sheaves gold." Cobham of Kent bore " Gules a cheveron gold with three fleurs- de-lys azure thereon." Fitzwalter bore " Gold a fesse between two cheverons gules." Chaworth. Peytevyn. Sheffield. Cobham. Shields parted cheveronwise are common in the isth century, when they are often blazoned as having chiefs " enty " or grafted. Aston of Cheshire bore " Party sable and silver chever- onwise " or " Silver a chief enty sable." The Pile or stake (estache) is a wedge-shaped figure jutting from the chief to the foot of the shield, its name allied to the pile of the bridge-builder. A single pile is found in the notable arms of Chandos, and the black piles in the ermine shield of Hollis are seen as an example of the bearing of two piles. Three piles are more easily found, and when more than one is represented the points are brought together at the foot. In ancient armory piles in a shield are sometimes reckoned as a variety of pales, and a Basset with three piles on his shield is seen with three pales on his square banner. Chandos bore " Gold a pile gules." Bryene bore " Gold three piles azure." The Quarter is the space of the first quarter of the shield divided crosswise into four parts. As an Ordinary it is an ancient charge and a common one in medieval England, although it has all but disappeared from modern heraldry books, the " Canton," an alleged " diminutive," unknown to early armory, taking its place. Like the other Ordinaries, its size is found to vary with the scheme of the shield's charges, and this has persuaded those armorists who must needs call a narrow bend a " bendlet," to the invention of the " Canton," a word which in the sense of a quarter or small quarter appears for the first time in the latter part of the isth century. Writers of the i4th century sometimes give it the name of the Cantel, but this word is also applied to the void space on the opposite. side of the chief, seen above a bend. Aston. Hollis. Bryene. Blencowe. Blencowe bore " Gules a quarter silver." Basset of Dray ton bore " Gold three piles (or pales) gules with a quarter ermine." Wydvile bore " Silver a fesse and a quarter gules." Odingseles bore " Silver a fesse gules with a molet gules in the quarter." Robert Dene of Sussex (i4th century) bore "Gules a quarter azure ' embelif,' or aslant, and thereon a sleeved arm and hand of silver." Shields or charges divided crosswise with a downward line and a line athwart are said to be quarterly. An ancient coat of this fashion is that of Say who bore (i3th century) " Quarterly gold and gules " — the first and fourth quarters being gold and the second and third red. Ever or Eure bore the same with the PLATE III. ••• — c j r t SHIELDS OF ARMS OF "LE ROY DARRABE," "LE ROY DE TARSSE," AND OTHER SOVEREIGNS, MOSTLY MYTHICAL. TAKEN FROM A ROLL OF ARMS MADE BY AN ENGLISH PAINTER IN THE TIME OF HENRY VI. Draw by William CM. Niagara Lilho. Co,. Buffalo. N. Y. HERALDRY 321 _ddition of " a bend sable with three silver scallops thereon." Phelip, Lord Bardolf, bore " Quarterly gules and silver with an agle gold in the quarter." With the i sth century came a fashion of dividing the shield ato more than four squares, six and nine divisions being often ound in arms of that age. The heraldry books, eager to work Basset. Wydvile. Odingseles. Ever. mt problems of blazonry, decide that a shield divided into squares should be described as " Party per fesse with a pale unterchanged," and one divided into nine squares as bearing a cross quarter-pierced." It seems a simpler business to illow a isth-century fashion and to blazon such shields as being of six or nine " pieces." Thus John Garther (i sth century) bore " Nine pieces erminees and ermine " and Whitgreave of Staffordshire " Nine pieces of azure and of Stafford's arms, which are gold with a cheveron gules." The Tallow Chandlers of London had a grant in 1456 of " Six pieces azure and silver with three doves in the azure, each with an olive sprig in her beak." Squared into more than nine squares the shield becomes cheeky or checkered and the number is not reckoned. Warenne's checker of gold and azure is one of the most ancient coats in .ngland and checkered fields and charges follow in great numbers, ven lions have been borne checkered. Warenne bore " Cheeky gold and azure." Clifford bore the like with " a fesse gules." Cobhara bore " Silver a lion cheeky gold and sable." Arderne bore " Ermine a fesse cheeky gold and gules." Such charges as this fesse of Arderne's and other checkered iesses, bars, bends, borders and the like, will commonly bear but Tallow Chandlers. Warenne. CO S an wo rows of squares, or three at the most. The heraldry writers •e ready to note that when two rows are used " counter- compony " is the word in place of cheeky, and " compony- counter-compony " in the case of three rows. It is needless to y that these words have neither practical value nor antiquity commend them. But bends and bastons, labels, borders and the rest are often coloured with a single row of alternating tinctures. In this case the pieces are said to be " gobony." Thus John Cromwell (i4th century) bore " Silver a chief gules with a baston gobony of gold and azure." The scocheon or shield used as a charge is found among the earliest arms. Itself charged with arms, it served to indicate alliance by blood or by tenure with another house, as in the bearings of St Owen whose shield of " Gules with a cross silver " has a scocheon of Clare in the quarter. In the latter half of the i Sth century it plays an important part in the curious marshalling •of the arms of great houses and lordships. Erpingham bore " Vert a scocheon silver with an orle (or border) of silver martlets." Davillers bore at the battle of Boroughbridge " Silver three scodicons gules." The scocheon was often borne voided or pierced, its field cut away to a narrow border. Especially was this the case in the ar North, where the Balliols, who bore such a voided scocheon, XIII. II were powerful. The voided scocheon is wrongly named in all the heraldry books as an orle, a term which belongs to a number of small charges set round a central charge. Thus the martlets in the shield of Erpingham, already described, may be called an orle of martlets or a border of martlets. This misnaming of the voided scocheon has caused a curious misapprehension of its form, even Dr Woodward, in his Heraldry, British and Foreign, describing the " orle " as " a narrow border detached from the edge of the shield." Following this definition modern armorial artists will, in the case of quartered arms, draw the " orle " in a first or second quarter of a quartered shield as a rectangular figure and in a third or fourth quarter as a scalene triangle with one arched side. Thereby the original voided scocheon changes into forms without meaning. Balliol bore " Gules a voided scocheon silver." Surtees bore " Ermine with a quarter of the arms of Balliol." The Tressure or flowered tressure is a figure which is correctly described by Woodward's incorrect description of the orle as cited above, being a narrow inner border of the shield. It is distinguished, however, by the fleurs-de-lys which decorate it, Arderne. Cromwell. Erpingham. setting off its edges. The double tressure which surrounds the lion in the royal shield of Scotland, and which is borne by many Scottish houses who have served their kings well or mated with their daughters, is carefully described by Scottish heralds as " flowered and counter-flowered," a blazon which is held to mean that the fleurs-de-lys show head and tail in turn from the outer rim of the outer tressure and from the inner rim of the innermost. But this seems to have been no essential matter with medieval armorists and a curious isth-century enamelled roundel of the arms of Vampage shows that in this English case the flowering takes the more convenient form of allowing all the lily heads to sprout from the outer rim. Vampage bore "Azure an eagle silver within a flowered tressure silver." The king of Scots bore " Gold a lion within a double tressure flowered and counterflowered gules." Felton bore " Gules two lions passant within a double tressure flory silver." The Border of the shield when marked out in its own tincture is counted as an Ordinary. Plain or charged, it was commonly used as a difference. As the principal charge of a shield it is very rare, so rare that in most cases where it apparently occurs Davillers. Balliol. Surtees. Vampage. we may, perhaps, be following medieval custom in blazoning the shield as one charged with a scocheon and not with a border. Thus Hondescote bore " Ermine a border gules " or " Gules a scocheon ermine." Somerville bore " Burely silver and gules and a border azure with golden martlets." Paynel bore " Silver two bars sable with a border, or orle, of martlets gules." The Flaunches are the flanks of the shield which, cut off by rounded lines, are borne in pairs as Ordinaries. These charges are found in many coats devised by isth-century armorists. 5 322 HERALDRY " Ermine two flaunches azure with six golden wheat-ears " was borne by John Greyby of Oxfordshire (isth century). The Label is a narrow fillet across the upper part of the chief, from which hang three, four, five or more pendants, the pendants being, in most old examples, broader than the fillet. Reckoned with ihe Ordinaries, it was commonly used as a means of differenc- ing a cadet's shield, and in the heraldry books it has become the accepted difference for an eldest son, although the cadets often bore it in the middle ages. John of Hastings bore in 1300 before Carlaverock " Gold a sleeve (or maunche) gules," while Edmund his brother bore the same arms with a sable label. In modern armory the pendants are all but invariably reduced to three, which, in debased examples, are given a dovetailed form while the ends of the fillet are cut off. The Fret, drawn as a voided lozenge interlaced by a slender saltire, is counted an Ordinary. A charge in such a shape is extremely rare in medieval armory, its ancient form when the field is covered by it being a number of bastons— three being the customary number — interlaced by as many more from the sinister side. Although the whole is described as a fret in certain English blazons of the 1,5th century, the adjective " fretty " Scotland. Hondescote. Greyby. Hastings. is more commonly used. Trussel's fret is remarkable for its bezants at the joints, which stand, doubtless, for the golden nail-heads of the " trellis " suggested by his name. Curwen, Wyvile and other northern houses bearing a fret and a chief have, owing to their fashion of drawing their frets, often seen them changed by the heraldry books into " three cheverons braced or interlaced." Huddlestone bore " Gules fretty silver." Trussel bore " Silver fretty gules, the joints bezanty. Hugh Giffard (nth century) bore " Gules with an engrailed fret of ermine." Wyvile bore " Gules fretty vair with a chief gold. Boxhull bore " Gold a lion azure fretty silver." Another Ordinary is the Giron or Gyron— a word now com- monly mispronounced with a hard " g." It may be defined as the Trussel. Giffard. Wyvile. Mortimer. lower half of a quarter which has been divided bendwise. No old example of a single giron can be found to match the figure in the heraldry books. Gironny, or gyronny, is a manner of dividing the field into sections, by lines radiating from a centre point, of which many instances may be given. Most of the earlier examples have some twelve divisions although later armory gives eight as the normal number, as Campbell bears them. Basslngbourne bore "Gironny of gold and azure of twelve pieces." William Stoker, who died Lord Mayor of London in 1484- bore " Gironny of six pieces azure and silver with three popinjays m the silver pieces." A pair of girons on either side of a chief were borne in the strange shield of Mortimer, commonly blazoned as " Barry azure and gold of six pieces, the chief azure with two pales and two girons gold, a scocheon silver over all." An early example shows that this shield began as a plain field with a gobony border. With the Ordinaries we may take the Roundels or Pellets, disks or balls of various colours. Ancient custom gives the name of a bezant to the golden roundel, and the folly of the heraldic writers has found names for all the others, names which may be disregarded together with the belief that, while bezants and silver roundels, as representing coins, must be pictured with a flat surface, roundels of other hues must needs be shaded by the painter to represent rounded balls. Rings or Annelets were common charges in the North, where Lowthers, Musgraves Campbell. Bassingbourne. Stoker. Burlay. and many more, differenced the six rings of Vipont by bearing them in various colours. Burlay of Wharfdale bore " Gules a bezant." Courtenay, earl of Devon, bore " Gold three roundels gules with a label azure." Caraunt bore " Silver three roundels azure, each with three cheverons gules." Vipont bore " Gold six annelets gules." Avenel bore " Silver a fesse and six annelets (aunels) gules." Hawberk of Stapleford bore " Silver a bend sable charged with three pieces of a mail hawberk, each of three linked rings of gold." Stourton bore " Sable a bend gold between six fountains." The fountain is a roundel charged with waves of white and blue. The Lozenge is linked in the heraldry book with the Fusil. This Fusil is described as a lengthened and sharper lozenge. But Courtenay. Caraunt. Vipont. Avenel. it will be understood that the Fusil, other than as part of an engrailed or indented bend, pale or fesse, is not known to true armory. Also it is one of the notable achievements of the English writers on heraldry that they should have allotted to the lozenge, when borne voided, the name of Mascle. This " mascle " is the word of the oldest armorists for the unvoided charge, the voided being sometimes described by them as a lozenge, without further qualifications. Fortunately the difficulty can be solved by following the late 14th-century custom in distinguishing between " lozenges " and " voided lozenges " and by abandoning altogether this misleading word Mascle. Thomas of Merstone, a clerk, bore on his seal in 1359 "Ermine a lozenge with a pierced molet thereon." Hawberk. Stourton. Charles. Fitzwilliam. Braybroke bore " Silver seven voided lozenges gules." Charles bore " Ermine a chief gules with five golden lozenges thereon." „ Fitzwilliam bore " Lozengy silver and gules. Billets are oblong figures set upright. Black billets in the arms of Delves of Cheshire stand for " delves " of earth and the gads of steel in the arms of the London Ironmongers' Company took a somewhat similar form. HERALDRY 323 Sir Ralph Mounchensy bore in the I4th century " Silver a cheveron etween three billets sable." Haggerston bore " Azure a bend with cotices silver and three billets able on the bend." With the Billet, the Ordinaries, uncertain as they are in number, ,y be said to end. But we may here add certain armorial •ges which might well have been counted with them. First of these is the Molet, a word corrupted in modern heraldry Mullet, a fish-like change with nothing to commend it. This re is as a star of five or six points, six points being perhaps 'e commonest form in old examples, although the sixth point is, a rule, lost during the later period. Medieval armorists are it, it seems, inclined to make any distinction between molets f five and six points, but some families, such as the Harpedens id Asshetons, remained constant to the five-pointed form. It as generally borne pierced with a round hole, and then represents, its name implies, the rowel of a spur. In ancient rolls of arms he word Rowel is often used, and probably indicated the pierced lolet. That the piercing was reckoned an essential difference shown by a roll of the time of Edward II., in which Sir John f Pabenham bears " Barry azure and silver, with a bend gules ,nd three molets gold thereon," arms which Sir John his son ifferences by piercing the molets. Beside these names is that if Sir Walter Baa with " Gules a cheveron and three rowels .ver," rowels which are shown on seals of this family as pierced olets. Probably an older bearing than the molet, which would popularized when the rowelled spur began to take the place of the prick-spur, is the Star or Estoile, differing from the lolet in that its five or six points are wavy. It is possible that iveral star bearings of the i3th century were changed in the 4th for molets. The star is not pierced in the fashion of the iolet; but, like the molet, it tends to lose its sixth point in armory f the decadence. Suns, sometimes blazoned in old rolls as Sun- ,ys — rays de soleil — are pictured as unpierced molets of many points, which in rare cases are waved. Harpeden bore " Silver a pierced molet gules." Gentil bore " Gold a cnief sable with two molets goles pierced lies." Grimston bore " Silver a fesse sable and thereon three molets silver lierced gules." Ingleby of Yorkshire bore " Sable a star silver." Sir John de la Haye of Lincolnshire bore " Silver a sun gules." The Crescent is a charge which has to answer for many idle les concerning the crusading ancestors of families who bear Mounchensy. Haggerston. Harpeden. Gentil. it. It is commonly borne with both points uppermost, but when representing the waning or the waxing moon — decrescent or increscent — its horns are turned to the sinister or dexter side iof the shield. Peter de Marines (i3th century) bore on his seal a shield charged with a crescent in the chief. William Gobioun (Hth century) bore " A bend between two waxing moons." Longchamp bore " Ermine three crescents gules, pierced silver." Tinctures. — The tinctures or hues of the shield and its charges .re seven in number — gold or yellow, silver or white, red, blue, black, green and purple. Medieval custom gave, according to a rule often broken, " gules," " azure " and " sable " as more high-sounding names for the red, blue and black. Green was often named as " vert," and sometimes as " synobill," a word which as " sinople " is used to this day by French armorists. The song of the siege of Carlaverock and other early documents have red, gules or " vermeil," sable or black, azure or blue, but gules, azure, sable and vert came to be recognized as armorists' . e«"--3. ! adjectives, and an early i sth-century romance discards the simple words deliberately, telling us of its hero that " His shield was black and blue, sanz fable, Barred of azure and of sable." But gold and silver served as the armorists' words for yellows and whites until late in the i6th century, when, gold and silver made way for " or " and " argent," words which those for whom the interest of armory lies in its liveliest days will not be eager to accept. Likewise the colours of " sanguine " and " tenne " brought in by the pedants to bring the tinctures to the mystical number of nine may be disregarded. A certain armorial chart of the duchy of Brabant, published in 1600, is the earliest example of the practice whereby later engravers have indicated colours in uncoloured plates by the use of lines and dots. Gold is indicated by a powdering of dots; Grimston. Ingilby. Gobioun. silver is left plain. Azure is shown by horizontal shading lines; gules by upright lines; sable by cross-hatching of upright and horizontal lines. Diagonal lines from sinister to dexter indicate purple; vert is marked with diagonal lines from dexter to sinister. The practice, in spite of a certain convenience, has been disastrous in its cramping effects on armorial art, especially when applied to seals and coins. Besides the two " metals " and five " colours," fields and charges are varied by the use of the furs ermine and vair. Ermine is shown by a white field flecked with black ermine tails, and vair by a conventional representation of a fur of small skins sewn in rows, white and blue skins alternately. In the 15th century there was a popular variant of ermine, white tails upon a black field. To this fur the books now give the name of " ermines " — a most unfortunate choice, since ermines is a name used in old documents for the original ermine. " Erminees," which has at least a 15th-century authority, will serve for those who are not content to speak of " sable ermined with silver." Vair, although silver and blue be its normal form, may be made up of gold, silver or ermine, with sable or gules or vert, but in these latter cases the colours must be named in the blazon. To the vairs and ermines of old use the heraldry books have added " erminois," which is a gold field with black ermine tails, " pean," which is " erminois " reversed, and " erminites," which is ermine with a single red hair on either side of each black tail. The vairs, mainly by misunderstanding of the various patterns found in old paintings, have been amplified with " countervair, " " potent," " counter-potent " and " vair-en-point," no one of which merits description. No shield of a plain metal or colour has ever been borne by an Englishman, although the knights at Carlaverock and Falkirk saw Amaneu d'Albret with his banner all of red having no charge thereon. Plain ermine was the shield of the duke of Brittany and no Englishman challenged the bearing. But Beauchamp of Hatch bore simple vair, Ferrers of Derby " Vairy gold and gules," and Ward " Vairy silver and sable." Gresley had "Vairy ermine and gules," and Beche "Vairy silver and gules." Only one English example has hitherto been discovered of a field covered not with a fur but with overlapping feathers. A isth-century book of arms gives " Plumetty of gold and purple " for " Mydlam in Coverdale." Drops of various colours which variegate certain fields and charges are often mistaken for ermine tails when ancient seals are deciphered. A simple example of such spattering is in the shield of Grayndore, who bore " Party ermine and vert, the vert 324 HERALDRY dropped with gold." Sir Richard le Brun (i4th century) bore " Azure a silver lion dropped with gules." A very common variant of charges and fields is the sowing or " powdering " them with a small charge repeated many times. Mortimer of Norfolk bore " gold powdered with fleurs-de-lys sable " and Edward III. quartered for the old arms of France " Azure powdered with fleurs-de-lys gold," such fields being often Brittany. Beauchamp. Mydlam. Grayndorge. described as flowered or flory. Golden billets were scattered in Cowdray's red shield, which is blazoned as " Gules billety gold," and bezants in that of Zouche, which is " Gules bezanty with a quarter ermine." The disposition of such charges varied with the users. Zouche as a rule shows ten bezants placed four, three, two and one on his shield, while the old arms of France in the royal coat allows the pattern of flowers to run over the edge, the shield border thus showing halves and tops and stalk ends of the fleurs-de-lys. But the commonest of these powderings is that with crosslets, as in the arms of John la Warr " Gules crusily silver with a silver lion." Trees, Leaves and Flowers. — Sir Stephen Cheyndut, a 13th- century knight, bore an oak tree, the cheyne of his first syllable, while for like reasons a Piriton had a pear tree on his shield. Three pears were borne (temp. Edward III.) by Nicholas Stivecle of Huntingdonshire, and about the same date is Applegarth's Mortimer. Cowdray. Zouche. La Warr. shield of three red apples in a silver field. Leaves of burdock are in the arms (i4th century) of Sir John de Lisle and mulberry leaves in those of Sir Hugh de Morieus. Three roots of trees are given to one Richard Rotour in a 14th-century roll. Mal- herbe (i3th century) bore the " evil herb " — a teazle bush. Pineapples are borne here and there, and it will be noted that armorists have not surrendered this, our ancient word for the " fir-cone," to the foreign ananas. Out of the cornfield English armory took the sheaf, three sheaves being on the shield of an earl of Chester early in the I3th century and Sheffield bearing sheaves for a play on his name. For a like reason Peverel's sheaves were sheaves of pepper. Rye bore three ears of rye on a bend, and Graindorge had barley-ears. Flowers are few in this Cheyndut. Applegarth. Chester. Rye. field of armory, although lilies with their stalks and leaves are in the grant of arms to Eton College. Ousethorpe has water flowers, and now and again we find some such strange charges as those in the i sth-century shield of Thomas Porthelyne who bore " Sable a cheveron gules between three ' popyebolles,' or poppy-heads vert." The fleur-de-lys, a conventional form from the beginnings of armory, might well be taken amongst the "ordinaries." ID England as in France it is found in great plenty. Aguylon bore " Gules a fleur-de-lys silver." Peyferer bore " Silver three fleur-de-lys sable." Trefoils are very rarely seen until the isth century, although Hervey has them, and Gausill, and a Bosville coat seems to have borne them. They have always their stalk left hanging to them. Vincent, Hattecliffe and Massingberd all bore the quatrefoil, while the Bardolfs, and the Quincys, earls of Win- chester, had cinqfoils. The old rolls of arms made much confusion between cinqfoils and sixfoils (quintef allies e sisfoilles) and the rose. It is still uncertain how far that confusion extended amongst the families which bore Eton College, these charges. The cinqfoil and sixfoil, how- ever, are all but invariably pierced in the middle like the spur rowel, and the rose's blunt-edged petals give it definite shape soon after the decorative movement of the Edwardian age began to carve natural buds and flowers in stone and wood. Hervey bore " Gules a bend silver with three trefoils vert thereon.'" Vincent bore " Azure three quatrefoils silver." Aguylon. Peyferer. Hervey. Vincent. Quincy bore " Gules a cinqfoil silver." Bardolf of Wormegay bore " Gules three cinqfoils silver." Cosington bore " Azure three roses gold." Hilton bore " Silver three chaplets or garlands of red roses." Beasts and Birds. — The book of natural history as studied in- the middle ages lay open at the chapter of the lion, to which royal beast all the noble virtues were set down." What is the oldest armorial seal of a sovereign prince as yet discovered bears the rampant lion of Flanders. In England we know of no royal shield earlier than that first seal of Richard I. which has a like device. A long roll of our old earls, barons and knights wore the Quincy. Bardolf. Cosington. Hilton. lion on their coats — Lacy, Marshal, Fitzalan and Montfort, Percy, Mowbray and Talbot. By custom the royal beast is shown as rampant, touching the ground with but one foot and clawing at the air in noble rage. So far is this the normal attitude of a lion that the adjective " rampant " was often dropped, and we have leave and good authority for blazoning the rampant beast simply as " a lion," leave which a writer on armory may take gladly to the saving of much repetition. In France and Germany this licence has always been the rule, and the modern English herald's blazon of " Gules a lion rampant or " for the arms of Fitzalan, becomes in French de gueules au lion d'or and in German in Rot ein goldener Loewe. Other positions must be named with care and the prowling " lion passant " distinguished from the rampant beast, as well as from such rarer shapes as the couchant lion, the lion sleeping, sitting or leaping. Of these the lion passant is the only one commonly encountered. The lion standing with his forepaws together is not a figure for the shield, but for the crest, where he takes this position for greater stableness upon the helm, and the sitting lion is also found rather upon helms than in shields. For a HERALDRY PLATE IV. :"• 5 BEGINNING OF A ROLL OP THE ARMS OP THOSE JOUSTING IN A TOURNAMENT HELD ON THE FIELD OF 'HE CLOTH OF GOLD. BESIDES THE ARMS OF THE KINGS OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND ARE TWO COLUMNS OF "CHEQUES," MARKED WITH THE NAMES AND SCORING POINTS OF THE JOUSTERS. mby William Gikb. Niagara Lilho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y. HERALDRY 325 couchant lion or a dormant lion one must search far afield, although there are some medieval instances. The leaping lion is in so few shields that no maker of a heraldry book has, it would appear, discovered an example. In the books this " lion salient " is described as with the hind paws together on the ground and the fore paws together in the air, somewhat after the fashion of a diver's first movement. But examples from seals and monuments of the Felbrigges and the Merks show that the leaping lion differed only from the rampant in that he leans somewhat forward in his eager spring. The compiler of the British Museum catalogue of medieval armorial seals, and others equally unfamiliar with medieval armory, invariably describe this position as " rampant," seeing no distinction from other rampings. As rare as the leaping lion is the lion who looks backward over his shoulder. This position is called " regardant " by modern armorists. The old French blazon calls it rere regardant or turnaunte le visage arere, " regardant " alone meaning simply " looking," and therefore we shall describe it more reasonably in plain English as " looking backward." The two- headed lion occurs in a 15th-century coat of Mason, and at the same period a monstrous lion of three bodies and one head is borne, apparently, by a Sharingbury. The lion's companion is the leopard. What might be the true form of this beast was a dark thing to the old armorist, yet knowing from the report of grave travellers that the leopard was begotten in spouse-breach between the lion and the pard, it was felt that his shape would favour his sire's. But nice distinctions of outline, even were they ascertainable, are not to be marked on the tiny seal, or easily expressed by the broad strokes of the shield painter. The leopard was indeed lesser than the lion, but in armory, as in the Noah's arks launched by the old yards, the bear is no bigger than the badger. Then a happy device came to the armorist. He would paint the leopard like the lion at all points. But as the lion looks forward the leopard should look sidelong, showing his whole face. The matter was arranged, and until the end of the middle ages the distinction held and served. The disregarded writers on armory, Nicholas Upton, and his fellows, protested that a lion did not become a leopard by turning his face sidelong, but none who fought in the field under lion and leopard banners heeded this pedantry from cathedral closes. The English king's beasts were leopards in blazon, in ballad and chronicle, and in the mouths of liegeman and enemy. Henry V.'s herald, named from his master's coat, was Leopard Herald; and Napoleon's gazettes never fail to speak of the English leopards. In our own days, those who deal with armory as antiquaries and students of the past will observe the old custom for convenience' sake. Those for whom the interest of heraldry lies in the nonsense-language brewed during post-medieval years may correct the medieval ignorance at their pleasure. The knight who saw the king's banner fly at Falkirk or Crecy tells us that it with three leopards of gold." The modern shame the uninstructed warrior with " Gules I three lions passant gardant in pale or." As the lion rampant is the normal lion, so the normal leopard is the leopard passant, the adjective being needless. In a few cases only the leopard rises up to ramp in the lion's fashion, and here he must be blazoned without fail as a leopard rampant. Parts of the lion and the leopard are common charges. Chief of these are the demi-lion and the demi-leopard, beasts com- plete above their slender middles, even to the upper parts of their lashing tails. Rampant or passant, they follow the customs of the unmaimed brute. Also the heads of lion and leopard are in many shields, and here the armorist of the' modern hand- books stumbles by reason of his refusal to regard clearly marked medieval distinctions. The instructed will know a lion's head because it shows but half the face and a leopard's head because it is seen full-fa;e. But the handbooks of heraldry, knowing naught of leopards, must judge by absence or presence of a lane, speaking uncertainly of leopards' faces and lions' heads England. bore " Gules armorist will and faces. Here again the old path is the straighter. The head of a lion, or indeed of any beast, bird or monster, is generally painted as " razed," or torn away with a ragged edge which is pleasantly conventionalized. Less of ten it is found " couped " or cut off with a sheer line. But the leopard's head is neither razed nor couped, for no neck is shown below it. Likewise the lion's fore leg or paw — " gamb " is the book word — may be borne, razed or coupled. Its normal position is raided upright, although Newdegate seems to have borne " Gules three lions' legs razed silver, the paws downward." With the strange bearing of the lion's whip-like tail cut off at the rump, we may end the list of these oddments. Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, bore " Gules a lion gold." Simon de Montfort bore " Gules a silver lion with a forked tail." Scgrave bore " Sable a lion silver crowned gold." Havering bore " Silver a lion rampant gules with a forked tail, having a collar azure." Felbrigge of Felbrigge bore " Gold a leaping lion gules." Esturmy bore " Silver a lion sable (or purple) looking backward." Marmion bore " Gules a lion vair." Mason bore " Silver a two-headed lion gules." Lovetot bore " Silver a lion parted athwart of sable and gules." Richard le Jen bore " Vert a lion gold " — the arms of Wakelin of Arderne — " with a fesse gules on the lion." Fiennes bore " Azure three lions gold." Leyburne of Kent bore "Azure six lions silver." Fitzalan. Felbrigge. Fiennes. Leyburne. Carew bore " Gold three lions passant sable." Fotheringhay bore " Silver two lions passant sable, looking back- ward." Richard Norton of Waddeworth (1357) sealed with arms of " A lion dormant." Lisle bore " Gules a leopard silver crowned gold." Ludlowe bore " Azure three leopards silver." Brocas bore " Sable a leopard rampant gold." Carew. Fotheringhay. Brocas. Lisle. John Hardrys of Kent seals in 1372 with arms of "a. sitting leopard." John Northampton, Lord Mayor of London in 1381, bore " Azure* a crowned leopard gold with two bodies rampant against each other." Newenham bore " Azure three demi-lions silver." A deed delivered at Lapworth in Warwickshire in 1466 is sealed with arms of " a molet between three demi-leopards." Kenton bore " Gules three lions' heads razed sable." Kenton. Pole. Cantelou. Pynchebek. Pole, earl and duke of Suffolk, bore " Azure a fesse between three leopards' heads gold." Cantelou bore " Azure three leopards' heads silver with silver fleurs-de-lys issuing from them." Wederton bore " Gules a cheveron between three lions' legs razed silver." Pynchebek bore " silver three forked tails of lions sable." The tiger is rarely named in collections of medieval arms. Deep mystery wrapped the shape of him, which was never during 326 HERALDRY the middle ages standardized by artists. A crest upon a isth- century brass shows him as a lean wolf-like figure, with a dash of the boar, gazing after his vain wont into a looking-glass; and the 16th-century heralds gave him the body of a lion with the head of a wolf, head and body being tufted here and there with thick tufts of hair. But it is noteworthy that the arms of Sir John Norwich, a well-known knight of the I4th century, are blazoned in a roll of that age as " party azure and gules with a tiger rampant ermine." Now this beast in the arms of Norwich has been commonly taken for a lion, and the Norwich family seem in later times to have accepted the lion as their bearing. But a portion of a painted roll of Sir John's day shows on careful examination that his lion has been given two moustache-like tufts to the nose. A copy made about 1600 of another roll gives the same decoration to the Norwich lion, and it is at least possible we have here evidence that the economy of the medieval armor- ist allowed him to make at small cost his lion, his leopard and his tiger out of a single beast form. Take away the lions and the leopards, and the other beasts upon medieval shields are a little herd. In most cases they are here to play upon the names of their bearers. Thus Swin- burne of Northumberland has the heads of swine in his coat and Bacon has bacon pigs. Three white bears were borne by Barlingham, and a bear ramping on his hind legs is for Barnard. Lovett of Astwell has three running wolves, Videlou three wolves' heads, Colfox three foxes' heads. Three hedgehogs were in the arms of Heriz. Barnewall reminds us of extinct natives of England by bearing two beavers, and Otter of Yorkshire had otters. Harewell had hares' heads, Lovett. Talbot. Saunders. Cunliffe conies, Mitford moles or moldiwarps. A Talbot of Lancashire had three purple squirrels in a silver shield. An elephant was brought to England as early as the days of Henry III., but he had no immediate armorial progeny, although Saunders of Northants may have borne before the end of the middle ages the elephants' heads which speak of Alysaunder the Great, patron of all Saunderses. Bevil of the west had a red bull, and Bulkeley bore three silver bulls' heads. The heads in Neteham's 14th-century shield are neat's heads, ox heads are for Oxwyk. Calves are for Veel, and the same mild beasts are in the arms of that fierce knight Hugh Calveley. Stansfeld bore three rams with bells at their necks, and a 14th-century Lecheford thought no shame to bear the head of the ram who is the symbol of lechery. Lambton had lambs. Goats were borne by Chevercourt to play on his name, a leaping goat by Bardwell, and goats' heads by Gateshead. Of the race of dogs the greyhound and the talbot, or mastiff, are found most often. Thus Talbot of Cumberland had talbots, and Mauleverer, running greyhounds or " leverers " for his name's sake. The alaund, a big, crop-eared dog, is in the i sth-century shield of John Woode of Kent, and " kenets," or little tracking dogs, in a 13th-century coat of Kenet. The horse is not easily found as an English charge, but Moyle's white mule seems an old coat; horses' heads are in Horsley's shield, and ass heads make crests for more than one noble house. Askew has three asses in his arms. Three bats or flittermice are in the shield of Burninghill and in that of Heyworth of Whethamstede. As might be looked for in a land where forest and greenwood once linked from sea to sea, the wild deer is a common charge in the shield. Downes of Cheshire bore a hart " lodged " or lying down. Hertford had harts' heads, Malebis, fawns' heads (tesles de bis), Bukingham, heads of bucks. The harts in Rother- ham's arm-, are the roes of his name's first syllable. Reindeer Griffin. Drake. heads were borne by Bowet in the I4th century. Antelopes, fierce beasts with horns that have something of the ibex, show by their great claws, their lion tails, and their boar muzzles and tusks that they are midway between the hart and the monster. Of the outlandish monsters the griffon is the oldest and the chief. With the hinder parts of a lion, the rest of him is eagle, head and shoulders, wings and fore legs. The __^__^__ long tuft under the beak and his pointed ears mark him out from the eagle when his head alone is borne. At an early date a griffon rampant, his normal position, was borne by the great house of Montagu as a quartering, and another griffon played upon Griffin's name. The wyver, who becomes wyvern in the i6th century, and takes a new form under the care of inventive heralds, was in the middle ages a lizard-like dragon, generally with small wings. Sir Edmund Mauley in the i4th century is found differencing the black bend of his elder brother by charging it with three wyvers of silver. During the middle ages there seems small distinction between the wyver and the still rarer dragon, which, with the coming of the Tudors, who bore it as their ^_^____ badge, is seen as a four-legged monster with wings and a tail that ends like a broad arrow. The monster in the arms of Drake, blazoned by Tudor heralds as a wyvern, is clearly a fire-drake or dragon in his origin. The unicorn rampant was borne by Harlyn of Norfolk, unicorn's heads by the Cambridge- shire family of Paris. The mermaid with her comb and looking-glass makes a 14th-century crest for Byron, while " Silver a bend gules with three silver harpies thereon " is found in the 1 5th century for Entyrdene. Concerning beasts and monsters the heraldry books have many adjectives of blazonry which may be disregarded. Even as it was once the pride of the cook pedant to carve each bird on the board with a new word for the act, so it became the delight of the pedant herald to order that the rampant horse should be " forcen6," the rampant griffon <: segreant," the passant hart " trippant "; while the same hart must needs be " attired " as to its horns and " unguled " as to its hoofs. There is ancient authority for the nice blazonry which sometimes gives a separate colour to the tongue and claws of the lion, but even this may be set aside. Though a black lion in a silver field may be armed with red claws, and a golden leopard in a red field given blue claws and tongues, these trifles are but fancies which follow the taste of the painter, and are never of obligation. The tusks and hoofs of the boar, and often the horns of the hart, are thus given in some paintings a colour of their own which elsewhere is neglected. As the lion is among armorial beasts, so is the eagle among the birds. A bold convention of the earliest shield painters displayed him with spread wing and claw, the feat of a few strokes of the brush, and after this fashion he appears on many scores of shields. Like the claws and tongue of the lion, the beak and claws of the eagle are commonly painted of a second colour in all but very small representations. Thus the golden eagle of Lymesey in a red field may have blue beak and claws, and golden beak and claws will be given to Jorce's silver eagle upon red. A lure, or two wings joined and spread like those of an eagle, is a rare charge sometimes found. When fitted with the cord by which a falconer's lure is swung, the cord must be named. Monthermer bore " Gold an eagle vert." Siggeston bore " Silver a two-headed eagle sable." Gavaston, earl of Cornwall, bore " Vert six eagles gold." Bayforde of Fordingbridge sealed (in 1388) with arms of " An eagle bendwise, with a border engrailed and a baston." Graunson bore " Paly silver and azure with a bend gules and three golden eagles thereon." Seymour bore " Gules a lure of two golden wings." Commoner than the eagle as a charge is the martlet, a humbler bird which is never found as the sole charge of a shield. In all HERALDRY 327 ut a few early representations the feathers of the legs are seen rithout the legs or claws. The martlet indicates both swallow ad martin, and in the arms of the Cornish Arundels the martlets oust stand for " hirundels " or swallows. The falcon or hawk is borne as a rule with close wings, so that may not be taken for the eagle. In most cases he is there Monthermer. Siggeston. Gavaston. Graunson. Arunc'el. to play on the bearer's name, and this may be said of most of the flight of lesser birds. Naunton bore " Sable three martlets silver." Heron bore " Azure three herons silver." Fauconer bore " Silver three falcons gules." Hauvile bore " Azure a dance between three hawks gold." Twenge bore " Silver a fesse gules between three popinjays (or parrots) vert." Cranesley bore " Silver a cheveron gules be- tween three cranes azure." Asdale bore " Gules a swan silver." Dalston bore " Silver a cheveron engrailed between three daws' ads razed sable." Corbet bore " Gold two corbies sable." Seymour. Naunton. Fauconer. Twenge. Cockfield bore " Silver three cocks gules." Burton bore " Sable a cheveron sable between three silver owls." Rokeby bore " Silver a cheveron sable between three rooks." Duflfelde bore " Sable a cheveron silver between three doves." Pelham bore " Azure three pelicans silver." Asdale. Corbet. Cockfield. Burton. !?: Sumcri (i3th century) sealed with arms of " A peacock with his tail spread." John Pyeshale of Suffolk (i4th century) scaled with arms of " Three magpies." Fishes, Reptiles and Insects. — Like the birds, the fishes are rne for the most part to call to mind their bearers' names. Unless their position be otherwise named, they are painted as upright in the shield, as though rising towards the water surface. The dolphin is known by his bowed back, old artists making him a grotesquely decorative figure. Lucy bore " Gules three luces (or pike) silver." Heringaud bore " Azure, crusilly gold, with six golden herrings." Fishacre bore " Gules a dolphin silver." La Roche bore " Three roach swimming." John Samon (l4th century) sealed with arms of " Three salmon swimming." Sturgeon bore " Azure three sturgeon swimming gold, with a Iret gules over all." Whalley bore " Silver three whales' heads razed sable." Shell-fish would hardly have place in English armory were it not for the abundance of scallops which have followed their appearance in the banners of Dacre and Scales. The crest of the Yorkshire Scropes, playing upon their name, was a pair of crabs' claws. Dacre bore " Gules three scallops silver." Shelley bore " Sable a fesse engrailed between three whelk-shells gold." Reptiles and insects are barely represented. The lizards in the crest and supporters of the Ironmongers of London belong to the isth century. Gawdy of Norfolk Tnay have borne the tortoise in his shield in the same age. " Silver three toads sable " was quartered as a second coat for Botreaux of Cornwall Rokeby. Pelham. Lucy. Fishacre. Roche. in the i6th century — Botereau or Boterel signifying a little toad in the old French tongue — but the arms do not appear on the old Botreaux seals beside their ancient bearing of the griffon. Beston bore " Silver a bend between six bees sable " and a is-century Harbottle seems to have sealed with arms of three bluebottle flies. Three butterflies are in the shield of Presfen of Lancashire in 1415, while the winged insect shown on the seal of John Mayre, a King's Lynn burgess of the age of Edward I., is probably a mayfly. Human Charges. — Man and the parts of him play but a small part in English shields, and we have nothing to put beside such a coat as that of the German Manessen, on which two armed knights attack each other's hauberks with their teeth. But certain arms of religious houses and the like have the whole figure, the see of Salisbury bearing the Virgin and Child in a Dacre. Shelley. See of Salisbury. Isle of Man. blue field. And old crests have demi-Saracens and falchion men, coal-miners, monks and blackamoors. Sowdan bore in his shield a turbaned soldan's head; Eady, three old men's " 'eads "! Heads of maidens, the " winsome marrows " of the ballad, are in the arms of Marow. The Stanleys, as kings of Man, quartered the famous three-armed legs whirling mill-sail fashion, and Tremayne of the west bore three men's arms in like wise. " Gules three hands silver " was for Malmeyns as early as the I3th century, and Tynte of Colchester displayed hearts. Miscellaneous Charges. — Other charges of the shield are less frequent but are found in great variety, the reason for most of them being the desire to play upon the bearer's name. Weapons and the like are rare, having regard to the military associations of armory. Daubeney bore three helms; Philip Marmion took with his wife, the coheir of Kilpek, the Kilpek shield of a sword (espek). Tuck had a stabbing sword or " tuck." Bent bows were borne by Bowes, an arblast by Arblaster, arrows by Archer, birding-bolts or bosouns by Bosun, the mangonel by Mangnall. The three lances of Amherst is probably a medieval coat; Leweston had battle-axes. A scythe was in the shield of Praers; Picot had picks; Bilsby a hammer or " beal " ; Malet showed mallets. The chamberlain's key is in the shield of a Chamberlain, and the spenser's key in that of a Spenser. Porter bore the porter's bell, Boteler the butler's cup. Three-legged pots were borne by Monbocher. 328 HERALDRY Crowns are for Coroun. Yarde had yard-wands; Bordoun a burdon or pilgrim's staff. Of horse-furniture we have the stirrups of Scudamore and Giffard, the horse-barnacles of Bernake, and the horse-shoes borne by many branches and tenants of the house of Ferrers. Of musical instruments there are pipes, trumps and harps for Pipe, Trumpington and Harpesfeld. Hunting horns are common among families bearing such names as Forester or Home. Remarkable charges are the three organs of Grenville, who held of the house of Clare, the lords of Glamorgan. Combs play on the name of Tunstall, and gloves (wauns or gauns) on that of Wauncy. Hose were borne by Hoese; buckles by a long list of families. But the most notable of the charges derived from clothing is the hanging sleeve familiar in the arms of Hastings, Conyers and Mansel. Chess-rooks, hardly to be distinguished from the roc or roquet at the head of a jousting-lance, were borne by Rokewode and by many more. Topcliffe had pegtops in his shield, while Ambesas had a cast of three dice which should each show the point of one, for " to throw ambesace " is an ancient phrase used of those who throw three aces. Although we are a sea-going people, there are few ships in our armory, most of these in the arms of sea-ports. Anchors are commoner. Castles and towers, bridges, portcullises and gates have all examples, and a minster-church was the curious charge borne by the ancient house of Musters of Kirklington. Letters of the alphabet are very rarely found in ancient armory ; but three capital T's, in old English script, were borne by Toft of Cheshire in the i4th century. In the period of decadence whole words or sentences, commonly the names of military or naval victories, are often seen. Blazonry. — An ill-service has been done to the students of armory by those who have pretended that the phrases in which the shields and their charges are described or blazoned must follow arbitrary laws devised by writers of the period of armorial decadence. One of these laws, and a mischievous one, asserts that no tincture should be named a second time in the blazon of one coat. Thus if gules be the hue of the field any charge of that colour must thereafter be styled " of the first." Obeying this law the blazoner of a shield of arms elaborately charged may find himself sadly involved among " of the first," " of the second," and " of the third." It is needless to say that no such law obtained among armorists of the middle ages. The only rule that demands obedience is that the brief description should convey to the reader a true knowledge of the arms described. The examples of blazonry given in that part of this article which deals with armorial charges will be more instructive to the student than any elaborated code of directions. It will be observed that the description of the field is first set down, the blazoner giving its plain tincture or describing it as burely, party, paly or barry, as powdered or sown with roses, crosslets or fleurs-de-lys. Then should follow the main or central charges, the lion or griffon dominating the field, the cheveron or the pale, the fesse, bend or bars, and next the subsidiary charges in the field beside the " ordinary " and those set upon it. Chiefs and quarters are blazoned after the field and its contents, and the border, commonly an added difference, is taken last of all. Where there are charges both upon and beside a bend, fesse or the like, a curious inversion is used by pedantic blazoners. . The arms of Mr Samuel Pepys of the Admiralty Office would have been described in earlier times as ' ' Sable a bend gold between two horses' heads razed silver, with three fleurs-de-lys sable on the bend." Modern heraldic writers would give the sentence as " Sable, on a bend or between two horses' heads erased argent, three fleurs-de-lys of the first." Nothing is gained by this inversion but the precious advantage of naming the bend but once. On the other side it may be said that, while the newer blazon couches itself in a form that seems to prepare for the naming of the fleurs-de-lys as the important element of the shield, the older form gives the fleurs-de-lys as a mere postscript, and rightly, seeing that charges in such a position are very commonlv the last additions to a shield by way of difference. In like manner when a crest is described it is better to say " a lion's head out of a crown " than " out of a crown a lien's head." The first and last necessity in blazonry is lucidity, which is cheaply gained at the price of a few syllables repeated. Modern Heraldry. — With the accession of the Tudors armory began a rapid decadence. Heraldry ceased to play its part in military affairs, the badges and banners under which the medieval noble's retinue came into the field were banished, and even the tournament in its later days became a renascence pageant which did not need the painted shield and armorial trappers. Treatises on armory had been rare in the days before the printing press, but even so early a writer as Nicholas Upton had shown himself as it were unconcerned with the heraldry that any man might see in the camp and the street. From the Book of St Albans onward the treatises on armory are informed with a pedantry which touches the point of crazy mysticism in such volumes as that of Sylvanus Morgan. Thus came into the books those long lists of " diminutions of ordinaries," the closets and escarpes, the endorses and ribands, the many scores of strange crosses and such wild fancies as the rule, based on an early German pedantry, that the tinctures in peers shields should be given the names of precious stones and those in the shields of sovereigns the names of planets. Blazon became cumbered with that vocabulary whose French of Stratford atte Bowe has driven serious students from a business which, to use a phrase as true as it is hackneyed, was at last " abandoned to the coachpainter and the undertaker." With the false genealogy came in the assumption or assigning of shields to which the new bearers had often no better claim than lay in a surname resembling that of the original owner. The ancient system of differencing arms disappeared. Now and again we see a second son obeying the book-rules and putting a crescent in his shield or a third son displaying a molet, but long before our own times the practice was disregarded, and the most remote kinsman of a gentle house displayed the " whole coat " of the head of his family. The art of armory had no better fate. An absurd rule current for some three hundred years has ordered that the helms of princes and knights should be painted full-faced and those of peers and gentlemen sidelong. Obeying this, the herald painters have displayed the crests of knights and princes as sideways upon a full-faced helm; the torse or wreath, instead of being twisted about the brow of the helm, has become a sausage-shaped bar see-sawing above the helm; and upon this will be balanced a crest which might puzzle the ancient craftsman to mould in his leather or parchment. A ship on a lee-shore with a thunder- storm lowering above its masts may stand as an example of such devices. " Tastes, of course, differ," wrote Dr Woodward, " but the writer can hardly think that the epergne given to Lieut.- General Smith by his friends at Bombay was a fitting ornament for a helmet." As with the crest, so with the shield. It became crowded with ill-balanced figures devised by those who despised and ignored the ancient examples whose painters had followed instinctively a simple and pleasant convention. Landscapes and seascapes, musical lines, military medals and corrugated boiler-flues have all made their appearance in the shield. Even as on the signs of public houses, written words have taken the place of figures, and the often-cited arms exemplified to the first Earl Nelson marked, it may be hoped, the high watermark of these distressing modernisms. Of late years, indeed, official armory in England has shown a disposition to follow the lessons of the archaeologist, although the recovery of medieval use has not yet been as successful as in Germany, where for a long generation a school of vigorous armorial art has flourished. Officers of Arms. — Officers of arms, styled kings of arms, heralds and pursuivants, appear at an early period of the history of armory as the messengers in peace and war of princes and magnates. It is probable that from the first they bore in some wise their lord's arms as the badge of their office. In the i4th century we have heralds with.the arms on a short mantle, witness the figure of the duke of Gelderland's herald painted in the HERALDRY 329 rmorial de Gelre. The title of Blue Mantle pursuivant, as old the reign of Edward III., suggests a like usage in England, hen the tight-laced coat of arms went out of fashion among the hthood the loose tabard of arms with its wide sleeves was once taken in England as the armorial dress of both herald id cavalier, and the fashion of it has changed but little since ose days. Clad in such a coat the herald was the image of his :er and, although he himself was rarely chosen from any above that of the lesser gentry, his person, as a messenger, :quired an almost priestly sacredness. To injure or to insult was to affront the coat that he wore. We hear of kings of arms in the royal household of the i3th mtury, and we may compare their title with those of such ifficers as the King of the Ribalds and the King of the Minstrels; iut it is noteworthy that, even in modern warrants for heralds' tents, the custom of the reign of Edward III. is still cited as ring the necessary precedents for the officers' liveries. Officers arms took their titles from their provinces or from the titles .d badges of their masters. Thus we have Garter, Norroy id Clarenceux, March, Lancaster, Windsor, Leicester, Leopard, 'alcon and Blanc Sanglier as officers attached to the royal house; !handos, the herald of the great Sir John Chandos; Vert Eagle the Nevill earls of Salisbury, Esperance and Crescent of the 'ercys of Northumberland. The spirit of Henry VII . 's legislation against such usages in baronial houses, and in the age of the 'udors the last of the private heralds disappears. In England the royal officers of arms were made a corporation Richard III. Nowadays the members of this corporation, lown as the College of Arms or Heralds' College, are Garter ncipal King of Arms, Clarenceux King of Arms South of •ent, Norroy King of Arms North of Trent, the heralds Windsor, icster, Richmond, Somerset, York and Lancaster, and the lursuivants Rouge Croix, Bluemantle, Rouge Dragon and 'ortcullis. Another king of arms, not a member of this corpora- x>n, has been attached to the order of the Bath since the reign George I., and an officer of arms, without a title, attends the 'der of St Michael and St George. There is no college or corporation of heralds in Scotland or Jand. In Scotland " Lyon-king-of-arms," " Lyon rex ann- ul," or " Leo fecialis," so called from the lion on the royal !eld, is the head of the office of arms. When first the dignity constituted is not known, but Lyon was a prominent figure the coronation of Robert II. in 1371. The office was at first, in England, attached to the earl marshal, but it has long n conferred by patent under the great seal, and is held direct m the crown. Lyon is also king-of-arms for the national T of the Thistle. He is styled " Lord Lyon," and the office always been held by men of family, and frequently by a r who would appoint a " Lyon depute." He is supreme all matters of heraldry in Scotland. Besides the " Lyon ute," there are the Scottish heralds, Albany, Ross and .othesay, with precedence according to date of appointment; id the pursuivants, Carrick, March and Unicorn. Heralds d pursuivants are appointed by Lyon. Ireland also there is but one king-of-arms, Ulster. The ice was instituted by Edward VI. in 1553. The patent is ven by Rymer, and refers to certain emoluments as " praedicto 'fficio . . . ab antique spectantibus." The allusion is to an •eland king-of-arms mentioned in the reign of Richard II. and iperseded by Ulster. Ulster holds office by patent, during easure; under him the Irish office of arms consists of two raids, Cork and Dublin; and a pursuivant, Athlone. Ulster king-of-arms to the order of St Patrick. He held visitations parts of Ireland from 1 568 to 1620, and these and other records, icluding all grants of arms from the institution of the office, are pt in the Birmingham Tower, Dublin. The armorial duties of the ancient heralds are not clearly Defined. The patent of Edward IV., creating John Wrythe king of arms of England with the style of Garter, speaks vaguely of the care of the office of arms and those things which belong to that office. We know that the heralds had their part in the ering of tournaments, wherein armory played its greatest C: part, and that their expert knowledge of arms gave them such duties as reckoning the noble slain on a battlefield. But it is not until the i5th century that we find the heralds following a recognized practice of granting or assigning arms, a practice on which John of Guildford comments, saying that such arms given by a herald are not of greater authority than those which a man has taken for himself. The Book of St Albans, put forth in 1486, speaking of arms granted by princes and lords, is careful to add that " armys bi a mannys proper auctorite take, if an other man have not borne theym afore, be of strength enogh," repeating, as it seems, Nicholas Upton's opinion which, in this .matter, does not conflict with the practice of his day. It is probable that the earlier grants of arms by heralds were made by reason of persons uncunning in armorial lore applying for a suitable device to experts in such matters— and that such setting forth of arms may have been practised even in the i4th century. The earliest known grants of arms in England by sovereigns or private persons are, as a rule, the conveyance of a right in a coat of arms already existing or of a differenced version of it. Thus in 1391 Thomas Grendale, a squire who had inherited through his grandmother the right in the shield of Beaumeys, granted his right in it to Sir William Moigne, a knight who seems to have acquired the whole or part of the Beaumeys manor in Sawtry. Under Henry VI. we have certain rare and curious letters of the crown granting nobility with arms " in signum hujusmodi nobilitatis " to certain individuals, some, and perhaps all of whom, were foreigners who may have asked for letters which followed a continental usage. After this time we have a regular series of grants by heralds who in later times began to assert that new arms, to be valid, must necessarily be derived from their assignments, although ancient use continued to be recog- nized. An account of the genealogical function of the heralds, so closely connected with their armorial duties will be found in the article GENEALOGY. In spite of the work of such distinguished men as Camden and Dugdale they gradually fell in public estimation until Blackstone could write of them that the marshal- ling of coat-armour had fallen into the hands of certain officers called heralds, who had allowed for lucre such falsity and con- fusion to creep into their records that even their common seal could no longer be received as evidence in any court of justice. From this low estate they rose again when the new archaeology included heraldry in its interests, and several antiquaries of repute have of late years worn the herald's tabard. In spite of the vast amount of material which the libraries catalogue under the head of " Heraldry," the subject has as yet received little attention from antiquaries working in the modern spirit. The old books are as remarkable for their detachment from the facts as for their folly. The work of Nicholas Upton, De studio militari, although written in the first half of the isth century, shows, as has been already remarked, no attempt to reconcile the conceits of the author with the armorial practice which he must have seen about him on every side. Gerard Leigh, Bossewell, Feme and Morgan carry on this bad tradition, each adding his own extravagances. The Display of Heraldry, first published in 1610 under 'the name of John Guillim, is more reasonable if not more learned, and in its various editions gives a valuable view of the decadent heraldry of the i7th century. In the 1 9th century many important essays on the subject are to be found in such magazines as the Genealogist, the Herald and Genealogist and the Ancestor, while Planche's Pursuivant oj Arms contains some slight but suggestive work which attempts original enquiry. But Dr Woodward's Treatise on Heraldry, British and Foreign (1896), in spite of many errors arising from the author's reliance upon unchecked material, must be counted the only scholarly book in English upon a matter which has engaged so many pens. Among foreign volumes may be cited those of Menestrier and Spener, and the vast compilation of the German Siebmacher. Notable ordinaries of arms are those of Pap worth and Renesse, companions to the armorials of Burke and Rietstap. The student may be advised to turn his attention tp 330 HERAT all works dealing with the effigies, brasses and other monuments of the middle ages, to the ancient heraldic seals and to the heraldry of medieval architecture and ornament. (O. BA.) HERAT, a city and province of Afghanistan. The city of Herat lies in 34° 20' 30* N., and 62° n' o* E., at an altitude of 2500 ft. above sea-level. Estimated pop. about 10,000. It is a city of great interest historically, geographically, politically and strategically, but in modern days it has quite lost its ancient commercial importance. From this central point great lines of communication radiate in all directions to Russian, British, Persian and Afghan territory. Sixty-six miles to the north lies the terminus of the Russian railway system; to the south-east is Kandahar (360 m.) and about 70 m. beyond that, New Chaman, the terminus of the British railway system. Southward lies Seistan (200 m.), and eastward Kabul (550 m.); while on the west four routes lead into Persia by Turbet to Meshed (215 m.), and by Birjend to Kerman (400 m.), to Yezd (500 m.), or to Isfahan (600 m.). The city forms a quadrangle of nearly i m. square (more accurately about 1600 yds. by 1500 yds.); on the western, southern and eastern faces the line of defence is almost straight, the only projecting points being the gateways, but on the northern face the contour is broken by a double outwork, consisting of the Ark or citadel, which is built of sun- dried brick on a high artificial mound within the enceinte, and a lower work at its foot, called the Ark-i-nao, or " new citadel," which extends 100 yds. beyond the line of the city wall. That which distinguishes Herat from all other Oriental cities, and at the same time constitutes its main defence, is the stupendous character of the earthwork upon which the city wall is built. This earthwork averages 250 ft. in width at the base and about 50 ft. in height, and as it is crowned by a wall 25 ft. high and 14 ft. thick at the base, supported by about 150 semi- circular towers, and is further protected by a ditch 45 ft. in width and 16 in depth, it presents an appearance of imposing strength. When the royal engineers of the Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission entered Herat in 1885 they found its defences in various stages of disrepair. The gigantic rampart was unflanked, and the covered ways in the face of it subject to enfilade from end to end. The ditch was choked, the gates were unprotected; the tumbled mass of irregular mud buildings which constituted the city clung tightly to the walls; there were no gun emplacements. Outside, matters were almost worse than inside. To the north of the walls the site of old Herat was indicated by a vast mass of debris — mounds of bricks and pottery intersected by a network of shallow trenches, where the only semblance of a protective wall was the irregular line of the Tal-i-Bangi. South of the city was a vast area filled in with the graveyards of centuries. Here the trenches dug by the Persians during the last siege were still in a fair state of preservation; they were within a stone's-throw of the walls. Round about the city on all sides were similar opportunities for close approach ; even the villages stretched out long irregular streets towards the city gates. To the north-west, beyond the Tal-i-Bangi, the magnificent outlines of the Mosalla filled a wide space with the glorious curves of dome and gateway and the stately grace of tapering minars, but the impressive beauty of this, by far the finest architectural structure in all Afghanistan, could not be permitted to weigh against the fact that the position occupied by this pile of solid buildings was fatal to the interests of effective defence. By the end of August 1885, when a political crisis had supervened between Great Britain and Russia, under the orders of the Amir the Mosalla was destroyed; but four minars standing at the corners of the wide plinth still remain to attest to the glorious proportions of the ancient structure, and to exhibit samples of that decorative tilework, which for intricate beauty of design and exquisite taste in the blending of colour still appeals to the memory as unique. At the same time the ancient graveyards round the city were swept smooth and levelled; obstructions were demolished, outworks constructed, and the defences generally renovated. Whether or no the strength of this bulwark of North-Western Afghanistan should ever be practically tested, the general result of the most recent in- vestigations into the value of Herat as a strategic centre has been largely to modify the once widely-accepted view that the key to India lies within it. Abdur Rahman and his successor Habibullah steadfastly refused the offer of British engineers to strengthen its defences; and though the Afghans themselves have occasionally undertaken repairs, it is doubtful whether the old walls of Herat are maintained in a state of efficiency. The exact position of Herat, with reference to the Russian station of Kushk (now the terminus of a branch railway from Merv), is as follows: From Herat, a gentle ascent northwards for 3 m. reaches to the foot of the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, crossing the Jui Nao or " new " canal, which here divides the gravel- covered foot hills from the alluvial flats of the Hari Rud plain. The crest of the outer ridges of this subsidiary range is about 700 ft. above the city, at a distance of 4 m. from it. For 28 m. farther the road winds first amongst the broken ridges of the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, then over the intervening dasht into the southern spurs of the Paropamisus to the Ardewan pass. This is the highest point it attains, and it has risen about 2130 ft. from Herat. From the pass it drops over the gradually decreas- ing grades of a wide sweep of Choi (which here happens to be locally free from the intersecting network of narrow ravines which is generally a distinguishing feature of Turkestan loess formations) for a distance of 35 m. into the Russian railway station, falling some 2700 ft. from the crest of the Paropamisus. To the south the road from Herat to India through Kandahar lies across an open plain, which presents no great engineering difficulties, but is of a somewhat waterless and barren character. The city possesses five gates, two on the northern face, the Kutab-chak near the north-east angle of the wall, and the Malik at the re-entering angle of the Ark-i-nao; and three others in the centres of the remaining faces, the Irak gate on the west, the Kandahar gate on the south and the Kushk gate on the east face. Four streets called the Chahar-stik, running from the centre of each face, meet in the centre of the town in a small domed quadrangle. The principal street runs from the south or Kandahar gate to the market in front of the citadel, and is covered in with a vaulted roof through its entire length, the shops and buildings of this bazaar being much superior to those of the other streets, and the merchants' caravanserais, several of which are spacious and well built, all opening out on this great thoroughfare. Near the central quadrangle of the city is a vast reservoir of water, the dome of which is of bold and excellent proportions. The only other public building of any consequence in Herat is the great mosque or Mesjid-i-Juma, which comprises an area of 800 yds. square, and must have been a most magnificent structure. It was erected towards the close of the isth century, during the reign of Shah Sultan Hussein of the family of Timur, and is said when perfect to have been 465 ft. long by 275 ft. wide, to have had 408 cupolas,i3O windows, 444 pillars and 6 entrances, and to have been adorned in the most magnificent manner with gilding, carving, precious mosaics and other elaborate and costly embellishments. Now, however, it is falling rapidly into ruin, the ever-changing provincial governors who administer Herat having neither the means nor the inclination to undertake the necessary repairs. Neither the palace of the Charbagh within the city wall, which was the re- sidence of the British mission in 1840-1841, nor the royal quarters in the citadel deserve any special notice. At the present day, with the exception of the Chahar-suk, where there is always a certain amount of traffic, and where the great diversity of race and costume imparts much liveliness to the scene, Herat presents a very melancholy and desolate appearance. The mud houses in rear of the bazaars are for the most part uninhabited and in ruins, and even the burnt brick buildings are becoming every- where dilapidated. The city is also one of the filthiest in the East, as there are no means of drainage or sewerage, and garbage of every description lies in heaps in the open streets. Along the slopes of the northern hills there is a space of some 4 m. in length by 3 m. in breadth, the surface of the plain, strewn over its whole extent with pieces of pottery and crumbling bricks, and also broken here and* there by earthen mounds and HERAT ruined walls, the debris of palatial structures which at one time were the glory and wonder of the East. Of these structures indeed some have survived to the present day in a sufficiently perfect state to bear witness to the grandeur and beauty of the old architecture of Herat. Such was the mosque of the Mosalla before its destruction. Scarcely inferior in beauty of design and execution, though of more moderate dimensions, is the tomb of the saint Abdullah Ansari, in the same neighbourhood. This building, which was erected by Shah Rukh Mirza, the grandson of Timur, over 500 years ago, contains some exquisite specimens of sculpture in the best style of Oriental art. Adjoining the tomb also are numerous marble mausoleums, the sepulchres of princes of the house of Timur; and especially deserving of notice is a royal building tastefully decorated by an Italian artist named Geraldi, who was in the service of Shah Abbas the Great. The locality, which is further enlivened by gardens and running streams, is na-med Gazir-g&h, and is a favourite resort of the Heratis. It is held indeed in high veneration by all classes, and the famous Dost Mahommed Khan is himself buried at the foot of the tomb of the saint. Two other royal palaces named respectively Bagh-i-Shah and Takht-i-Sefer, are situated on the same rising ground somewhat farther to the west. The buildings are now in ruins, but the view from the pavilions, shaded by splendid plane trees on the terraced gardens formed on the slope of the mountain, is said to be very beautiful. The population of Herat and the neighbourhood is of a very mixed character. The original inhabitants of Ariana were no doubt of the Aryan family, and immediately cognate with the Persian race, but they were probably intermixed at a very early period with the Sacae and Massagetae, who seem to have held the mountains from Kabul to Herat from the first dawn of history, and to whom must be ascribed — rather than to an infusion of Turco-Tartaric blood introduced by the armies of Jenghiz and Timur — the peculiar broad features and flatfish countenance which distinguish the inhabitants of Herat, Seistan and the eastern provinces of Persia from their countrymen farther to the west. Under the government of Herat, however, there are a very large number cf tribes, ruled over by separate and semi-independent chiefs, and belonging probably to different nationalities. The principal group of tribes is called the Chahar- Aimdk, or " four races," the constituent parts of which, however, are variously stated by different authorities both as to strength and nomenclature. The Heratis are an agricultural race, and are not nearly so warlike as the Pathans from the neighbourhood of Kabul or Kandahar. The long narrow valley of the Hari Rud, starting from the western slopes of the Koh-i-Baba, extends almost due west for 300 m. before it takes its great northern bend at Kuhsan, ar>d passes northwards through the broken ridges of the Siah Bubuk (the western extremity of the range which we now call Paropamisus) towards Sarakhs. For the greater part of its length it drains the southern slopes only of the Paropamisus and the northern slopes of a parallel range called Koh-i-Safed. The Paropamisus forms the southern face of the Turkestan plateau, which contains the sources of the Murghab river; the northern face of the same plateau is defined by the Band-i-Turkestan. On the south of the plateau we find a similar succession of narrow valleys dividing parallel flexures, or anticlinals, formed under similar geological conditions to those which appear to be universally applicable to the Himalaya, the Hindu Kush, and the Indus frontier mountain systems. From one of these long lateral valleys the Hari Rud receives its principal tributary, which joins the main river below Obeh, 180 m. from its source; and it is this tributary (separated from the Hari Rud by the narrow ridges of the Koh-i-Safed and Band-i- Baian) that offers the high road from Herat to Kabul, and not the Hari Rud itself. From its source to Obeh the Hari Rud is a valley of sandy desolation. There are no glaciers nearits sources, although they must have existed there in geologically recent times, but masses of melting snow annually give rise to floods, which rush through the midst of the valley in a turbid red stream, frequently rendering the river impassable and cutting off the crazy brick bridges at Herat and Tirpul. It is impossible, whilst watching the rolling, seething volume of flood-water which swirls westwards in April, to imagine the waste stretches of dry river-bed which in a few months' time (when every available drop of water is carried off for irrigation) will represent the Hari Rud. The soft shales or clays of the hills bounding the valley render these hills especially subject to the action of denudation, and the result, in rounded slopes and easily accessible crests, determines the nature of the easy tracks and passes which intersect them. At the same time, any excessive local rainfall is productive of difficulty and danger from the floods of liquid mud and loose boulders which sweep like an avalanche down the hill sides. The intense cold which usually accompanies these sudden northern blizzards of Herat and Turkestan is a further source of danger. From Obeh, 50 m. east of Herat, the cultivated portion of the valley commences, and it extends, with a width which varies from 8 to 16 m., to Kuhsan, 60 m. west of the city. But the great stretch of highly irrigated and valuable fruit-growing land, which appears to spread from the walls of Herat east and west as far as the eye can reach, and to sweep to the foot of the hills north and south with an endless array of vineyards and melon-beds, orchards and villages, varied with a brilliant patch- work of poppy growth brightening the width of green wheat-fields with splashes of scarlet and purple— all this is really comprised within a narrow area which does not extend beyond a ten-miles' radius from the city. The system of irrigation by which these agricultural results are attained is most elaborate. The despised Herati Tajik, in blue shirt and skull-cap, and with no instrument better than a three-cornered spade, is as skilled an agriculturist as is the Ghilzai engineer, but he cannot effect more than the limits of his water-supply will permit. He adopts the karez (or, Persian, kandl) system of underground irrigation, as does the Ghilzai, and brings every drop of water that he can find to the surface; but it cannot be said that he is more successful than the Ghilzai. It is the startling contrast of the Herati oasis with the vast expanse of comparative sterility that encloses it which has given such a fictitious value to the estimates of the material wealth of the valley of the Hari Rud. The valley about Herat includes a flat alluvial plain which might, for some miles on any side except the north, be speedily reduced to an impassable swamp by means of flood-water from the surrounding canals. Three miles to the south of the city the river flows from east to west, spanned by the Pal-i-Malun, a bridge possessing grand proportions, but which was in 1885 in a state ,of grievous disrepair and practically useless. East and west stretches the long vista of the Hari Rud. Due north the hills called the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja appear to be close and dominating, but the foot of these hills is really about 3 m. distant from the city. This northern line of barren, broken sandstone hills is geographically no part of the Paropamisus range, from which it is separated by a stretch of sandy upland about 20 m. in width, called the Dasht-i-Hamdamao, or Dasht-i-Ardewan, formed by the talus or drift of the higher mountains, which, washed down through centuries of denudation, now forms long sweeping spurs of gravel and sand, scantily clothed with worm- wood scrub and almost destitute of water. Through this stretch of dasht the drainage from the main water-divide breaks down- wards to the plains of Herat, where it is arrested and utilized for irrigation purposes. To the north-east of the city a very considerable valley has been formed between the Paropamisus and the subsidiary Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja range, called Korokh. Here there are one or two important villages and a well-known shrine marked by a. group of pine trees which is unique in this part of Afghanistan. The valley leads to a group of passes across the Paropamisus into Turkestan, of which the Zirmast is perhaps the best known. The main water-divide between Herat and the Turkestan Choi (the loess district) has been called Paropamisus for want of any well-recognized general name. To the north of the Korokh valley it exhibits something of the formation of the Hindu Kush (of which it is apparently a geo- logical extension), but as it passes westwards it becomes broken 332 HERAULT into fragments by processes of denudation, until it is hardly recognizable as a distinct range at all. The direct passes across it from Herat (the Baba and the Ardewan) wind amongst masses of disintegrating sandstone for some miles on each side of the dividing watershed, but farther west the rounded knolls of the rain-washed downs may be crossed almost at any point without difficulty. The names applied to this debris of a once formidable mountain system are essentially local and hardly distinctive. Beyond this range the sand arid clay loess formation spreads downwards like a tumbled sea, hiding within the folds of its many-crested hills the twisting course of the Kushk and its tributaries. History. — The origin of Herat is lost in antiquity. The name first appears in the list of primitive Zoroastrian settlements contained in the Vendidad Sade, where, however, like most of the names in the same list, — such as Sughudu (Sogdiana), Mouru (Merv or Margus), Haraquiti (Arachotus or Arghand-ab), Haetu- mant (Etymander or Helmund), and Ragha (or Argha-stan), — it seems to apply to the river or river-basin, which was the special centre of population. This name of Haroyu, as it is written in the Vendidad, or Hariiva, as it appears in the inscriptions of Darius, is a cognate form with the Sanskrit Sarayu, which signifies " a river," and its resemblance to the ethnic title of Aryan (Sans. Arya) is purely fortuitous; though from the circumstance of the city being named " Aria Metropolis " by the Greeks, and being also recognized as the capital of Ariana, " the country of the Arians," the two forms have been frequently confounded. Of the foundation of Herat (or Heri, as it is still often called) nothing is known. We can only infer from the colossal character of the earth-works which surround the modern town, that, like the similar remains at Bost on the Helmund and at Ulan Robat of Arachosia, they belong to that period of Central-Asian history which preceded the rise of Achaemenian power, and which in Grecian romance is illustrated by the names of Bacchus, of Hercules and of Semiramis. To trace in any detail the fortunes of Herat would be to write the jnodern history of the East, for there has hardly been a dynastic revolution, or a foreign invasion, or a great civil war in Central Asia since the time of the prophet, in which Herat has not played a conspicuous part and suffered accordingly. Under the Tahirids of Khorasan, the Saffarids of Seistan and the Samanids of Bokhara, it flourished for some centuries in peace and progressive prosperity; but during the succeeding rule of the Ghaznevid kings its metropolitan character was for a time obscured by the celebrity of the neigh- bouring capital of Ghazni, until finally in the reign of Sultan San jar of Merv about 1157 the city was entirely destroyed by an irruption of the Ghuzz, the predecessors, in race as well as in habitat, of the modern Turkomans. Herat gradually recovered under the enlightened Ghorid kings, who were indeed natives of the province, though they preferred to hold their court amid their ancestral fortresses in the mountains of Ghor, so that at the time of Jenghiz Khan's invasion it equalled or even exceeded in populousness and wealth its sister capitals of Balkh, Merv and Nishapur, the united strength of the four cities being estimated at three millions of inhabitants. But this Mogul visitation was most calamitous; forty persons, indeed, are stated to have alone survived the general massacre of 1232, and as a similar catastrophe overtook the city at the hands of Timur in 1398, when the local dynasty of Kurt, which had succeeded the Ghorides in eastern Khorasan, was put an end to, it is astonishing to find that early in the isth century Herat was again flourishing and populous, and the favoured seat of the art and literature of the East. It was indeed under the princes of the house of Timur that most of the noble buildings were erected, of which the remains still excite our admiration at Herat, while all the great historical works relative to Asia, such as the Rozet- es-Sefa, the Habib-es-seir, Hafiz Abru's Tarikh, the Matld' a-es- Sa'adin, &c., date from the same place and the same age. Four times was Herat sacked by Turkomans and Usbegs during the centuries which intervened between the Timuride princes and the rise of the Afghan power, and it has never in modern times attained to anything like its old importance. Afghan tribes, who had originally dwelt far to the east, were first settled at Herat by Nadir Shah, and from that time they have mono- polized the government and formed the dominant element in the population. It will be needless to trace the revolutions and counter-revolutions which have followed each other in quick succession at Herat since Ahmad Shah Durani founded the Afghan monarchy about the middle of the i8th century. Let it suffice to say that Herat has been throughout the seat of an Afghan government, sometimes in subordination to Kabul and sometimes independent. Persia indeed for many years showed a strong disposition to reassert the supremacy over Herat which was exercised by the Safawid kings, but great Britain, dis- approving of the advance of Persia towards the Indian frontier, steadily resisted the encroachment; and, indeed, after helping the Heratis to beat off the attack of the Persian army in 1838, the British at length compelled the shah in 1857 at the close of his war with them to sign a treaty recognizing the further in- dependence of the place, and pledging Persia against any further interference with the Afghans. In 1863 Herat, which for fifty years previously had been independent of Kabul, was incor- porated by Dost Mahomed Khan in the Afghan monarchy, and the Amir, Habibullah of Afghanistan, like his father Abdur Rahman before him, remained Amir of Herat and Kandahar, as well as Kabul. See Holdich, Indian Borderland (1901); C. E. Yate, Northern Afghanistan (1888). (T. H. H.*) HERAULT, a department in the south of France, formed from Lower Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 482,779. Area, 2403 sq. m. It is bounded N.E. by Card, N.W. by Aveyron and Tarn, and S. by Aude and the Golfe du Lion. The southern prolongation of the Cevennes mountains occupies the north-western zone of the department, the highest point being about 4250 ft. above the sea-level. South-east of this range comes a region of hills and plateaus decreasing in height as they approach the sea, from which they are separated by the rich plains at the mouth of the Orb and the Herault and, farther to the north-east, by the line of intercommunicating salt lagoons (Etang de Thau, &c.) which fringes the coast. The region to the north-west of Mont- pellier comprises an extensive tract of country known as the Garrigues, a district of dry limestone plateaus and hills, which stretches into the neighbouring department of Card. The mountains of the north-west form the watershed between the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. From them flow the Herault, its tributary the Lergue, and more to the south-west the Livrori and the Orb, which are the main rivers of the depart- ment. Dry summers, varied by occasional violent storms, are characteristic of Herault. The climate is naturally colder and more rainy in the mountains. A third of the surface of Herault is planted with vines, which are the chief source of agricultural wealth, the department ranking first in France with respect to the area of its vineyards; the red wines of St Georges, Cazouls-les-Beziers, Picpoul and Maranssan, and the white wines of Frontignan and Lunel (pop. in 1906, 6769) are held in high estimation. The area given over to arable land and pasture is small in extent. Fruit trees of various kinds, but especially mulberries, olives and chestnuts flourish. The rearing of silk-worms is largely carried on. Con- siderable numbers of sheep are raised, their milk being utilized for the preparation of Roquefort cheeses. The mineral wealth of the department is considerable. There are mines of lignite, coal in the vicinity of Graissessac, iron, calamine and copper, and quarries of building -stone, limestone, gypsum, &c.; the marshes supply salt. Mineral springs are numerous, the most important being those of Lamalon-les-Bains and Balaruc- les-Bains. The chief manufactures are woollen and cotton cloth, especially for military use, silk (Ganges), casks, soap and fertilizing stuffs. There are also oil-works, distilleries (Beziers) and tanneries (Bedarieux). Fishing is an important industry. Cette and Meze (pop. in 1906, 5574) are the chief ports. Herault exports salt fish, wine, liqueurs, timber, salt, building-material, &c. It imports cattle, skins, wool, cereals, vegetables, coal and other commodities. The railway lines belong chiefly to the HERAULT DE SECHELLES— HERBARIUM 333 Southern and Paris-Lyon-M6diterranee companies. The Canal du Midi traverses the south of the department for 44 m. and terminates at Cette. The Canal des Etangs traverses the department for about 20 m., forming part of a line of com- munication between Cette and Aigues-Mortes. Montpellier, the capital, is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Avignon, and of a court of appeal and centre of an academie (educational division). The department belongs to the i6th military region, which has its headquarters at Montpellier. It is divided into the arrondissements of Montpellier, Beziers, Lodeve and St Pons, with 36 cantons and 340 communes. Montpellier, Beziers, Lodeve, Bedarieux, Cette, Agde, Pezenas, Lamalou-les-Bains and Clermont-l'Herault are the more note- worthy towns and receive separate treatment. Among the other interesting places in the department are St Pons, with a church of the 1 2th century, once a cathedral, Villemagne, which has several old houses and two ruined churches, one of the i3th, the other of the I4th century; Pignan, a medieval town, near which is the interesting abbey-church of Vignogoul in the early Gothic style; and St Guilhem-le-Desert, which has a church of the nth and I2th centuries. Maguelonne, which in the 6th century became the seat of a bishopric transferred to Montpellier in 1536, has a cathedral of the I2th century. HERAULT DE SECHELLES, MARIE JEAN (1759-1794), French politician, was born at Paris on the 2oth of September 1759, of a noble family connected with those of Contades and Polignac. He made his debut as a lawyer at the Chatelet, and delivered some very successful speeches; later he was avocat general to the parlement of Paris. His legal occupations did not prevent him from devoting himself also to literature, and after 1 789 he published an account of a visit he had made to the comte de Buffon at Montbard. Herault's account is marked by a delicate irony, and it has with some justice been called a master- piece of interviewing, before the day of journalists. Herault, who was an ardent champion of the Revolution, took part in the taking of the Bastille, and on the 8th of December 1789 was appointed judge of the court of the first arrondissement in the department of Paris. From the end of January to April 1791 Herault was absent on a mission in Alsace, where he had been sent to restore order. On his return he was appointed commissaire du roi in the court of cassation. He was elected as a deputy for Paris to the Legislative Assembly, where he gravitated more and more towards the extreme left; he was a member of several committees, and, when a member of the diplomatic committee, presented a famous report demanding that the nation should be declared to be in danger (nth June 1793). After the revolution of the loth of August 1792 (see FRENCH REVOLUTION), he co-operated with Danton, one of the organizers of this rising, and on the 2nd of September was appointed president of the Legislative Assembly. He was a deputy to the National Convention for the department of Seine-et-Oise, and was sent on a mission to organize the new department of Mont Blanc. He was thus absent during the trial of Louis XVI., but he made it known that he approved of the condemnation of the king, and would probably have voted for the death penalty. On his return to Paris, Herault was several times president of the Convention, notably on the 2nd of June 1793, the occasion of the attack on the Girondins, and on the loth of August 1793, on which the passing of the new constitution was celebrated. On this occasion Herault, as president of the Convention, had to make several speeches. It was he, moreover, who, on the rejection of the projected constitu- tion drawn up by Condorcet, was entrusted with the task of preparing a fresh one; this work he performed within a few days, and his plan, which, however, differed very little from that of Condorcet, became the Constitution of 1793, which was passed, but never applied. As a member of the Committee of Public Safety, it was with diplomacy that Herault was chiefly concerned, and from October to December 1793 he was employed on a diplomatic and military mission in Alsace. But this mission helped to make him an object of suspicion to the other members of the Committee of Public Safety, and especially to Robespierre, who as a deist and a fanatical follower of the ideas of Rousseau, hated Herault, the follower of the naturalism of Diderot. He was accused of treason, and after being tried before the revolu- tionary tribunal, was condemned at the same time as Danton, and executed on the i6th Germinal in the year II. (jth April 1794). He was handsome, elegant and a lover of pleasure, and was one of the most individual figures of the Revolution. See the Voyage & Montbard, published by A. Aulard (Paris, 1890); A. Aulard, Les Oraleurs de la Legislative el de la Convention, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1906); J. Claretie, Camille Desmoulins . . . etude sur les Dantonistes (Paris, 1875); Dr Robinet, Le Proems des Dantonistes (Paris, 1879); " H6rault de S6chelles, sa premiere mission en Alsace " in the review La Revolution Fran$aise, tome 22; E. Daudet, Le Roman d'un conventionnel. Herault de Sechelles et les dames de Bellegarde (1904). His QLuvres litteraires were edited (Paris, 1907) by E. Dard. (R. A.*) HERB (Lat. herba, grass, food for cattle, generally taken to represent the Old La.t.forbea, Gr. 0op/3ij, pasture, (/>epj3eti',tofeed, Sans, bharb, to eat), in botany, the name given to those plants whose stem or stalk dies entirely or down to the root each year, and does not become, as in shrubs or trees, woody or permanent, such plants are also called " herbaceous." The term " herb " is also used of those herbaceous plants, which possess certain properties, and are used for medicinal purposes, for flavouring or garnishing in cooking, and also for perfumes (see HORTI- CULTURE and PHARMACOLOGY). HERBARIUM, or HORTUS Siccus, a collection of plants so dried and preserved as to illustrate as far as possible their characters. Sincethesameplant, owing to peculiarities of climate, soil and situation, degree of exposure to light and other influences may vary greatly according to the locality in which it occurs, it is only by gathering together for comparison and study a large series of examples of each species that the flora of different regions can be satisfactorily represented. Even in the best equipped botanical garden it is impossible to have, at one and the same time, more than a very small percentage of the repre- sentatives of the flora of any given region or of any large group of plants. Hence a good herbarium forms an indispensable part of a botanical museum or institution. There are large herbaria at the British Museum and at the Royal Gardens, Kew, and smaller collections at the botanical institutions at the principal British universities. The original herbarium of Linnaeus is in the possession, of the Linnacan Society of London. It was purchased from the widow of Linnaeus by Dr (afterwards Sir) J. E. Smith, one of the founders of the Linnaean Society, and after his death was purchased by the society. Herbaria are also associated with the more important botanic gardens and museums in other countries. The value of a herbarium is much enhanced by the possession of " types," that is, the original specimens on the study of which a species was founded. Thus the herbarium at the British Museum, which is especially rich in the earlier collections made in the i8th and early igth centuries, contains the types of many species founded by the earlier workers in botany. It is also rich in the types of Australian plants in the collections of Sir Joseph Banks and Robert Brown, and contains in addition many valuable modern collections. The Kew herbarium, founded by Sir William Hooker and greatly increased by his son Sir Joseph Hooker, is also very rich in types, especially those of plants described in the Flora of British India and various colonial floras. The collection of Dillenius is deposited at Oxford, and that of Professor W. H. Harvey at Trinity College, Dublin. The collections of Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, his son Adrien, and of Auguste de St Hilaire, are included in the large herbarium of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, and in the same city is the extensive private collection of Dr Ernest Cosson. At Geneva are three large collections— Augustin Pyrame de Candolle's, containing the typical specimens of the Prodromus, a large series of monographs of the families of flowering plants, Benjamin Delessert's fine series at the Botanic Garden, and the Boissier Herbarium, which is rich in Mediterranean and Oriental plants. The university of Gottingen has had bequeathed to it the largest collection (exceeding 40,000 specimens) ever made by a single individual — that of Professor Grisebach. At the 334 HERBARIUM herbarium in Brussels are the specimens obtained by the traveller Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, the majority of which formed the groundwork of his Flora Brasiliensis, The Berlin herbarium is especially rich in more recent collections, and other national herbaria sufficiently extensive to subserve the require- ments of the systematic botanist exist at St Petersburg, Vienna, Leiden, Stockholm, Upsala, Copenhagen and Florence. Of those in the United States of America, the chief, formed by Asa Gray, is the property of Harvard university; there is also a large one at the New York Botanical Garden. The herbarium at Melbourne, Australia, under Baron Miiller, attained large proportions; and that of the Botanical Garden of Calcutta is noteworthy as the repository of numerous specimens described by writers on Indian botany. Specimens of flowering plants and vascular cryptograms are generally mounted on sheets of stout smooth paper, of uniform quality; the size adopted at Kew is 17 in. long by n in. broad, that at the British Museum is slightly larger; the palms and their allies, however, and some ferns, require a larger size. The tough but flexible coarse grey paper (German Fliesspapier), upon which on the Continent specimens are commonly fixed by gummed strips of the same, is less hygroscopic than ordinary cartridge paper, but has the disadvantage of affording harbourage in the inequalities of its surface to a minute insect, Atropos pulsatoria, which commits great havoc in damp specimens, and which, even if noticed, cannot be dislodged without difficulty. The majority of plant specimens are most suitably fastened on paper by a mixture of equal parts of gum tragacanth and gum arabic made into a thick paste with water. Rigid leathery leaves are fixed by means of glue, or, if they present too smooth a surface, by stitching at their edges. Where, as in private herbaria, the specimens are not liable to be handled with great frequency, a stitch here and there round the stem, tied at the back of the sheet, or slips of paper passed over the stem through two slits in the sheet and attached with gum to' its back, or simply strips of gummed paper laid across the stem, may be resorted to. To preserve from insects, the plants, after mounting, are often brushed over with a liquid formed by the solution of 5 fb. each of corrosive sublimate and carbolic acid in i gallon of methylated spirits. They are then laid out to dry on shelves made of a network of stout galvanized iron wire. The use of corrosive sublimate is not, however, recommended, as it forms on drying a fine powder which when the plants are handled will rub off and, being carried into the air, may prove injurious to workers. If the plants are subjected to some process, before mounting, by which injurious organisms are destroyed, such as exposure in a closed chamber to vapour of carbon bisulphide for some hours, the presence of pieces of camphor or naphthalene in the cabinet will be found a sufficient preservative. After mounting are written — usually in the right-hand corner of the sheet, or on a label there affixed — the designation of each species, the date and place of gathering, and the name of the collector. Other particulars as to habit, local abundance, soil and claim to be indigenous may be written on the back of the sheet or on a slip of writing paper attached to its edge. It is convenient to place in a small envelope gummed to an upper corner of the sheet any flowers, seeds or leaves needed for dissection or microscopical examination, especially where from the fixation of the specimen it is impossible to examine the leaves for oil- receptacles and where seed is apt to escape from ripe capsules and be lost. The addition of a careful dissection of a flower greatly increases the value of the specimen. To ensure that all shall lie evenly in the herbarium the plants should be made to occupy as far as possible alternately the right and left sides of their respective sheets. The species of each genus are then arranged either systematically or alphabetically in separate covers of stout, usually light brown paper, or, if the genus be large, in several covers with the name of the genus clearly in- dicated in the lower left-hand corner of each, and opposite it the names or reference numbers of the species. Undetermined species are relegated to the end of the genus. Thus prepared, the specimens are placed on shelves or movable trays, at intervals of about 6 in., in an air-tight cupboard, on the inner side of the door of which, as a special protection against insects, is suspended a muslin bag containing a piece of camphor. The systematic arrangement varies in different herbaria. In the great British herbaria the orders and genera of flowering plants are usually arranged according to Bentham and Hooker's Genera plantarum; the species generally follow the arrangement of the most recent complete monograph of the family. In non- flowering plants the works usually followed are for ferns, Hooker and Baker's Synopsis filicum; for mosses, Muller's Synopsis muscorum frondosorum, Jaeger & Sauerbeck's Genera et species muscorum, and Engler & Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien; for algae, de Toni's Sylloge algarum; for hepaticae, Gottsche, Lindenberg and Nees ab Esenbeck's Synopsis hepaticarum, supplemented by Stephani's Species hepaticarum; for fungi, Saccardo's Sylloge fungorum, and for mycetozoa Lister's monograph of the group. For the members of laige genera, e.g. Piper and Ficus, since the number of cosmopolitan or very widely dis- tributed species is comparatively few, a geographical grouping is found specially convenient by those who are constantly receiving parcels of plants from known foreign sources. The ordinary systematic arrangement possesses trie great advantage, in the case of large genera, of readily indicating the affinities of any particular specimen with the forms most nearly allied to it. Instead of keeping a catalogue of the species contained in the herbarium, which, owing to the constant additions, would be almost impossible, such species are usually ticked off with a pencil in the systematic work which is followed in arranging them, so that by reference to this work it is possible to see at a glance whether the specimen sought is in the herbarium and what species are still wanted. Specimens intended for the herbarium should be collected when possible in dry weather, care being taken to select plants or portions of plants in sufficient number and of a size adequate to illustrate all the characteristic features of the species. When the root-leaves and roots present any peculiarities, they should invariably be collected, but the roots should be dried separately in an oven at a moderate heat. Roots and fruits too bulky to be placed on the sheet of the herbarium may be conveniently arranged in glass-covered boxes contained in drawers. The best and most effective mode of drying specimens is learned only by experience, different species requiring special treatment according to their several peculiarities. The chief points to be attended to are to have a plentiful supply of botanical drying paper, so as to be able to use about six sheets for each specimen; to change the paper at intervals of six to twelve hours; to avoid contact of one leaf or flower with another; and to increase the pressure applied only in proportion to the dry ness of the specimen. To preserve the colour of flowers pledgets of cotton wool, which prevent. bruising, should be introduced between them, as also, if the stamens are thick and succulent, as in Digitalis, between these and the corolla. A flower dissected and gummed on the sheets will often retain the colour which it is impossible to preserve in a crowded inflorescence. A flat sheet of lead or some other suitable weight should be laid upon the top of the pile of specimens, so as to keep up a continuous pressure. Succulent specimens, as many of the Orchi- daceae and sedums and various other Crassulaceous plants, require to be killed by immersion in boiling water before being placed in drying paper, or, instead of becoming dry, they will grow between the sheets. When, as with some plants like Verbascum, the thick hard stems are liable to cause the leaves to wrinkle in drying by removing the pressure from them, small pieces of bibulous paper or cotton wool may be placed upon the leaves near their point of attachment to the stem. When a number of specimens have to be submitted to pressure, ventilation is secured by means of frames corresponding in size to the drying paper, and composed of strips of wood or wires laid across each other so as to form a kind of network. Another mode of drying is to keep the specimens in a box of dry sand in a warm place for ten or twelve hours, and then press them in drying paper. A third method consists in placing; the specimen within bibulous paper, and enclosing the whole between two plates of coarsely perforated zinc supported in a wooden frame. The zinc plates are then drawn close together by means of straps, and suspended before a fire until the drying is effected. By the last two methods the colour of the flowers may be well preserved. When the leaves are finely divided, as in Conium, much trouble will be experienced in lifting a half-dried specimen from one paper to another; but the plant may be placed in a sheet of thin blotting paper, and the sheet containing the plant, instead of the plant itself, can then be moved. Thin straw-coloured paper, such as is used for biscuit bags, may be conveniently employed by travellers unable to carry a quantity of HERBART 335 bibulous paper. It offers the advantage of fitting closely to thick- stemmed specimens and of rapidly drying. A light but strong portfolio, to which pressure by means of straps can be applied, and a few quires of this paper, if the paper be changed night and morning, will be usually sufficient to dry all except very succulent . plants. When a specimen is too large for one sheet, and it is necessary, in order to show its habit, &c., to dry the whole of it, it may be divided into two or three portions, and each placed on a separate sheet for drying. Specimens may be judged to be dry when they no longer cause a cold sensation when applied to the cheek, or assume a rigidity not evident in the earlier stages of preparation. Each class of flowerless or cryptogamic plants requires special treatment for the herbarium. Marine algae are usually mounted on tough smooth white cartridge paper in the following manner. Growing specimens of good colour and in fruit are if possible selected, and cleansed as much as practic- able from adhering foreign particles, either in the sea or a rocky pool. Some species rapidly change colour, and cause the decay of any others with which they come in contact. This is especially the case with the Ectocarpi, Desmarestiae, and a few others, which should therefore be brought home in a separate vessel. In mounting, the specimen is floated out in a flat white dish containing sea-water, so that foreign matter may be detected, and a piece of paper of suitable size is placed under it, supported either by the fingers of the left hand or by a palette. It is then pruned, in order clearly to show the mode of branching, and is spread out as naturaljy as possible with the right hand. For this purpose a bone knitting-needle answers well for the coarse species, and a camel's-hair pencil for the more delicate ones. The paper with the specimen is then carefully removed from the water by sliding it over the edge of the dish so as to drain it as much as possible. If during this process part of the fronds run together, the beauty of the specimen may be restored by dipping the edge into water, so as to float out the part and allow it to subside naturally on the paper. The paper, with the specimen upwards, is then laid on bibulous paper for a few minutes to absorb as much as possible of the superfluous moisture. When freed from excess of water it is laid on a sheet of thick white blotting-paper, and a piece of smooth washed calico is placed upon it (unwashed calico, on account of its " facing," adheres to the sea-weed). Another sheet of blotting- paper is then laid over it; and, a number of similar specimens being formed into a pile, the whole is submitted to pressure, the paper being changed every hour or two at first. The pressure is increased, and the papers are changed less frequently as the specimens become dry, which usually takes place in thirty-six hours. Some species, especially those of a thick or leathery texture, contract so much in drying that without strong pressure the edges of the paper become puckered. Other species of a gelatinous nature, like Nemalion and Dudresnaya, may be allowed to dry on the paper, and need not be submitted to pressure until they no longer present a gelatinous appearance. Large coarse algae, such, for instance, as the Fucaceae and Laminariae, do not readily adhere to paper, and require soaking for some time in fresh water before being pressed. The less robust species, such as Sphacelaria scoparia, which do not adhere well to paper, may be made to do so by brushing them over either with milk carefully skimmed, or with a liquid formed by placing isinglass ( j oz.) and water (i £ oz.) in a wide-mouthed bottle, and the bottle in a small glue-pot or saucepan containing cold water, heating until solution is effected, and then adding I oz. of rectified spirits of wine; the whole is next stirred together, and when cold is kept in a stoppered bottle. For use, the mixture is warmed to render it fluid, and applied by means of a camel's hair brush to the under side of the specimen, which is then laid neatly on paper. For the more delicate species, such as the Callithamnia and Ectocarpi, it is an excellent plan to place a small fruiting fragment, carefully floated out in water, on a slip of mica of the size of an ordinary microscopical slide, and allow it to dry. The plant can then be at any time examined under the micro- scope without injuring the mounted specimen. Many of the fresh- water algae which form a mere crust, such as Palmella cruenta, may be placed in a vessel of water, where after a time they float like a scum, the earthy matter settling down to the bottom, and may then be mounted by slipping a piece of mica under them and allowing it to dry. Oscillatorme may be mounted by laying a portion on a silver coin placed on a piece of paper in a plate, and pouring in water until the edge of the coin is just covered. The alga by its own peculiar movement will soon form a radiating circle, perfectly free from dirt, around the coin, which may then be removed. There is considerable difficulty in removing mounted specimens of algae from paper, and therefore a small portion preserved on mica should accompany each specimen, enclosed for safety in a small envelope fastened at one corner of the sheet of paper. Filamentous diatoms may be mounted like ordinary seaweeds, and, as well as all parasitic algae, should whenever possible be allowed to remain attached to a portion of the alga on which they grow, some species being almost always found found parasitical on particular plants. Ordinary diatoms and desmids may be mounted on mica, as above described, by putting a portion in a vessel of water and exposing it to sunlight, when they rise to the surface, and may be thus removed comparatively free from dirt or impurity. Owing to their want of adhesiveness, they are, however, usually mounted on glass as microscopic slides, either in glycerin jelly, Canada balsam or some other suitable medium. | Lichens are generally mounted on sheets of paper of the ordinary size, several specimens from different localities being laid upon one sheet, each specimen having been first placed on a small square of paper which is gummed on the sheet, and which has the locality, date, name of collector, &c., written upon it. This mode has some disadvantages, attending it; such sheets are difficult to handle; the crustaceous species are liable to have their surfaces rubbed; the f oliaceous species become so compressed as to lose their character- istic appearance; and the spaces between the sheets caused by the thickness of the specimen permit the entrance of dust. A plan which has been found to answer well is to arrange them in cardboard boxes, either with glass tops or in sliding covers, in drawers — the name being placed outside each box and the specimens gummed into the boxes. Lichens for the herbarium should, whenever possible, be sought for on a slaty or laminated rock, so as to procure them on flat thin pieces of the same, suitable for mounting. Specimens on the bark of trees require pressure until the bark is dry, lest they become curled; and those growing on sand or friable soil, such as Coniocybefurfuracea, should be laid carefully on a layer of gum in the box in which they are intended to be kept. Many lichens, such as the Verrucariae and Collemaceae, are found in the best condition during the winter months. In mounting collemas it is advisable to let the specimen become dry and hard, and then to separate a portion from adherent mosses, earth, &c., and mount it separately so as to show the branch- ing of the thallus. Pertusariae should be represented by both fruiting and sorediate specimens. The larger species of fungi, such as the Agaricini and Polyporei, &c., are prepared for the herbarium by cutting a slice out of the centre of the plant so as to show the outline of the cap or pileus, the attachment of the gills, and the character of the interior of the stem. The remaining portions of the pileus are then lightly pressed, as well as the central slices, between bibulous paper until dry, and the whole is then " poisoned," and gummed on a sheet of paper in such a manner as to show the under surface of the one and the upper surface of the other half of the pileus on the same sheet. A " map " of the spores should be taken by separating a pileus and placing it flat on a piece of thin paper for a few hours when the spores will fall and leave a nature print of the arrangement of the gills which may be fixed by gumming the other side of the paper. As it is impossible to preserve the natural colours of fungi, the specimens should, whenever possible, be accompanied by a coloured drawing of the plant. Microscopic fungi are usually preserved in envelopes, or simply attached to sheets of paper or mounted as microscopic slides. Those fungi which are of a dusty nature, and the Myxomycetes or Mycetozoa may, like the lichens, be preserved in small boxes and arranged in drawers. Fungi under any circumstances form the least satisfactory portion of an herbarium. Mosses when growing in tufts should be gathered just before the capsules have become brown, divided into small flat portions, and pressed lightly in drying paper. During this process the capsules ripen, and are thus obtained in a perfect state. They are then pre- served in envelopes attached to a sheet of paper of the ordinary size, a single perfect specimen being washed, and spread out under the envelope so as to show the habit of the plant. For attaching it to the paper a strong mucilage of gum tragacanth, containing an eighth of its weight of spirit of wine, answers best. If not preserved in an envelope the calyptra and operculum are very apt to fall off and become lost. Scale-mosses are mounted in the same way, or may be floated out in water like sea-weeds, and dried in white blotting paper under strong pressure before gumming on paper, but are best mounted as microscopic slides, care being taken to show the stipules. The specimens should be collected when the capsules are just appear- ing above or in the colesule or calyx; if kept in a damp saucer they soon arrive at maturity, and can then be mounted in better condition, the fruit-stalks being too fragile to bear carriage in a botanical tin case without injury. Of the Characeae many are so exceedingly brittle that it is best to float them out like sea-weeds, except the prickly species, which may be carefully laid out on bibulous paper, and when dry fastened on sheets of white paper by means of gummed strips. Care should be taken in collecting charae to secure, in the case of dioecious species, specimens of both forms, and also to get when possible the roots of those species on which the small granular starchy bodies or gemmae are found, as in C. fragifera. Portions of the fructification may be preserved in small envelopes attached to the sheets. HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1776-1841), German philosopher and educationist, was born at Oldenburg on the 4th of May 1776. After studying under Fichte at Jena he gave his first philosophical lectures at Gottingen in 1805, whence he removed in 1809 to occupy the chair formerly held by Kant at Konigsberg. Here he also established and conducted a seminary of pedagogy till 1833, when he returned once more to Gottingen, and remained there as professor of philosophy till his death on the i4th of August 1841. Philosophy, according to Herbart, begins with reflection upon our empirical conceptions, and consists in the reformation and elabora- ' tion of these — its three primary divisions being determined by as 33^ HERBART many distinct forms of elaboration. Logic, which stands first, has to render our conceptions and the judgments and reasonings arising from them clear and distinct. But some conceptions are such that the more distinct they are made the more contradictory their elements become; so to change and supplement these as to make them at length thinkable is the problem of the second part of philosophy, or metaphysics. There is still a class of conceptions requiring more than a logical treatment, but differing from the last in not involving latent contradictions, and in being independent of the reality of their objects, the conceptions, viz. that embody our judgments of approval and disapproval; the philosophic treatment of these conceptions falls to Aesthetic. In Herbart's writings logic receives comparatively meagre notice; he insisted strongly on its purely formal character, and expressed himself in the main at one with Kantians such as Fries and Krug. As a metaphysician he starts from what he terms " the higher scepticism " of the Hume-Kantian sphere of thought, the beginnings of which he discerns in Locke's perplexity about the idea of substance. By this scepticism the real validity of even the forms of experience is called in question on account of the contradictions they are found to involve. And yet that these forms are " given " to us, as truly as sensations are, follows beyond doubt when we consider that we are as little able to control the one as the other. To attempt at this stage a psychological inquiry into the origin of these conceptions would be doubly a mistake; for we should nave to use these unlegitimated conceptions in the course of it, and the task of clearing up their contradictions would still remain, whether we succeeded in our enquiry or not. But how are we to set about this task? We have given to us a conception A uniting among its constituent marks two that prove to be contradictory, say M and N ; and we can neither deny the unity nor reject one of the contradictory members. For to do either is forbidden by experience ; and yet to do nothing is forbidden by logic. We are thus driven to the assumption that the conception is con- tradictory because incomplete; but how are we to supplement it? What we have must point the way to what we want, or our procedure will be arbitrary. Experience asserts that M is the same (i.e. a mark of the same concept) as N, while logic denies it; and so — it being impossible for one and the same M to sustain these contradictory positions — there is but one way open to us; we must posit several Ms. But even now we cannot say one of these Ms is the same as N, another is not ; for every M must be both thinkable and valid. We may, however, take the Ms not singly but together; and again, no other course being open to us, this is what we must dp; we must assume that N results from a combination of Ms. This is Herbart's method of relations, the counterpart in his system of the Hegelian dialectic. In the Ontology this method is employed to determine what in reality corresponds to the empirical conceptions of substance and cause, or rather of inherence and change. But first we must analyse this notion of reality itself, to which our scepticism had already led us, for, though we could doubt whether " the given " is what it appears, we cannot doubt that it is something; the conception of the real thus consists of the two conceptions of being and quality. That which we are compelled to " posit," which cannot be sublated, is that which is, and in the recognition of this lies the simple conception of -being. But when is a thing thus posited? When it is posited as we are wont to posit the things we see and taste and handle. If we were without sensations, i.e. were never bound against our will to endure the persistence of a presentation, we should never know what being is. Keeping fast hold of this idea of absolute position, Herbart leads us next to the quality of the real, (i) This must exclude everything negative; for non-A sublates instead of positing, and is not absolute, but relative to A. (2) The real must be absolutely simple; for if it contain two determinations, A and B, then either these are reducible to one, which is the true quality, or they are not, when each is conditioned by the other and their position is no longer absolute. (3) All quantitative conceptions are excluded, for quantity implies parts, and these are incompatible with simplicity. (4) But there may be a plurality of " reals," albeit the mere conception of being can tell us nothing as to this. The doctrine here developed is the first cardinal point of Herbart's system, and has obtained for it the name of " pluralistic realism." The contradictions he finds in the common-sense conception of inherence, or of " a thing with several attributes," will now become obvious. Let us take some thing, say A, having » attributes, a, b, c . . .: we are forced to posit each of these because each is presented in intuition. But in conceiving A we make, not n positions, still less n + l positions, but one position simply; for common sense removes the absolute position from its original source, sensation. So when we ask, What is the one posited? we are told — the possessor of a, b, c . . . , or in other words, their seat or substance. But if so, then A, as a real, being simple, must=a; similarly it must = 6; and so on. Now this would be possible if a, 6, c ... were but " contingent aspects " of A, as e.g. 2',V64, 4+3 + 1 are contingent aspects of 8. Such, of course, is not the case, and so we have as many contradic- tions as there are attributes; for we must say A is a, is not a, is b, is not 6, &c. There must then, according to the method of relations, be several As. For o let us assume Ai+Ai+Ai . . . ; for b, A2+A2+A2 . . .; and so on for the rest. But now what relation can there be among these several As, which will restore to us the unity of our original A or substance? There is but one; we must assume that the first A of every series is identical, just as the centre is the same point in every radius. By way of concrete illustration Herbart instances " the common observation that the properties of things exist only under external conditions. Bodies, we say, are coloured, but colour is nothing without light, and nothing without eyes. They sound, but only in a vibrating medium, and for healthy ears. Colour and tone present the appearance of in- herence, but on looking closer we find they are not really immanent in things but rather presuppose a communion among several." The result then is briefly thus: In place of the one absolute position, which in some unthinkable way the common understanding sub- stitutes for the absolute positions of the n attributes, we have really a series of two or more positions for each attribute, every series, however, beginning with the same (as it were, central) real (hence the unity of substance in a group of attributes), but each being continued by different reals (hence the plurality and difference of attributes in unity of substance). Where there is the appearance of inherence, therefore, there is always a plurality of reals; no such correlative to substance as attribute or accident can be admitted at all. Substantiality is impossible without causality, and to this as its true correlative we now turn. The common-sense conception of change involves at bottom the same contradiction of opposing qualities in one real. The same A that was a, b, c . . . becomes a, b, d . . . ; and this, which experi- ence thrusts upon us, proves on reflection unthinkable. The meta- physical supplementing is also fundamentally as before. Since c depended on a series of reals As+As+As ... in connexion with A, and d may be said similarly to depend on a series A<+A»+A4 . . ., then the change from c to d means, not that the central real A or any real has changed, but that A is now in connexion with A4, &c., and no longer in connexion with A3, &c. But to think a number of reals " in connexion " (Zusammensein) will not suffice as an explanation of phenomena ; something or other must happen when they are in connexion; what is it? The answer to this question is the second hinge-point of Herbart's theoretical philosophy. What " actually happens " as distinct from all that seems to happen, when two reals A and B are together is that, assuming them to differ in quality, they tend to disturb each other to the extent of that difference, at the same time that each preserves itself intact by resisting, as it were, the other's disturbance. And so by coming into connexion with different reals the " self-preserva- ticns " of A will vary accordingly, A remaining the same through all; just as, by way of illustration, hydrogen remains the same in water and in ammonia, or as the same line may be now a normal and now a tangent. But to indicate this opposition in the qualities of the reals A+B, we must substitute for these symbols others, which, though only " contingent aspects " of A and B, i.e. repre- senting their relations, not themselves, yet like similar devices in mathematics enable thought to advance. Thus we may put A = 0+/3— 7, B=TO+n+-x; -y then represents the character of the self- preservations in this case, and a+/3+»i+n represents all that could be observed by a spectator who did not know the simple qualities, but was himself involved in the relations of A to B; and such is exactly our position. Having thus determined what really is and what actually happens, our philosopher proceeds next to explain synthetically the objective semblance (der objective Schein) that results from these. But if this construction is to be truly objective, i.e. valid for all intelligences, ontology must furnish us with a clue. This we have in the forms of Space, Time and Motion which are involved whenever we think the reals as being in, or coming into, connexion and the opposite. These forms then cannot be merely the products of our psychological mechanism, though they may turn out to coincide with these. Meanwhile let us call them " intelligible," as being valid for all who comprehend the real and actual by thought, although no such forms are predicable of the real and actual themselves. The elementary spatial relation Herbart conceives to be " the contiguity (A neinander) of two points," so that every " pure and independent line " is discrete. But an investigation of dependent lines which are often incommensur- able forces us to adopt the contradictory fiction of partially over- lapping, i.e. divisible points, or in other words, the conception of Continuity.1 But the contradiction here is one we cannot eliminate by the method of relations, because it does not involve anything real; and in fact as a necessary outcome of an " intelligible " form, the fiction of continuity is valid for the " objective semblance," and no more to be discarded than say V —I- By its help we are enabled to comprehend what actually happens among reals to produce the appearance of matter. When three or more reals are together, each disturbance and self-preservation will (in general) be imperfect, i.e. of less intensity than when only two reals are together. But "objective semblance" corresponds with reality; the spatial or external relations of the reals in this case must, there- fore, tally with their inner or actual states. Had the self-preservations been perfect, the coincidence in space would have been complete, and the group of reals would have been inextended ; or had the several reals been simply contiguous, i.e. without connexion, then, as nothing 1 Hence Herbart gave the name Synechology to this branch of metaphysics, instead of the usual one, Cosmology. HERBART 337 would actually have happened, nothing would appear. As it is we shall find a continuous molecule manifesting attractive and repulsive forces; attraction corresponding to the tendency of the self-preservations to become perfect, repulsion to the frustration of this. Motion, even more evidently than space, implicates the con- tradictory conception of continuity, and cannot, therefore, be a real predicate, though valid as an intelligible form and necessary to the comprehension of the objective semblance. For we have to think of the reals as absolutely independent and yet as entering into con- nexions. This we can only do by conceiving them as originally moving through intelligible space in rectilinear paths and with uniform velocities. For such motion no cause need be supposed; motion, in fact, is no more a state of the moving real than rest is, both alike being but relations, with which, therefore, the real has no concern. The changes in this motion, however, for which we should require a cause, would be the objective semblance of the self-preserva- tions that actually occur when reals meet. Further, by means of such motion these actual occurrences, which are in themselves timeless, fall for an observer in a definite time — a time which becomes con- tinuous through the partial coincidence of events. But in all this it has been assumed that we are spectators of the objective semblance; it remains to make good this assumption, or, in other words, to show the possibility of knowledge; this is the problem of what Herbart terms Eidolology, and forms the transition from metaphysic to psychology. Here, again, a contradictory con- ception blocks the way, that, viz. of the Ego as the identity of knowing and being, and as such the stronghold of idealism. The contradiction becomes more evident when the ego is denned to be a subject (and so a real) that is its own object. As real and not merely formal, this conception of the ego is amenable to the method of relations. The solution this method furnishes is summarily that there are several objects which mutually modify each other, and so constitute that ego we take for the presented real. But to explain this modification is the business of psychology ; it is enough now to see that the subject like all reals is necessarily unknown, and that, therefore, the idealist's theory of knowledge is unsound. But though the simple quality of the subject or soul is beyond knowledge, we know what actually happens when it is in connexion with other's reals, for its self-preservations then are what we call sensations. And these sensations are the sole material of our knowledge; but they are not given to us as a chaos but in definite groups and series, whence we come to know the relations of those reals, which, though themselves unknown, our sensations compel us to posit absolutely. In his Psychology Herbart rejects altogether the doctrine of mental faculties as one refuted by his metaphysics, and tries to show that all psychical phenomena whatever result from the action and inter- action of elementary ideas or presentations (Vorstellungen). The soul being one and simple, its separate acts of self-preservation or primary presentations must be simple too, and its several presenta- tions must become united together. And this they can do at once and completely when, as is the case, for example, with the several attributes of an object, they are not of opposite quality. But other- wise there ensues a conflict in which the opposed presentations comport themselves like forces and mutually suppress or obscure each other. The act of presentation (Vorstellen) then becomes partly transformed into an effort, and its product, the idea, becomes in the same proportion less and less intense till a position of equili- brium is reached; and then at length the remainders coalesce. We have thus a statics and a mechanics of mind which investigate respectively the conditions of equilibrium and of movement among presentations. In the statics two magnitudes have to be determined : (i) the amount of the suppression or inhibition (Hemmungssumme) , and (2) the ratio in which this is shared among the opposing presenta- tions. The first must obviously be as small as possible; thus for two totally-opposed presentations a and b, of which a is the greater, the inhibendum = b. For a given degree of opposition this burden will be shared between the conflicting presentations in the inverse ratio of their strength. When its remainder after inhibition = O, a presentation is said to be on the threshold of consciousness, for on a small diminution of the inhibition the " effort " will become actual presentation in the same proportion. Such total exclusion from consciousness is, however, manifestly impossible with only two presentations,1 though with three or a greater number the residual value of one may even be negative. The first and simplest law in psychological mechanics relates to the " sinking " of inhibited presentations. As the presentations yield to the pressure, the pressure itself diminishes, so that the velocity of sinking decreases, i.e. we have the equation (S — a) dt = da, where S is the total inhibendum, and a the intensity actually inhibited after the time t. Hence ' = '°S S — =i[+0~' which only =O when a = x. which cannot so continue are very speedily driven beyond the threshold. More important is the law" according to which a presenta- tion freed from inhibition and rising anew into consciousness tends to raise the other presentations with which it is combined. Suppose two presentations p and IT united by the residua r and p; then the amount of p's " help " to JT is r, the portion of which appropriated by v is given by the ratio p: ir; and thus the initial help is — . But after a time /, when a portion of p represented by w has been actually brought into consciousness, the help afforded in the next instant will be found by the equation rp p — w,. , — • at = ddi, 7T p from which by integration we have the value of a. W = p I I — So that if there are several ITS connected with p by smaller and smaller parts, there will be a definite " serial " order in which they will be revived by p ; and on this fact Herbart rests all the phenomena of the so-called faculty of memory, the development of spatial and temporal forms and much besides. Emotions and volitions, he holds, are not directly self-preservations of the soul, as our presenta- tions are, but variable states of such presentations resulting from their interaction when above the threshold of consciousness. Thus when some presentations tend to force a presentation into con- sciousness, and others at the same time tend to drive it out, that presentation is the seat of painful feeling; when, on the other hand, its entrance is favoured by all, pleasure results. Desires are presenta- tions struggling into consciousness against hindrances, and when accompanied by the supposition of success become volitions. Tran- scendental freedom of will in Kant's sense is an impossibility. Self-consciousness is the result of an interaction essentially the same in kind as that which takes place when a comparatively simple presentation finds the field of consciousness occupied by a long- formed and well-consolidated " mass " of presentations — as, e.g. one's business or garden, the theatre, &c., which promptly inhibit the isolated presentation if incongruent, and unite it to themselves if not. What we call Self is, above all, such a central mass, and Herbart seeks to show with great ingenuity and detail how this position is occupied at first chiefly by the body, then by the seat of ideas and desires, and finally by that first-personal Self which re- collects the past and resolves concerning the future. But at any stage the actual constituents of this "complexion" are variable; the concrete presentation of Self is never twice the same. And, therefore, finding on reflection any particular concrete factor contingent, we abstract the position from that which occupies it, and so reach the speculative notion of the pure Ego. Aesthetics elaborates the " ideas " involved in the expression of taste called forth by those relations of object which acquire for them the attribution of beauty or the reverse. The beautiful (na\6v) is to be carefully distinguished from the allied conceptions of the useful and the pleasant, which vary with time, place and person; whereas beauty is predicated absolutely and involuntarily by all who have attained the right standpoint. Ethics, which is but one branch of aesthetics, although the chief, deals with such relations among volitions (WMensverhaltnisse) as thus unconditionally please or dis- please. These relations Herbart finds to be reducible to five, which do not admit of further simplification ; and corresponding to them are as many moral ideas ( Musterbegriffe] , viz.: (i) Internal Freedom, the underlying relation being that of the individual's will to his judgment of it; (2) Perfection, the relation being that of his several volitions to each other in respect of intensity, variety and concentration ; (3) Benevolence, the relation being that between his own will and the thought of another's; (4) Right, in case of actual conflict with another; and (5) Retribution or Equity, for intended good or evil done. The ideas of a final society, a system of rewards and punish- ments, a system of administration, a system of culture and a " unanimated society," corresponding to the ideas of law, equity, benevolence, perfection and internal freedom respectively, result when we take account of a number of individuals. Virtue is the perfect conformity of the will with the moral ideas ; of this the single virtues are but special expressions. The conception of duty arises from the existence of hindrances to the attainment of virtue. A general scheme of principles of conduct is possible, but the sub- sumption of special cases under these must remain matter of tact. The application of ethics to things as they are with a view to the realization of the moral ideas is moral technology (Tugendlehre) , of which the chief divisions are Paedagogy and Politics. In Theology Herbart held the argument from design to be as valid For divine activity as for human, and to justify the belief in a super- sensible real, concerning which, however, exact knowledge is neither attainable nor on practical grounds desirable. Among the post-Kantian philosophers Herbart doubtless ranks next to Hegel in importance, and this without taking into account tiis very great contributions to the science of education. His disciples speak of theirs as the " exact philosophy," and the term well expresses their master's chief excellence and the character of 338 HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE— HERBERT the chief influence he has exerted upon succeeding thinkers of his own and other schools. His criticisms are worth more than his constructions; indeed for exactness and penetration of thought he is quite on a level with Hume and Kant. His merits in this respect, however, can only be appraised by the study of his works at first hand. But we are most of all indebted to Herbart for the enormous advance psychology has been enabled to make, thanks to his fruitful treatment of it, albeit as yet but few among the many who have appropriated and improved his materials have ventured to adopt his metaphysical and mathematical foundations. (J. W.*) BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Herbart's works were collected and published by his disciple G. Hartenstein (Leipzig, 1850-1852; reprinted at Hamburg, with supplementary volume, 1883-1893); another edition by K. Kehrbach (Leipzig, 1882, and Langensalza, 1887). The following are the most important: Allgemeine Padagogik (1806; new ed., 1894) ; Hauptpunkte der Metaphysik (1808) ; Allgemeine praktische Philosophic (1808); Lehrbuch zur Einleitung in die Philosophie (1813; new ed. by Hartenstein, 1883); Lehrbuch der Psychologic (1816; new ed. by Hartenstein, 1887); Psychologic als Wissenschaft (1824-1825); Allgemeine Metaphysik (1828-1829); Encyklopadie der Philosophie (2nd ed., 1841); Umriss pddagogischer Vorlesungen (2nd ed., 1841); Psychologische Untersuchungen (1839-1840). Some of his works have been translated into English under the following titles: Textbook in Psychology, by M. K. Smith (1891); The Science of Education and the Aesthetic Revelation of the World (1892), and Letters and Lectures on Education (1898), by H. M. and E. Felkin ; A B C of Sense Perception and minor pedagogical works (New York, 1896), by W. J. Eckhoff and others; Application of Psychology to the Science of Education (1898), by B. C. Mulliner; Outlines of Educational Doctrine, by A. F. Lange (1901). There is a life of Herbart in Hartenstein's introduction to his Kleinere philosophische Schriften und Abhandlungen (1842-1843) and by F. H. T. Allihn in Zeitschrift fur exacte Philosophie (Leipzig, 1861), the organ of Herbart and his school, which ceased to appear in 1873. In America the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education was originally founded as the National Herbart Society. Of the large number of writings dealing with Herbart's works and theories, the following may be mentioned: H. A. Fechner, Zur Kritik der Grundlagen von Herbart's Metaphysik (Leipzig, 1853); J. Kaftan, Sollen und Sein in ihrem Verhdltniss zu einander: eine Studie zur Kritik Herbarts (Leipzig, 1872); M. W. Drobisch, Uber die Fortbildung der Philosophie durch Herbart (Leipzig, 1876); K. S. Just, Die Fortbildung der Kant'schen Ethik durch Herbart (Eisenach, 1876); C. Ufer, Vorschule der Padagogik Herbarts (1883; Eng. tr. by J. C. Zinser, 1895); G. Kozle, Die padagogische Schule Herbarts und ihre Lehre (Gutersloh, 1889); L. Striimpell, Das System der Padagogik Herbarts (Leipzig, 1894); J. Christinger, Herbarts Erziehungslehre und ihre Fortbildner (Zurich, 1895) ; O. H. Lang, Outline of Herbart's Pedagogics (1894); H. M. and E. Felkin, Introduction to Herbart's Science and Practice of Education (1895); C. de Garmo, Herbart and the Herbartians (New York, 1895); E. Wagner, Die Praxis der Herbartianer (Langensalza, 1897) and Vollstdndige Darstellung der Lehre Herbarts (to., 1899); J. Adams, The Herbartian Psychology applied to Education (1897); F. H. Hayward, The Student's Herbart (1902), The Critics of Herbart- ianism (1903), Three Historical Educators: Pestalozzi, Frobel, Herbart (1905), The Secret of Herbart (1907), The Meaning of Educa- tion as interpreted by Herbart (1907); W. Kinkel, J. F. Herbart: sein Leben und seine Philosophie (1903); A. Darroch, Herbart and the Herbartian Theory of Education (1903); C. J. Dodd, Introduction to the Herbartian Principles of Teaching (1904); J. Davidson, A new Interpretation of Herbart's Psychology and Educational Theory through the Philosophy of Leibnitz (1906); see also J. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Psychology and Philosophy (1901-1905). HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE, BARTHElEMY D' ^625- 1695), French orientalist, was born on the I4th of December 1625 at Paris. He was educated at the university of Paris, and devoted himself to the study of oriental languages, going to Italy to perfect himself in them by converse with the orientals who frequented its sea-ports. There he also made the acquaint- ance of Holstenius, the Dutch humanist (1596-1661), and Leo Allatius, the Greek scholar (1586-1669). On his return to France after a year and a half, he was received into the house of Fouquet, superintendent of finance, who gave him a pension of 1500 livres. Losing this on the disgrace of Fouquet in 1661, he was appointed secretary and interpreter of Eastern languages to the king. A few years later he again visited Italy, when the grand-duke Ferdinand II. of Tuscany presented him with a large number of valuable Oriental MSS., and tried to attach him to his court. Herbelot, however, was recalled to France by Colbert, and received from the king a pension equal to the one he had lost. In 1692 he succeeded D'Auvergne in the chair of Syriac, in the College de France. He died in Paris on the 8th of December 1695. His great work is the Bibliotheque orientate, ou dictionnaire unvoersd contenant tout ce qui regarde la connois- sance des peuples de I'Orienl, which occupied him nearly all his life, and was completed in 1697 by A. Galland. It is based on the immense Arabic dictionary of Hadji Khalfa, of which indeed it is largely an abridged translation, but it also contains the substance of a vast number of other Arabic and Turkish compilations and manuscripts. The Bibliotheque was reprinted at Maestricht (fpl. 1776), and at the Hague (4 vols. 410, 1777-1799). The latter edition is enriched with the contributions of the Dutch orientalist Schultens, Johann Jakob Reiske (1716-1774), and by a supplement provided by Visdelow and Galland. Herbelot's other works, none of which have been published, comprise an Oriental Anthology, and an Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Latin Dictionary. HERBERAY DES ESSARTS, NICOLAS DE (d. about 1557), French translator, was born in Pic'ardy. He served in the artillery, and at the expressed desire of Francis I. he translated into French the first eight books of Amadis de Gaul (1540-1548). The remaining books were translated by other authors. His other translations from the Spanish include L'Amant maltraite de so, mye (1539) ; Le Premier Lime de la chronique de dom Flares de Greet (1552); and L'Horloge des princes (1555) from Guevara. He also translated the works of Josephus (1557). He died about 1557. The Amadis de Gaul was translated into English by Anthony Munday in 1619. HERBERT (FAMILY). The sudden rising of this English family to great wealth and high place is the more remarkable in that its elevation belongs to the isth century and not to that age of the Tudors when many new men made their way upwards into the ranks of the nobility. Earlier generations of a pedigree which carries the origin of the Herberts to Herbert the Chamberlain, a Domesday tenant, being disregarded, their patriarch may be taken to be one Jenkin ap Adam (temp. Edward III.), who had a small Monmouthshire estate at Llan- vapley and the office of master sergeant of the lordship of Abergavenny, a place which gave him precedence after the steward of that lordship. Jenkin's son, Gwilim ap Jenkin, who followed his father as master sergeant, is given six sons by the border genealogists, no less than six score pedigrees finding their origin in these six brothers. Their order is uncertain, although the Progers of Werndee, the last of whom sold his ancestral estate in 1780, are reckoned as the senior line of Gwilim 's descendants. But Thomas ap Gwilim Jenkin, called the fourth son, is ancestor of all those who bore the surname of Herbert. Thomas's fifth son, William or Gwilim ap Thomas, who died in 1446, was the first man of the family to make any figure in history. This Gwilim ap Thomas was steward of the lordships of Usk and Caerleon under Richard, duke of York. Legend makes him a knight on the field of Agincourt, but his knighthood belongs to the year 1426. He appears to have married twice, his first wife being Elizabeth Bluet of Raglan, widow of Sir James Berkeley, and his- second a daughter of David Gam, a valiant Welsh squire slain at Agincourt. Royal favour enriched Sir William, and he was able to buy Raglan Castle from the Lord Berkeley, his first wife's son, the deed, which remains among the Beaufort muniments, refuting the pedigree-maker's state- ment that he inherited the castle as heir of his mother "Maude, daughter of Sir John Morley." His sons William and Richard, both partisans of the White Rose, took the surname of Herbert in or before 1461. Playing a part in English affairs remote from the Welsh Marches, their lack of a surname may well have inconvenienced them, and their choice of the name Herbert can only be explained by the suggestion that their long pedigree from Herbert the Chamberlain, absurdly represented as a bastard son of Henry I., must already have been discovered for them. Copies exist of an alleged commission issued by Edward IV. to a committee of Welsh bards for the ascertaining of the true ancestry of William Herbert, earl of Pembroke, whom " the chief est men of skill " in the province of South Wales declare to be the descendant of " Herbert, a noble lord, natural son to King Henry the first," and it is recited that King Edward, after the creation of the earldom, commanded the earl and Sir Richard his brother to " take their surnames after their first progenitor HERBERT, GEORGE 339 Herbert fitz Roy and to forego the British order and manner." But this commission, whose date anticipates by some years the true date of the creation of the earldom, is the work of one of the many genealogical forgers who flourished under the Tudors. Sir William Herbert, called by the Welsh Gwilim Ddu or Black William, was a baron in 1461 and a Knight of the Garter in the following year. With many manors and castles on the Marches he had the castle, town and lordship of Pembroke, and after the attainder of Jasper Tudor in 1468 was created earl of Pembroke. When in July 1469 he was taken by Sir John Conyers and the northern Lancastrians on Hedgecote, he was beheaded with his brother Sir Richard Herbert of Coldbrook. The second earl while still a minor exchanged at the king's desire in 1479 his earldom of Pembroke for that of Huntingdon. In 1484 this son of one whom Hall not unjustly describes as born " a mean gentleman " contracted to marry Katharine the daughter of King Richard III., but her death annulled the contract and the earl married Mary, daughter of the Earl Rivers, by whom he had a daughter Elizabeth, whose descendants, the Somersets, lived in the Herbert's castle of Raglan until the cannon of the parlia- ment broke it in ruins. With the second earl's death in 1491 the first Herbert earldom became extinct. No claim being set up among the other descendants of the first earl, it may be taken that their lines were illegitimate. One of the chief difficulties which beset the genealogist of the Herberts lies in their Cambrian disregard of the marriage tie, bastards and legitimate issue growing up, it would seem, side by side in their patriarchal households. Thus the ancestor of the present earls of Pembroke and Carnarvon and of the Herbert who was created marquess of Powis was a natural son of the first earl, one Richard Herbert, whom the restored inscription on his tomb at Abergavenny incorrectly describes as a knight. He was constable and porter of Abergavenny Castle, and his son William, " a mad fighting fellow " in his youth, married a sister of Catherine Parr and thus in 1543 became nearly allied to the king, who made him one of the executors of his will. The earldom of Pembroke was revived for him in 1551. It is worthy of note that all traces of illegiti- macy have long since been removed from the arms of the noble descendants of Richard Herbert. The honours and titles of this clan of marchmen make a long list. They include the marquessate of Powis, two earldoms with the title of Pembroke, two with that of Powis, and the earldoms of Huntingdon and Montgomery, Torrington and Carnarvon, the viscountcies of Montgomery and Ludlo w, fourteen baronies and seven baronetcies. Seven Herberts have worn the Garter. The knights and rich squires of the stock can hardly be reckoned, more especially as they must be sought among Raglans, Morgans, Parrys, Vaughans, Progers, Hugheses, Thomases, Philips, Powels, Gwyns, Evanses and Joneses, as well as among those who have borne the surname of Herbert, a surname which in the igth century was adopted by the Joneses of Llanarth and Clytha, although they claim no descent from those sons of Sir William ap Thomas for whom it was devised. (O. BA.) HERBERT, GEORGE (1393-1633), English poet, was born at Montgomery Castle on the 3rd of April 1593. He was the fifth son of Sir Richard Herbert and a brother of Lord Herbert of Cherbury. His mother, Lady Magdalen Herbert, a woman of great good sense and sweetness of character, and a friend of John Donne, exercised great influence over her son. Educated privately until 1605, he was then sent to Westminster School, and in 1609 he became a scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was made B.A. in 1613, M.A. and major fellow of the college in 1616. In 1618 he became Reader in Rhetoric, and in 1619 orator for the university. In this capacity he was several times brought into contact with King James. From Cambridge he wrote some Latin satiric verses * in defence of the universities and the English Church against Andrew Melville, a Scottish Presbyterian minister. He numbered among his friends Dr 1 Printed in 1662 as an appendix to J. Vivian's Ecclesiastes Solomonis. Donne, Sir Henry Wotton, Izaak Walton, Bishop Andrewes and Francis Bacon, who dedicated to him his translation of the Psalms. Walton tells us that " the love of a court conversation, mixed with a laudable ambition to be something more than he was, drew him often from Cambridge to attend the king whereso- ever the court was," and James I. gave him hi 1623 the sinecure lay rectory of Whitford, Flintshire, worth £120 a year. The death of his patrons, the duke of Richmond and the marquess of Hamilton, and of King James put an end to his hopes of political preferment; moreover he probably distrusted the conduct of affairs under the new reign. Largely influenced by his mother, he decided to take holy orders, and in July 1626 he was appointed prebendary of Layton Ecclesia (Leighton Bromswold), Huntingdon. Here he was within two miles of Little Gidding, and came under the influence of Nicholas Ferrar. It was at Ferrar's suggestion that he undertook to rebuild the church at Layton, an undertaking carried through by his own gifts and the generosity of his friends. There is little doubt that the close friendship with Ferrar had a large share in Herbert's adoption of the religious life. In 1630 Charles I., at the instance of the earl of Pembroke, whose kinsman Herbert was, presented him to the living of Fugglestone with Bemerton, near Salisbury, and he was ordained priest in September. A year before, after three days' acquaintance, he had married Jane Danvers, whose father had been set on the marriage for a long time. He had often spoken of his daughter Jane to Herbert, and " so much commended Mr Herbert to her, that Jane became so much a Platonic as to fall in love with Mr Herbert unseen." The story of the poet's life at Bemerton, as told by Walton, is one of the most exquisite pictures in literary biography. He devoted much time to explaining the meaning of the various parts of the Prayer-Book, and held services twice every day, at which many of the parishioners attended, and some " let their plough rest when Mr Herbert's saints-bell rung to prayers, that they might also offer their devotions to God with him." Next to Christianity itself he loved the English Church. He was passionately fond of music, and his own hymns were written to the accompaniment of his lute or viol. He usually walked twice a week to attend the cathedral at Salisbury, and before returning home, would " sing and play his part " at a meeting of music lovers. Walton illustrates Herbert's kindness to the poor by many touching anecdotes, but he had not been three years in Bemertnn when he succumbed to consumption. He was buried beneath the altar of his church on the 3rd of March 1633. None of Herbert's English poems was published during his lifetime. On his death-bed he gave to Nicholas Ferrar a manu- script with the title The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations. This was published at Cambridge, apparently for private circulation, almost immediately after Herbert's death, and a second imprint followed in the same year. On the title-page of both is the quotation " In his Temple doth every man speak of his honour." The Temple is a collection of religious poems connected by unity of sentiment and inspiration. Herbert tried to interpret his own devout meditations by applying images of all kinds to the ritual and beliefs of the Church. Nothing in his own church at Bemerton was too commonplace to serve as a starting-point for the epigrammatic expression of his piety. The church key reminds him that " it is my sin that locks his handes," and the stones of the floor are patience and humility, while the cement that binds them together is love and charity. The chief faults of the book are obscurity, verbal conceits and a forced ingenuity which shows itself in grotesque puns, odd metres and occasional want of taste. But the quaint beauty of Herbert's' style and its musical quality give The Temple a high place. "The Church Porch," " The Agony," " Sin," " Sunday," " Virtue," " Man," " The British Church," " The Quip," " The Collar," " The Pulley," " The Flower," " Aaron " and " The Elixir " are among the best known of these poems. Herbert and Keble are the poets of Anglican theology. No book is fuller of devotion to the Church of England than The Temple, and no poems in our language exhibit more of the spirit of true Christianity. Every page is marked by 340 HERBERT, H. W.— HERBERT OF CHERBURY transparent sincerity, and reflects the beautiful character of " holy George Herbert." Nicholas Ferrar's translation (Oxford, 1638) of the Hundred and Ten Considerations ... of Juan de Valdes contained a letter and notes by Herbert. In 1652 appeared Herbert's Remains; or, Sundry Pieces of that Sweet Singer of the Temple, Mr George Herbert. This included A Priest to the Temple; or, The Country Parson, his Character, and Rule of Holy Life, in prose; Jacula prudentum, a collection of proverbs with a separate title-page dated 1651, which had appeared in a shorter form as Outlandish Proverbs in 1640; and some miscellaneous matter. The completest edition of his works is that by Dr A. B. Grosart in 1874, this edition of the Poetical works being reproduced in the " Aldine edition " in 1876. The English Works of George Herbert ... (3 vols., 1905) were edited in much detail by G. H. Palmer. A contemporary account of Herbert's life by Barnabas Oley was prefixed to the Remains of 1652, but the classic authority is Izaak Walton's Life of Mr George Herbert, pub- lished in 1670, with some letters from Herbert to his mother. See also A. G. Hyde, George Herbert and his Times (1907), and the " Oxford " edition of his poems by A. Waugh (1908). HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM [" Frank Forester "] (1807- 1858), English novelist and writer on sport, son of the Hon. and Rev. William Herbert, dean of Manchester, a son of the first earl of Carnarvon, was born in London on the 3rd of April 1807. He was educated at Eton and at Caius College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1830. Having become involved in debt, he emigrated to America, and from' 1831 to 1839 was teacher of Greek in a private school in New York. In 1833 he started the American Monthly Magazine, which he edited, in conjunction with A. D. Patterson, till 1835. In 1834 he published his first novel, The Brothers: a Tale of (he Fronde, which was followed by a number of others which obtained a certain degree of popu- larity. He also wrote a series of historical studies, including The Cavaliers of England (1852), The Knights of England, France and Scotland (1852), The Chevaliers of France (1853), and The Captains of the Old World (1851); but he is best known for his works on sport, published under the pseudonym of " Frank Forester." These include The Field Sports of the United States and British Provinces (1849), Frank Forester and his Friends (1849), The Fish and Fishing of the United Slates (1850), The Young Sportsman's Complete Manual (1852), and The Horse and Horsemanship in the United States and British Provinces of North America (1858). He also translated many of the novels of Eugene Sue and Alexandre Dumas. Herbert was a man of varied accomplishments, but of somewhat dissipated habits. He died by his own hand in New York on the i7th of May 1858. HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682), English traveller and author, was born at York in 1606. Several of his ancestors were aldermen and merchants in that city — e.g. his grandfather and benefactor, Alderman Herbert I'd. 1614) — and they traced a connexion with the earls of Pembroke. Thomas became a commoner of Jesus College, Oxford, in 1621, but afterwards removed to Cambridge, through the influence of his uncle Dr Ambrose Akroyd. In 1627 the earl of Pembroke procured his appointment in the suite of Sir Dodmore Cotton, then starting as ambassador for Persia with Sir Robert Shirley. Sailing in March they visited the Cape, Madagascar, Goa and Surat; landing at Gambrun (loth of January 1627-1628), they travelled inland to Ashraf and thence to Kazvin, where both Cotton and Shirley died, and whence Herbert made exten- sive travels in the Persian Hinterland, visiting Kashan, Bagdad, &c. On his return voyage he touched at Ceylon, the Coromandel coast, Mauritius and St Helena. He reached England in 1629, travelled in Europe in 1630-1631, married in 1632 and retired from court in 1634 (his prospects perhaps blighted by Pembroke's death in 1630); after this he resided on his Tintern estate and elsewhere till the Civil War, siding with the parliament till his appointment to attend on the king in 1646. Becoming a devoted royalist, he was rewarded with a baronetcy at the Restoration (1660). He resided mainly in York Street, Westminster, till the Great Plague (1666), when he retired to York, where he died (at Petergate House) on the ist of March 1682. Herbert's chief work is the Description of the Persian Monarchy now beinge: the Orienta.ll Indyes, lies and other parts of the Greater Asia and Africk (1634), reissued with additions, &c., in 1638 as Some Yeares Travels into Africa and Asia the Great (al. into divers parts of Asia and Afrique) ; a third edition followed in 1664, and a fourth in 1677. This is one of the best records of 17th-century travel. Among its illustrations are remarkable sketches of the dodo, cuneiform inscriptions and Persepolis. Herbert's Threnodia Carolina; or, Memoirs of the two last years of the reign of that unparallell'd prince of ever blessed memory King Charles I., was in great part printed at the author's request in Wood's Athenae Oxonienses; in full by Dr C. Goodall in his Collection of Tracts (1702, repr. G. & W. Nicol, 1813). Sir William Dugdale is understood to have received assistance from Herbert in the Monasticon Anglicanum, vol. iv. ; see two of Herbert's papers on St John's, Beverley and Ripon collegiate church, now cathedral, in Drake's Eboracum (appendix). Cf. also Robert Davies' account of Herbert in The Yorkshire Archaeological and Topographical Journal, part iii., pp. 182-214 (1870), containing a facsimile of the inscription on Herbert's tomb; Wood's Athenae, iv. 15-41; and Fasti, ii. 26, 131, 138, 143-144, 150. HERBERT OF CHERBURY, EDWARD HERBERT, BARON (1583-1648), English soldier, diplomatist, historian and religious philosopher, eldest son of Richard Herbert of Montgomery Castle (a member of a collateral branch of the family of the earls of Pembroke) and of Magdalen, daughter of Sir Richard Newport, was born at Eyton-on-Severn near Wroxeter on the 3rd of March 1583. After careful private tuition he matriculated at University College, Oxford, as a gentleman commoner, in May 1596. On the 28th of February 1599 he married his cousin Mary, daughter and heiress of Sir William Herbert (d. 1593). He returned to Oxford with his wife and mother, continued his studies, and obtained proficiency in modern languages as well as in music, riding and fencing. On the accession of James I. he presented himself at court and was created a knight of the Bath on the 24th of July 1603. In 1608 he went to Paris, en- joying the friendship and hospitality of the old constable de Montmorency, and being entertained by Henry IV. On his return, as he says himself with nai've vanity, he was " in great esteem both in court and city, many of the greatest desiring my company." In 1610 he served as a volunteer in the Low Countries under the prince of Orange, whose intimate friend he became, and distinguished himself at the capture of Juliers from the emperor. He offered to decide the war by engaging in single combat with a champion chosen from among the enemy, but his challenge was declined. During an interval in the fighting he paid a visit to Spinola, in the Spanish camp near Wezel, and afterwards to the elector palatine at Heidelberg, subsequently travelling in Italy. At the instance of the duke of Savoy he led an expedition of 4000 Huguenots from Languedoc into Piedmont to help the Savoyards against Spain, but after nearly losing his life in the journey to Lyons he was imprisoned on his arrival there, and the enterprise came to nothing. Thence he returned to the Netherlands and the prince of Orange, arriving in England in 1617. In 1619 he was made by Buckingham am- bassador at Paris, but a quarrel with de Luynes and a challenge sent by him to the latter occasioned his recall in 1621. After the death of de Luynes Herbert resumed his post in February 1622. He was very popular at the French court and showed considerable diplomatic ability, his chief objects being to accomplish the union between Charles and Henrietta Maria and secure the assistance of Louis XIII. for the unfortunate elector palatine. This latter advantage he could not obtain, and he was dismissed in April 1624. He returned home greatly in debt and received little reward for his services beyond the Irish peerage of Castle island in 1624 and the English barony of Cherbury, or Chirbury, on the 7th of May 1629. In 1632 he was appointed a member of the council of war. He attended the king at York in 1639, and in May 1642 was imprisoned by the parliament for urging the addition of the words " without cause " to the resolution that the king violated his oath by making war on parliament. He determined after this to take no further part in the struggle, retired to Montgomery Castle, and declined the king's summons. On the sth of September 1644 he surrendered the castle to the parliamentary forces, returned to London, submitted, and was granted a pension of £20 a week. In 1647 he paid a visit to Gassendi at Paris, and died in London on the 2oth of August 1648, being buried in the church of St Giles's in the Fields. HERBERT OF LEA Lord Herbert left two sons, Richard (c. 1600-1655), succeeded him as 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and Edward, the title becoming extinct in the person of Henry Herbert, the 4th baron, grandson of the ist Lord Herbert in 1691. In 1694, however, it was revived in favour of Henry Herbert (1654-1709), son of Sir Henry Herbert (1595-1673), brother of the ist Lord Herbert of Cherbury. Sir Henry was master of the revels to Charles I. and Charles II., being busily employed in reading and licensing plays and in supervising all kinds of public enter- tainments. He died in April 1673; his son Henry died in January 1709, when the latter's son Henry became 2nd , Lord Herbert of Cherbury of the second creation. He died without issue in April 1738, and again the barony became extinct. In 1743 it was revived for Henry Arthur Herbert (c. 1703-1772), who five years later was created earl of Powis. This nobleman was a great-grandson of the 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury of the first creation, and since his time the barony has been held by the earls of Powis. Lord Herbert's cousin, Sir Edward Herbert (c. 1591-1657), was a member of parliament under James I. and Charles I. Having become attorney-general he was instructed by Charles to take proceedings against some members of parliament who had been concerned in the passing of the Grand Remonstrance; the only result, however, was Herbert's own impeachment by the House of Commons and his imprisonment. Later in life he was with the exiled royal family in Holland and in France, becoming lord keeper of the great seal to Charles IE., an office which he had refused in 1645. He died in Paris in December 1657. One of Herbert's son was Arthur Herbert, earl of Torring- ton, and another was Sir Edward Herbert (c. 1648-1698), titular earl of Portland, who was made chief justice of the king's bench in 1685 in succession to Lord Jeffreys. It was Sir Edward who declared for the royal prerogative in the case of Godden v. Hales, asserting that the kings of England, being sovereign princes, could dispense with particular laws in particular cases. After the escape of James II. to France this king made Herbert his lord chancellor and created him earl of Portland, although he was a Protestant and had exhibited a certain amount of independence during 1687. The first Lord Herbert's real claim to fame and remembrance is derived from his writings. Herbert's first and most important work is the De veritate prout distinguitur a revelatione, a verisimili, a possibili, et a falso (Paris, 1624; London, 1633; translated into French 1639, but never into English; a MS. in add. MSS. 7081. Another, Sloane MSS. 3957, has the author's dedication to his brother George in his own hand, dated 1622). It combines a theory of knowledge with a partial psychology, a methodology for the investiga- tion of truth, and a scheme of natural religion. The author's method is prolix and often far from clear; the book is no compact system, but it contains the skeleton and much of the soul of a com- plete philosophy. Giving up all past theories as useless, Herbert professedly endeavours to constitute a new and true system. Truth, which he defines as a just conformation of the faculties with one another and with their objects, he distributed into four classes or stages: (i) truth in the thing or the truth of the object; (2) truth of the appearance; (3) truth of the apprehension (conceptus) ; (4) truth of the intellect. The faculties of the mind are as numerous as the differences of their objects, and are accordingly innumerable; but they may be arranged in Tour groups. The first and fundamental and most certain group is the Natural Instinct, to which belong the Koivai tvvoitu, the notitiae communes, which are innate, of divine origin and indisputable. The second group, the next in certainty, is the sensus internus (under which head Herbert discusses amongst others love, hate, fear, conscience with its communis notitia, and free will); the third is the sensus externus; and the fourth is discursus, reasoning, to which, as being the least certain, we have recourse when the other faculties fail. The ratiocinative faculties proceed by division and analysis, by questioning, and are slow and gradual in their movement ; they take aid from the other faculties, those of the instinctus naturalis being always the final test. Herbert's categories or questions to be used in investigation are ten in number whether (a thing is), what, of what sort, how much, in what relation, how, when, where, whence, wherefore. No faculty, rightly used, can err "even in dreams"; badly exercised, reasoning becomes the source of almost all our errors. The discussion of the notitiae com- munes is the most characteristic part of the book. The exposition of them, though highly dogmatic, is at times strikingly Kantian in substance. " So far are these elements or sacred principles from being derived from experience or observation that without some of them, or at least some one of them, we can neither experience nor even observe." Unless we felt driven by them to explore the nature of things, " it would never occur to us to distinguish one thing from another." It cannot be said that Herbert proves the existence of the common notions ; he does not deduce them or even give any list of them. But each faculty has its common notion; and they may be distinguished by six marks, their priority, inde- pendence, universality, certainty, necessity (for the well-being of man), and immediacy. Law is based on certain common notions; so is religion. Though Herbert expressly defines the scope of his book as dealing with the intellect, not faith, it is the common notions of religion he has illustrated most fully; and it is plain that it is in this part of his system that he is chiefly interested. The common notions of religion are the famous five articles, which became the charter of the English deists (see DEISM). There is little polemic against the received form of Christianity, but Herbert's attitude towards the Church's doctrine is distinctly negative, and he denies revelation except to the individual soul. In the De religione gentilium (completed 1645, published Amsterdam, 1663, translated into English by W. Lewis, London, 1705) he gives what may be called, in Hume's words, "a natural history of religion." By examining the heathen religions Herbert finds, to his great delight, the uni- versality of his five great articles, and that these are clearly recogniz- able under their absurdities as they are under the rites, ceremonies and polytheism invented by sacerdotal superstition. The same vein is maintained in the tracts De cansis errorum, an unfinished work on logical fallacies, Religio laid, and Ad sacerdotes de religione laid (1645). In the De veritate Herbert produced the first purely metaphysical treatise written by an Englishman, and in the De religione gentilium one of the earliest studies extant in comparative theology; while both his metaphysical speculations and his religious views are throughout distinguished by the highest originality and provoked considerable controversy. His achievements in histori- cal writing are vastly inferior, and vitiated by personal aims and his preoccupation to gain the royal favour. Herbert's first historical work is the Expeditio Buckinghami duds (published in a Latin translation in 1656 and in the original English by the earl of Powis for the Philobiblon Society in 1860), a defence of Buckingham's conduct of the ill-fated expedition of 1627. The Life and Raigne of King Henry VIII. (1649) derives its chief value from its com- position from original documents, but is ill-proportioned, and the author judges the character and statesmanship of Henry with too obvious a partiality. His poems, published in 1665 (reprinted and edited by J. Churton Collins in 1881), show him in general a faithful disciple of Donne, obscure and uncouth. His satires are miserable compositions, but a few of his lyrical verses show power of reflection and true inspira- tion, while his use of the metre afterwards employed by Tennyson in his " In Memoriam " is particularly happy and effective. His Latin poems are evidence of his scholarship. Three of these had appeared together with the De causis errorum in 1645. To these works must be added A Dialogue between a Tutor and a Pupil (1768; a treatise on education, MS. in the Bodleian Library); a treatise on the king's supremacy in the Church (MS. in the Record Office and at Queen's College, Oxford), and his well-known auto- biography, first published by Horace Walpole in 1764, a naive and amusing narrative, too much occupied, however, with his duels and amorous adventures, to the exclusion of more creditable incidents in his career, such as his contributions to philosophy and history, his intimacy with Donne, Ben Jonson, Selden and Carew, Casaubon, Gassendi and Grotius, or his embassy in France, in relation to which he only described the splendour of his retinue and his social triumphs. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The autobiography edited by Sidney Lee with correspondence from add. MSS. 7082 (1886); article in the Diet, of Nat. Biog. by the same writer and the list of authorities there collated; Hist. MSS. Comm. Rep. x. app. iv., 378; Lord Herbert de Cherbury, by Charles de Remusat (1874); Eduard, Lord Herbert von Cherbury, by C. Guttler (a criticism of his philosophy; 1897); Collections Historical and Archaeological relating to Montgomery- shire, vols. vii., xi., xx.; R. Warner's Epistolary Curiosities, i. ser. ; Reid's works, edited by Sir William Hamilton; National Review, xxxv. 661 (Leslie Stephen) ; Locke's Essay on Human Understand- ing; Wood, Alh. Oxon. (Bliss), iii. 239; Gentleman's Magazine (1816), i. 201 (print of remains of his birthplace); Lord Herbert's Poems, ed. by J. Churton Collins (1881) ; Aubrey's Lives of Eminent Men ; also works quoted under DEISM. HERBERT OF LEA, SIDNEY HERBERT, IST BARON (1810- 1861), English statesman, was the younger son of the nth earl of Pembroke. Educated at Harrow and Oriel, Oxford, he made a reputation at the Oxford Union as a speaker, and entered the House of Commons as Conservative member for a division of Wiltshire in 1832. Under Peel he held minor offices, and in 1845 was included in the cabinet as secretary at war, and again held this office in 1852-1855, being responsible for the War Office during the Crimean difficulties, and in 1859. It was Sidney Herbert who sent Florence Nightingale out to the Crimea, and he led the movement for War Office reform after the war, 342 HERBERTON— HERCULANEUM the hard work entailed causing his breakdown in health, so that in July 1861, having been created a baron, he had to resign office, and died on the 2nd of August 1861. His statue was placed in front of the War Office in Pall Mall. He was succeeded in the title by his eldest son, who later became I3th earl of Pembroke, and the barony is now merged in that earldom; his second son became i4th earl. Another son, the Hon. Michael Herbert (1857-1904), was British Ambassador at Washington in succes- sion to Lord Pauncefote. A life of Lord Herbert by Lord Stanmore was published in 1906. HERBERTON, a mining town of Cardwell county, Queensland, Australia, 55 m. S.W. of Cairns. Pop. (1901) 2806. Tin was discovered in the locality in 1879, and to this mineral the town chiefly owes its prosperity, though copper, bismuth and some silver and gold are also found. Atherton, 12 m. from the town, is served by rail from Cairns, which is the port for the Herberton district. HERCULANEUM, an ancient city of Italy, situated about two-thirds of a mile from the Portici station of the railway from Naples to Pompeii. The ruins are less frequently visited than those of Pompeii, not only because they are smaller in extent and of less obvious interest, but also because they are more difficult of access. The history of their discovery and explora- tion, and the artistic and literary relics which they have yielded, are worthy, however, of particular notice. The small part of the city, which was investigated at the spot called Gli scavi nuovi (the new excavations) was discovered in the 1 9th century. But the more important works were executed in the i8th century; and of the buildings then explored at a great depth, by means of tunnels, none is visible except the theatre, the orchestra of which lies 85 ft. below the surface. The brief notices of the classical writers inform us that Hercu- laneum1 was a small city of Campania between Neapolis and Pompeii, that it was situated between two streams at the foot of Vesuvius on a hill overlooking the sea, and that its harbour was at all seasons safe. With regard to its earlier history nothing is known. The account given by Dionysius repeats a tradition which was most natural for a city bearing the name of Hercules. Strabo follows up the topographical data with a few brief historical statements — "Oencoi (l\ov Kal ravrriv Kal rriv* £<£e£ijs HonTnjiav . . . (ITO. Tvpprjvol Kai IIeXatr7oi, utra TO.VTO. ZawTrai. But leaving the questions suggested by these names (see ETRURIA, &c.),2 as well as those which relate to the origin of Pompeii (po tKKtiiikvriv «is TI)I> OAXaTTav (jipav %Xovi KaraTfvtbfj,€vov At/3t 0aujua$ £306* vyi€ivr)v irotftv rj\v KaroiKlav. Dionysius of Halicarnassus relates that Heracles, in the place where he stopped with his fleet on the return voyage from Iberia, founded a little city (vo\lxyrtv), to which he gave his own name; and he adds that this city was in his time inhabited by the Romans, and that, situated between Neapolis and Pompeii, it had Xt^tcpas tv travrl /3t/3cucus (i. 44). 2 See also Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, i. 76, and Mpmmsen, Die unteritalischen Dialekte (1850), p. 314; for later discussions see OSCA LINGUA, PELAGIANS. family of Calpurnius Piso. By means of the Via Campana it had easy communication north-westward with Neapolis, Puteoli and Capua, and thence by the Via Appia with Rome; and southwards with Pompeii and Nuceria, and thence with Lucania and the Bruttii. In the year A.D. 63 it suffered terribly from the earthquake which, according to Seneca, " Campaniam nunquam securam huius mali, indemnem tamen, et toties defunctam metu magna strage vastavit. Nam et Herculanensis oppidi pars ruit dubieque slant etiam quae relicta sunt " (Nat. quaest.vi. i). Hardly had Herculaneum completed the restora- tion of some of its principal buildings (cf. Mommsen, I.N. n. 2384; Catalogo del Museo Nazionale di Napoli, n. 1151) when it fell beneath the great eruption of the year 79, described by Pliny the younger (Ep. vi. 16, 20), in which Pompeii also was destroyed, with other flourishing cities of Campania. According to the commonest account, on the 23rd of August of that year Pliny the elder, who had command of the Roman fleet at Misenum, set out to render assistance to a young lady of noble family named Rectina and others dwelling on that coast, but, as there was no escape by sea, the little harbour having been on a sudden filled up so as to be inaccessible, he was obliged to abandon to their fate those people of Herculaneum who had managed to flee from their houses, overwhelmed in a moment by the material poured forth by Vesuvius. But the text of Pliny the younger, where this account is given, has been subjected to various interpreta- tions; and from the comparison of other classical testimonies and the study of the excavations it has been concluded that it is impossible to determine the date of the catastrophe, though there are satisfactory arguments to justify the statement that the event took place in the autumn. The opinion that immedi- ately after the first outbreak of Vesuvius a torrent of lava was ejected over Herculaneum was refuted by the scholars of the i8th century, and their refutation is confirmed by Beule (Le Drame du Vfsuve, p. 240 seq.). And the last recensions of the passage quoted from Pliny, aided by an inscription,3 prove that Rectina cannot have been the name of the harbour described by Beule (ib. pp. 122, 247), but the name of a lady who had implored succour, the wife of Caesius Bassus, or rather Tascius (cf. Pliny, ed. Keil, Leipzig, 1870; Aulus Persius, ed. Jahn, Sat. vi.). The shore, moreover, according to the accurate studies of the engineer Michele Ruggiero, director of the excavations, was not altered by the causes adduced by Beule (p. 125), but by a simpler event. " It is certain," he says (Pompei e la regione sotterrata dal Vesuvio I'anno 79, Naples, 1879, p. 21 seq.), " that the districts between the south and west, and those between the south and east, were overwhelmed in two quite different ways. From Torre Annunziata (which is believed to be the site of the ancient Oplontii) to San Giovanni a Teduccio, for a distance of about 9 m., there flowed a muddy eruption which in Herculaneum and the neighbouring places, where it was most abundant, raised the level of the country more than 65 ft. The matter transported consisted of soil of various kinds — sand, ashes, fragments of lava, pozzolana and whitish pumice, enclosing grains of uncalcined lime, similar in every respect to those of Pompeii. In the part of Herculaneum already excavated the corridors in the upper portions of the theatre are compactly filled, up to the head of the arches, with pozzolana and pumice transformed into tufa (which proves that the formation of this stone may take place in a comparatively short time). Tufa is also found in the lowest part of the city towards the sea in front of the few houses that have been discovered; and in the very high banks that surround them, as also in the lowest part of the theatre, there are plainly to be seen earth, sand, ashes, fragments * C.I.L. ii. No. 3866. This Spanish inscription refers to a Rectina who died at the age of 18 and was the wife of Voconius Romanus. It is quite possible that she was the Rectina whom Pliny the elder wished to assist during the disaster of Vesuvius, for her husband, Voconius Romanus, was an intimate friend of Pliny the younger. The latter addressed four letters to Voconius (i. 5, ii. I, iii. 13, ix. 28), in another letter commended him to the emperor Trajan (x. 3), and in another (ii. 13) says of him: " Hunc ego cum simul studere- mus arte familiariterque dilexi; [lie meus in urbe, ille in secessu contubernalis ; cum hoc seria et jocos miscui." HERCULANEUM 343 of lava and pumice, with little distinction of strata, almost always confused and mingled together, and varying from spot to spot in degree of compactness. It is clear that this immense congeries of earth and stones could not flow in a dry state over those 5 m. of country (in the beginning very steep, and at intervals almost level), where certainly it would have been arrested and all accumulated in a mound; but it must have been borne along by a great quantity of water, the effects of which may be distinctly recognized, not only in the filling and choking up even of the most narrow, intricate and remote parts of the buildings, but also in the formation of the tufa, in which water has so great a share; for it cannot be supposed that enough of it has filtered through so great a depth of earth. The torrent ran in a few hours to the sea, and formed that shallow or lagoon called by Pliny Subilum Vadum, which prevented the ships approaching the shores." Hence it is that, while many made their escape from Pompeii (which was overwhelmed by the fall of the small stones and afterwards by the rain of ashes), comparatively few can have managed to escape from Hercu- laneum, and these, according to the interpretation given to the inscription preserved in the National Museum (Mommsen, I.N. n. 2455), found shelter in the neighbouring city of Neapolis, where they inhabited a quarter called that of the buried city (Suetonius, Titus, 8; C.I.L. x. No. 1492, in Naples: " Regio primaria splendidissima Herculanensium "). The name of Herculaneum, which for some time remained attached to the site of the disaster, is mentioned in the later itineraries; but in the course of the middle ages all recollection of it perished. In 1719, while Prince Elbeuf of the house of Lorraine, in command of the armies of Charles VI., was seeking crushed marble to make plaster for his new villa near Portici, he learned from the peasants that there were in the vicinity some pits from which they not only quarried excellent marble, but had extracted many statues in the course of years (see Jorio, Notizia degli scavi d' Ercolano, Naples, 1827). In 1738, while Colonel D. Rocco de Alcubierre was directing the works for the construction of the " Reali Delizie " at Portici, he received orders from Charles IV. (later, Charles III. of Spain) to begin excavations on the spot where it had been reported to the king that the Elbeuf statues had been found. At first it was believed that a temple was being explored, but afterwards the inscriptions proved that the building was a theatre. This discovery excited the greatest commotion among the scholars of all nations; and many of them hastened to Naples to see the marvellous statues of the Balbi and the paintings on the walls. But everything was kept private, as the government wished to reserve to itself the right of illustrating the monuments. First of all Monsignor Bayardi was brought from Rome and commissioned to write about the antiquities which were being collected in the museum at Portici under the care of Camillo Paderni, and when it was recognized that the prelate had not suffi- cient learning, and by the progress of the excavations other most abundant material was accumulated, about which at once scholars and courtiers were anxious to be informed, Bernardo Tanucci, having become secretary of state in 1755, founded the Accademia Ercolanese, which published the principal works on Herculaneum (Le Pilture ed i bronzi d' Ercolano, 8 vols., 1757, 1792; Disserta- tionis isagogicae ad Herculanensium voluminum explanationem pars prima, 1797). The criterion which guided the studies of the academicians was far from being worthy of unqualified praise, and consequently their work did not always meet the approval of the best scholars who had the opportunity of seeing the monuments. Among these was Winckelmann, who in his letters gave ample notices of the excavations and the antiquities which he was able to visit on several occasions. Other notices were furnished by Gori, Symbolae litterariae Florentinae (1748, 1751), by Marcello Venuti, Descrizione delle prime scoperte d' Ercolano (Rome, 1 748) , and Scipione Maffei, Tre lettere intorno alle scoperte d' Ercolano (Verona, 1748). The excavations, which continued for more than forty years (1738- 1780), were executed at first under the immediate direction of Alcubierre (1738-1741), and then with the assistance of the engineers Rorro and Bardet (1741-1745), Carl Weber (1750-1764), and Francesco La Vega. After the death of Alcubierre (1780) the last-named was appointed director-in-chief of the excayations; but from that time the investigations at Herculaneum were intermitted, and the researches at Pompeii were vigorously carried on. Resumed in 1827, the excavations at Herculaneum were shortly after sus- pended, nor were the new attempts made in 1866 with the money bestowed by King Victor Emmanuel attended with success, being impeded by the many dangers arising from the houses built overhead. The meagreness of the results obtained by the occasional works executed m the last century, and the fact that the investigators were unfortunate enough to strike upon places already explored, gave rise to the opinion that the whole area of the city had been crossed by tunnels in the time of Charles III. and in the beginning of the reign of Ferdinand IV. And although it is recognized that the works had not been prosecuted with the caution that they required, yet in view of the serious difficulties that would attend the collection of the little that had been left by the first excavators, every proposal for new investigations has been abandoned. But in a memoir which Professor Barnabei read in the Reale Accademia dei Lincei (Atti delta R. Ac. series iii. vol. ii. p. 751) he undertook to prove that the researches made by the government in the 1 8th century did not cover any great area. The antiquities excavated at Herculaneum in that century (i.e. the l8th) form a collection of the highest scientific and artistic value. They come partly from the buildings of the ancient city (theatre, basilica, houses and forum), and partly from the private villa of a great Roman famijy (cf. Comparetti and de Petra, La Villa Ercolanese dei Pisoni, Turin, 1883). From the city come, among many other marble statues, the two equestrian statues of the Balbi (Museo Borbonico, vol. ii. pi. xxxviii.-xxxix.), and the great imperial and municipal bronze statues. Mural paintings of extra- ordinary beauty were also discovered here, such as those that repre- sent Theseus after the slaughter of the Minotaur (Helbig, Wandge- malde, Leipzig, 1878, No. 1214), Chiron teaching Achilles the art of playing on the lyre (ibid. No. 1291), and Hercules finding Telephus who is being suckled by the hind (ibid. No. 1 143). Notwithstanding subsequent discoveries of stupendous paintings in the gardens of the Villa Farnesina on the banks of the Tiber, the monochromes of Herculaneum remain among the finest specimens of the exquisite taste and consummate skill displayed by the ancient artists. Among the best preserved is Leto and Niobe, which has been the subject of so many studies and so many publications (ibid. No. 1706). There is also a considerable number of lapidary inscrip- tions edited in vol. ii. of the epigraphic collection of the Cat. del Mus. Naz. di Napoli. The Villa Suburbana has given us a good number of marble busts, and the so-called statue of Aristides, but above all that splendid collection of bronze statues and busts mostly reproductions of famous Greek works now to be found in the Naples Museum. It is thence that we have obtained the reposing Hermes, the drunken Silenus, the sleeping Faunus, the dancing girls, the bust called Plato's, that believed to be Seneca's, the two quoit- throwers or discoboli, and so many masterpieces more, figured by the academicians in their volume on the bronzes. But a still further discovery made in the Villa Suburbana contributed to magnify the greatness of Herculaneum; within its walls was found the famous library, of which, counting both entire and fragmentary volumes, 1 803 papyri are preserved. Among the nations which took the greatest interest in the discovery of the Herculaneum library, the most honourable rank belongs to England, which sent Hayter and other scholars to Naples to solicit the publication of the volumes. Of the 341 papyri which have been unrolled, 195 have been published (Herculanensium voluminum quae supersunt (Naples, 1793-1809); Collectio_ altera, 1862-1876). They contain works by Epicurus, Demetrius, Polystratus, Colotes, Chrysippus, Carniscus and Philo- demus. The names of the authors are in themselves sufficient to show that the library belonged to a person whose principal study was the Epicurean philosophy. But of the great master of this school only a few works have been found. Of his treatise Hipl y k/ " I ' i Le . f j • 1 ; \l v II • Plan of ,: Villa Ercolanese, Herculaneum I Main Entrance II Impluvium III Bath IV Principal Hall V Garden VI pond VII Belvedere villa, giving the plan executed by Weber and recovered by chance by the director of excavations, Michele Ruggiero. This plan, which is here reproduced from de Petra * is the only satisfactory document for the topography of Herculaneum; for the plan of the theatre published in the Bullettino archeologico italiano (Naples, 1861, i. p. 53, tab. iii.) was executed in 1747, when the excavations were not completed. And even for the history of the " finds " made in the Villa Suburbana the necessity for further studies makes itself felt, since there is a lack of agreement between the accounts given by Alcubierre and Weber and those communicated to the Philosophical Transactions (London, vol. x.) by Camillo Paderni, conservator of the Portici Museum. Among the older works relating to Herculaneum, in addition to those already quoted, may be mentioned de Brosses, Lettre sur I'etat actuel de la ville souterraine d'Heradea (Paris, 1750); Seigneux de Correvon, Lettre sur la decouyerte de I'ancienne mile d'Herculane (Yverdon, 1770); David, Les Antiquites d' Herculaneum (Paris, 1780); D' Ancora Gaetano, Frospetto stprico-fisico degli scan d' Ercolano e di Pompei (Naples, 1803) ; Venuti, Prime Scoverte di Ercolano (Rome, 1748); and Romanelli, Viaggio ad Ercolano (Naples, 1811). A full list will be found in vol. i. of Museo Borbonico (Naples, 1824), pp. i-i i. The most important reference work is C. Waldstein and L. Shoo- bridge, Herculaneum, Past, Present and Future (London, 1908); it contains full references to the history and the explorations, and to the buildings and objects found (with illustrations). Miss E. R. Barker's Buried Herculaneum (1908) is exceedingly useful. In 1904 Professor Waldstein expounded both in Europe and in America an international scheme for thorough investigation of the site. Negotiations of a highly complex character ensued with the Italian government, which ultimately in 1908 decided that the work should be undertaken by Italian scholars with Italian funds. The work was begun in the autumn of 1908, but financial difficulties with property owners in Resina immediately arose with the result that progress was practically stopped. (F. B.) HERCULANO DE CARVALHO E ARAUJO, ALEXANDRE (1810-1877), Portuguese historian, was born in Lisbon of humble stock, his grandfather having been a foreman stonemason in the royal employ. He received his early education, comprising Latin, logic and rhetoric, at the Necessidades Monastery, and spent a year at the Royal Marine Academy studying mathematics with the intention of entering on a commercial career. In 1828 Portugal fell under the absolute rule of D. Miguel, and Herculano, becoming involved in the unsuccessful military pronunciamento of August 1831, had to leave Portugal clandestinely and take refuge in England and France. In 1832 he accompanied the Liberal expedition to Terceira as a volunteer, and was one of D. Pedro's famous army of 7500 men who landed at the Mindello and occupied Oporto. He took part in all the actions of the great siege, and at the same time served as a librarian in the city archives. He published his first volume of verses, A Voz de Propheta, in 1832, and two years later another entitled A Harpa do Crente. Privation had made a man of him, and in these little books he proves himself a poet of deep feeling and consider- able power of expression. The stirring incidents in the political emancipation of Portugal inspired his muse, and he describes the bitterness of exile, the adventurous expedition to Terceira, the heroic defence of Oporto, and the final combats of liberty. In 1837 he founded the Panorama in imitation of the English Penny Magazine, and there and in Illustra^do he published the historical tales which were afterwards collected into Lendas e Narratives; in the same year he became royal librarian at the Ajuda Palace, which enabled him to continue his studies of the past. The Panorama had a large circulation and in- fluence, and Herculano's biographical sketches of great men and his articles of literary and historical criticism did much to educate the middle class by acquainting them with the story of their nation, and with the progress of knowledge and the state of letters in foreign countries. On entering parliament in 1840 he resigned the editorship to devote himself to history, but he still remained its most important contributor. Up to the age of twenty-five Herculano had been a poet, but he then abandoned poetry to Garrett, and after several essays in that direction he definitely introduced the historical novel into Portugal in 1844 by a book written in imitation of Walter Scott. Eurico treats of the fall of the Visigothic monarchy and the beginnings of resistance in the Asturias which gave 1 The diagram shows the arrangement and proportions of the Villa Ercolanese. The dotted lines show the course taken by the excava- tions, which began at the lower part of the plan. HERCULES 345 fcirth to the Christian kingdoms of the Peninsula, while the Monge de Cister, published in 1848, describes the time of King John I., when the middle class and the municipalities first asserted their power and elected a king in opposition to the nobility. From an artistic standpoint, these stories are rather laboured productions, besides being ultra-romantic in tone; but it must be remembered that they were written mainly with an educational object, and, moreover, they deserve high praise for their style. Herculano had greater book learning than Scott, but lacked descriptive talent and skill in dialogue. His touch is heavy, and these novels show no dramatic power, which accounts for his failure as a playwright, but their influence was as great as their followers were many, and they still find readers. These and editions of two old chronicles, the Chronica de D. Sebastiao (1839) and the Annaes del rei D. Joao III (1844), prepared Herculano for his life's work, and the year 1846 saw the first volume of his History of Portugal from the Beginning of the Monarchy to the end of the Reign of Ajfonso III., a book written on critical lines and based on documents. The difficulties he encountered in producing it were very great, for the founda- tions had been ill-prepared by his predecessors, and he was obliged to be artisan and architect at the same time. He had to collect MSS. from all parts of Portugal, decipher, classify and weigh them before he could begin work, and then he found it necessary to break with precedents and destroy traditions. Serious students in Portugal and abroad welcomed the book as an historical work of the first rank, for its evidence of careful research, its able marshalling of facts, its learning and its painful accuracy, while the sculptural simplicity of the style and the correctness of the diction have made it a Portuguese classic. The first volume, however, gave rise to a celebrated controversy, because Herculano had reduced the famous battle of Ourique, which was supposed to have seen the birth of the Portuguese monarchy, to the dimensions of a mere skirmish, and denied the apparition of Christ to King Affonso, a fable first circulated in the i sth century. Herculano was denounced from the pulpit and the press for his lack of patriotism and piety, and after bearing the attack for some time his pride drove him to reply. In a letter to the cardinal patriarch of Lisbon entitled Eu e o Clero (1850), he denounced the fanaticism and ignorance of the clergy in plain terms, and this provoked a fierce pamphlet war marked by much personal abuse. The professor of Arabic in Lisbon intervened to sustain the accepted view of the battle, and charged Herculano and his supporter Gayangos with ignorance of the Arab historians and of their language. The conduct of the controversy, which, lasted some years, did credit to none of the contending parties, but Herculano's statement of the facts is now universally accepted as correct. The second volume of his history appeared in 1847, the third in 1849 and the fourth in 1853. In his youth, the excesses of absolutism had made Herculano a Liberal, and the attacks on his history turned this man, full of sentiment and deep religious conviction, into an anti-clerical who began to distinguish between political Catho- licism and Christianity. His History of the Origin and Establish- ment of the Inquisition (1854-1855), relating the thirty years' struggle between King John III. and the Jews — he to establish the tribunal and they to prevent him— was compiled, as the preface showed, to stem the Ultramontane reaction, but none the less carried weight because it was a recital of events with little or no comment or evidence of passion in its author. Next to these two books his study, Do Eslado das classes servas na Peninsula desde o VII. ate o XII. seculo, is Herculano's most valuable contribution to history. In 1856 he began editing a series of Portugalliae monumenta historica, but personal differ- ences between him and the keeper of the Archive office, which he was forced to frequent, caused him to interrupt his historical studies, and on the death of his friend King Pedro V. he left the Ajuda and retired to a country house near Santarem. Disillusioned with men and despairing of the future of his country, he spent the rest of his life devoted to agricultural pursuits, and rarely emerged from his retirement; when he did so, it was to fight political and religious reaction. Once he lad defended the monastic orders, advocating their reform and not their suppression, supported the rural clergy and idealized the village priest in his Parocho da Aldeia, after the manner of Goldsmith in the Vicar of Wakefield. Unfortunately, however, the brilliant epoch of the alliance of Liberalism and Catholicism, represented on its literary side by Chateaubriand and byLamar- tine, to whose poetic school Herculano had belonged, was past, and fanatical attacks and the progress of events drove this Former champion of the Church into conflict with the ecclesiastical authorities. His protest against the Concordat of the zist of February 1857 between Portugal and the Holy See, regulating the Portuguese Padroado in the East, his successful opposition to the entry of foreign religious orders, and his advocacy of civil marriage, were the chief landmarks in his battle with Ultra- montanism, and his Esludos sobre o Casamento Civil were put on the Index. Finally in 1871 he attacked the dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and papal infallibility, and fell into line with the Old Catholics. In the domain of letters he remained until his death a veritable pontiff, and an article or book of his was an event celebrated from one end of Portugal to the other. The nation continued to look up to him for mental leadership, but, in his later years, lacking hope himself, he could not stimulate others or use to advantage the powers conferred upon him. In politics he remained a constitutional Liberal of the old type, and for him the people were the middle classes in opposition to the lower, which he saw to have been the supporters of tyranny in all ages, while he considered Radicalism to mean a return via anarchy to absolutism. However, though he conducted a political propaganda in the newspaper press in his early days, Herculano never exercised much influence in politics. Grave as most of his writings are, they include a short description of a crossing from Jersey to Granville, in which he satirizes English character and customs, and reveals an unexpected sense of humour. A rare capacity for tedious work, a dour Catonian rectitude, a passion for truth, pride, irritability at criticism and independence of character, are the marks of Herculano as a man. He could be broken but never bent, and his rude frankness accorded with his hard, sombre face, and alienated men's sympathies though it did not lose him their respect. His lyrism is vigorous, feeling, austere and almost entirely subjective and personal, while his pamphlets are distinguished by energy of conviction, strength of affirmation, and contempt for weaker and more ignorant opponents. His History of Portugal is a great but incomplete monument. A lack of imagination and of the philosophic spirit prevented him from penetrating or drawing characters, but his analytical gift, joined to persevering toil and honesty of purpose enabled him to present a faithful account of ascertained facts and a satisfactory and lucid explanation of political and economic events. His remains lie in a majestic tomb in the Jeronymos at Belem, near Lisbon, which was raised by public subscription to the greatest modern historian of Portugal and of the Peninsula. His more important works have gone through many editions and his name is still one to conjure with. . AUTHORITIES. — Antonio de Serpa Pimentel, Alexandre Herculano e o sen tempo (Lisbon, 1881); A. Romero Ortiz, La Litteratura Portuguesa en el siglo XIX. (Madrid, 1869); Moniz Barreto, Revista de Portugal (July 1889). (E. PR.) HERCULES (0. Lat. Hercoles, Hercles), the latinized form of the mythical Heracles, the chief national hero of Hellas. The name 'HpaicXrjsC'Hpa, and xXeos = glory) is explained as " re- nowned through Hera " (i.e. in consequence of her persecution) or " the glory of Hera " i.e. of Argos. The thoroughly national character of Heracles is shown by his being the mythical ancestor of the Dorian dynastic tribe, while revered by Ionian Athens, Lelegian Opus and Aeolo-Phoenician Thebes, and closely associated with the Achaean heroes Peleus and Telamon. The Perseid Alcmena, wife of Amphitryon of Tiryns, was Hercules' mother, Zeus his father. After his father he is often called Amphitryoniades, and also Alcides, after the Perseid Alcaeus, father of Amphitryon. His mother and her husband lived at Thebes in exile as guests of King Creon. By the craft of Hera, 34-6 HERCULES his foe through life, his birth was delayed, and that of Eurystheus, son of Sthenelus of Argos, hastened, Zeus having in effect sworn that the elder of the two should rule the realm of Perseus. Hera sent two serpents to destory the new-born Hercules, but he strangled them. He was trained in all manly accomplishments by heroes of the highest renown in each, until in a transport of anger at a reprimand he slew Linus, his instructor in music, with the lyre. Thereupon he was sent to tend Amphitryon's oxen, and at this period slew the lion of Mount Cithaeron. By freeing Thebes from paying tribute to the Minyansof Orchomenus he won Creon's daughter, Megara, to wife. Her children by him he killed in a frenzy induced by Hera. After purification he was sent by the Pythia to serve Eurystheus. Thus began the cycle of the twelve labours. 1. Wrestling with the Neraean lion. 2. Destruction of the Lernean hydra. 3. Capture of the Arcadian hind (a stag in art). 4. Capture of the boar of Erymanthus, while chasing which he fought the Centaurs and killed his friends Chiron and Pholus, this homicide leading to Demeter's institution of mysteries. 5. Cleansing of the stables of Augeas. 6. Shooting the Stymphalian birds. 7. Capture of the Cretan bull subsequently slain by Theseus at Marathon. 8. Capture of the man-eating mares of the Thracian Diomedes. 9. Seizure of the girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons. 10. Bringing the oxen of Geryones from Erythia in the far west, which errand involved many adventures in the coast lands of the Mediterranean, and the setting up of the " Pillars of Hercules " at the Straits of Gibraltar. 11. Bringing the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides. 12. Carrying Cerberus from Hades to the upper world. Most of the labours lead to various adventures called wapepya. On Hercules' return to Thebes he gave his wife Megara to his friend and charioteer lolaus, son of Iphicles, and by beating Eurytus of Oechalia and his sons in a shooting match won a claim to the hand of his daughter lole, whose family, however, except her brother Iphitus, withheld their consent to the union. Iphitus persuaded Hercules to search for Eurytus' lost oxen, but was killed by him at Tiryns in a frenzy. He consulted the Pythia about a cure for the consequent madness, but she declined to answer him. Whereupon he seized the oracular tripod, and so entered upon a contest with Apollo, which Zeus stopped by sending a flash of lightning between the combatants. The Pythia then sent him to serve the Lydian queen Omphale. He then, with Telamon, Peleus and Theseus, took Troy. He next helped the gods in the great battle against the giants. He destroyed sundry sea-monsters, set free the bound Prometheus, took part in the Argonautic voyage and the Calydonian boar hunt, made war against Augeas, and against Nestor and the Pylians, and restored Tyndareus to the sovereignty of Lacedae- mon. He sustained many single combats, one very famous struggle being the wrestling with the Libyan Antaeus, son of Poseidon and Ge (Earth), who had to be held in the air, as he grew stronger every time he touched his mother, Earth. Hercules withstood Ares, Poseidon and Hera, as well as Apollo. The close of his career is assigned to Aetolia and Trachis. He wrestles with Achelous for Deianeira (" destructive to husband "), daughter of Oeneus, king of Calydon, vanquishes the river god, and breaks off one of his horns, which as a horn of plenty is found as an attribute of Hercules in art. Driven from Calydon for homicide, he goes with Deianeira to Trachis. On the way he slays the centaur Nessus, who persuades Deianeira that his blood is a love-charm. From Trachis he wages successful war against the Dryopes and Lapithae as ally of Aegimius, king of the Dorians, who promised him a third of his realm, and after his death adopted Hyllus, his son by Deianeira. Finally Hercules attacks Eurytus, takes Oechalia and carries off lola. Thereupon Deianeira, prompted by love and jealousy, sends him a tunic dipped in the blood of Nessus, and the unsuspecting hero puts it on just before sacrificing at the headland of Cenaeum in Euboea. (So far the dithyramb of Bacchylides xv. [xvi.], agrees with Sophocles' Trachiniae as to the hero's end.) Mad with pain, he seizes Lichas, the messenger who had brought the fatal garment, and hurls him on the rocks; and then he wanders in agony to Mount Oeta, where he mounts a pyre, which, however, no one will kindle. At last Poeas, father of Philoctetes, takes pity on him, and is rewarded with the gift of his bow and arrows. The immortal part of Hercules passes to Olympus, where he is reconciled to Hera and weds her daughter Hebe. This account of the hero's principal labours, exploits and crimes is derived from the mythologists Apollodorus and Diodorus, who probably followed the Heradeia by Peisander of Rhodes as to the twelve labours or that of Panyasis of Halicarnassus, but sundry variations of order and incident are found in classical literature. In one aspect Hercules is clearly a sun-god, being identified, especially in Cyprus and in Thasos (as Makar), with the Tyrian Melkarth. The third and twelfth labours may be solar, the horned hind representing the moon, and the carrying of Cerberus to the upper world an eclipse, while the last episode of the hero's tragedy is possibly a complete solar myth developed at Trachis. The winter sun is seen rising over the Cenaean promontory to toil across to Mount Oeta and disappear over it in a bank of fiery cloud. But more important and less speculative is the hero's aspect as a national type or an amalgamation of tribal types of physical force, of dauntless effort and endurance, of militant civilization, and of Hellenic enterprise, " stronger than everything except his own passions," and " at once above and below the noblest type of man " (Jebb). The fifth labour seems to symbolize some great improvement in the drainage of Elis. Strenuous devotion to the deliverance of mankind from dangers and pests is the " virtue " which, in Prodicus' famous apologue on the Choice of Hercules, the hero preferred to an easy and happy life. Ethically, Hercules symbolizes the attainment of glory and immortality by toil and suffering. The Old-Dorian Hercules is represented in three cycles of myth, the Argive, the Boeotian and the Thessalian; the legends of Arcadia, Aetolia, Lydia, &c., and Italy are either local or symbolical and comparatively late. The fatality by which Hercules kills so many friends as well as foes recalls the destroying Apollo; while his career frequently illustrates the Delphic views on blood-guiltiness and expiation. As Apollo's champion Hercules is Daphnephoros, and fights Cycnus and Amyntor to keep open the sacred way from Tempe to Delphi. As the Dorian tutelar he aids Tyndareus and Aegimius. As patron of maritime adventure (riyftiovios) he struggles with Nereus and Triton, slays Eryx and Busiris, and perhaps captures the wild horses and oxen, which may stand for pirates. As a god of athletes he is often a wrestler (iraXai^coi') , and founds the Olympian games. In comedy and occasionally in myths he is depicted as voracious (/3ou<£d7oj). He is also represented as the com- panion of Dionysus, especially in Asia Minor. The " Resting " (avaTravonevos) Hercules is, as at Thermopylae and near Himera, the natural tutelar of hot springs in conjunction with his protectress Athena, who is usually depicted attending him on ancient vases. The glorified Hercules was worshipped both as a god and a hero. In the Attic deme Melita he was invoked as dXe£tKo.Kos ("Helper in ills"), at Olympia as KaXXw/cos (" Nobly-victorious "), in the rustic worship of the Oetaeans as Kopvoviuv (Kopvoices, " locusts "), by the Erythraeans of Ionia as ITTOKTOVOS (" Canker-worm-slayer "). He was oxorijp (" Saviour "), i.e. a protector of voyagers, at Thasos and Smyrna. Games in his honour were held at Thebes and Marathon and annual festivals in every deme of Attica, in Sicyon and Agyrium (Sicily). His guardian goddess was Athena (Homer, //. viii. 638; Bacchylides v. 91 f.). In early poetry, as often in art, he is an archer, afterwards a club-wielder and fully- armed warrior. In early art the adult Hercules, is bearded, but not long-haired. Later he is sometimes youthful and beard- less, always with short curly hair and thick neck, the lower part of the brow prominent. A lion's skin is generally worn or carried. Lysippus worked out the finest type of sculptured Hercules, of which the Farnese by Glycon is a grand specimen. The infantine struggle with serpents was a favourite subject. Quite distinct was the Idaean Hercules, a Cretan Dactyl con- nected with the cult of Rhea or Cybele. The Greeks recognized HERCULES— HERDER 347 Hercules in an Egyptian deity Chons and an Indian Dorsanes, not to mention personages of other mythologies. Hercules is supposed to have visited Italy on his return from Erythia, when he slew Cacus, son of Vulcan, the giant of the Aventine mount of Rome, who had stolen his oxen. To this victory was assigned the founding of the Ara maxima by Evander. His worship, introduced from the Greek colonies in Etruria and in the south of Italy, seems to have been established in Rome from the earliest times, as two old Patrician genles were associated with his cult and the Fabii claimed him as their ancestor. The tithes vowed to him by Romans and men of Sora and Reate, for safety on journeys and voyages, furnished sacrifices and (in Rome) public entertainment (polluctum). Tibur was a special seat of his cult. In Rome he was patron of gladiators, as of athletes in Greece. With respect to the Roman relations of the hero, it is manifest that the native myths of Recaranus, or Sancus, or Dius Fidius, were transferred to the Hellenic Hercules. (C. A. M. F.) See L. Preller, Griechische Mythologie (4th ed., Berlin, 1900) ; W. H. Roscher, Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der griechischen und romischen Mythologie (1884); Sir R. C. Jebb, Trachiniae of Sophocles (Introd.), (1892); Ch. Daremberg and E. Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiyuites grecques el romaines; Br6al, Hercule et Cacus, 1863; J. G. Winter, Myth of Hercules at Rome (New York, 1910). In the article GREEK ART, fig. 16 represents Heracles wrestling with the river-god Achelous; fig. 20 (from a small pediment, possibly of a shrine of the hero) the slaying of the Hydra; fig. 35 Heracles holding up the sky on a cushion. Hercules was a favourite figure in French medieval literature. In the romance of Alexander the tent of the hero is decorated with incidents from his adventures. In the prose romance Les Prouesscs et vaillances du preux Hercule (Paris, 1500), the hero's labours are represented as having been performed in honour of a Boeotian princess; Pluto is a king dwelling in a dismal castle; the Fates are duennas watching Proserpine; the entrance to Pluto's castle is watched by the giant Cerberus. Hercules conquers Spain and takes Merida from Geryon. The book is translated into English as Hercules of Greece (n. d.). Fragments of a French poem on the subject will be found in the Bulletin de la soc. des anciens textes franfais (1877). Don Enrique de Villena took from Les Prouesses his prose Los Doze Trabaips de Hercules (Zamora, 1483 and 1499), and Fernandez de Heredia wrote Trabajos y afanes de Hercules (Madrid, 1682), which belies its title, being a collection of adages and allegories. Le Fatiche d' Ercole (1475) is a romance in poetic prose by Pietro Bassi, and the Dodeci Travagli di Ercole (1544) a poem by J. Perillos. HERCULES, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.) and catalogued by Ptolemy (29 stars) and Tycho Brahe (28 stars). Represented by a man kneeling, this constellation was first known as " the man on his knees," and was afterwards called Cetheus, Theseus and Hercules by the ancient Greeks. Interesting objects in this constellation are: a Herculis, a fine coloured double star, composed of an orange star of magnitude 2|, and a blue star of magnitude 6; f Herculis, a binary star, discovered by Sir William Herschel in 1782; one component is a yellow star of the third magnitude, the other a bluish, which appears to vary from red to blue, of magnitude 6; g and u Herculis, irregularly variable stars; and the cluster M . ij Herculis, the finest globular cluster in the northern hemisphere, containing at least 5000 stars and of the 1000 determined only 2 are variable. HERD (a word common to Teutonic languages; the O. Eng. form was heard; cf. Ger. Herde, Swed. and Dan. hjord; the Sans, ca'rdhas, which shows the pre-Teutonic form, means a troop), a number of animals of one kind driven or fed together, usually applied to cattle as " flock " is to sheep, but used also of whales, porpoises, &c., and of birds, as swans, cranes and curlews. A " herd-book " is a book containing the pedigree and other information of any breed of cattle or pigs, like the " flock-book " for sheep or " stud-book " for horses. Formerly the word " herdwick " was applied to the pasture ground under the care of a shepherd, and it is now used of a special hardy breed of sheep in Cumberland and Westmorland. The word " herd " is also applied in a disparaging sense to a company of people, a mob or rabble, as " the vulgar herd." As the name for a keeper of a herd or flock of domestic animals, the herdsman, it is usually qualified to denote the kind of animal under his protection, as swine-herd, shepherd, &c., but in Ireland, Scotland and the north of England, " herd " alone is commonly used. HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON (1744-1803), one of the most prolific and influential writers that Germany has pro- duced, was born in Mohrungen, a small town in East Prussia, on the 25th of August 1744. Like his contemporary Lessing, Herder had throughout his life to struggle against adverse circumstances. His father was poor, having to put together a subsistence by uniting the humble offices of sexton, choir-singer and petty schoolmaster. After receiving some rudimentary instruction from his father, the boy was sent to the grammar school of his native town. The mode of discipline practised by the pedantic and irritable old man who stood at the head of this institution was not at all to the young student's liking, and the impression made upon him stimulated him later on to work out his projects of school reform. The hardships of his early years drove him to introspection and to solitary communion with nature, and thus favoured a more than proportionate development of the sentimental and poetic side of his mind. When quite young he expressed a wish to become a minister of the gospel, but his aspirations were discouraged by the local clergyman. In 1762, at the age of eighteen, he went up to Konigsberg with the intention of studying medicine, but finding himself unequal to the operations of the dissecting-room, he abandoned this object, and, by the help of one or two friends and his own self-supporting labours, followed out his earlier idea of the clerical profession by joining the university. There he came under the influence of Kant, who was just then passing from physical to metaphysical problems. Without becoming a disciple of Kant, young Herder was deeply stimulated to fresh critical inquiry by that thinker's revolutionary ideas in philo- sophy. To Kant's lectures and conversations he further owed something of his large interest in cosmological and anthropolo- gical problems. Among the writers whom he most carefully read were Plato, Hume, Shaftesbury, Leibnitz, Diderot and Rousseau. Another personal influence under which he fell at Konigsberg, and which was destined to be far more permanent, was that of J. G. Hamann, " the northern Mage." This writer had already won a name, and in young Herder he found a mind well fitted to be the receptacle and vehicle of his new ideas on literature. From this vague, incoherent, yet gifted writer our author acquired some of his strong feeling for the naive element in poetry, and for the earliest developments of national literature. Even before he went to Konigsberg he had begun to compose verses, and at the age of twenty he took up the pen as a chief occupation. His first published writings were occasional poems and reviews contributed to the Konigsbergische Zeitung. Soon after this he got an appointment at Riga, as assistant master at the cathedral school, and a few years later, became assistant pastor. In this busy commercial town, in somewhat improved pecuniary and social circumstances, he developed the main ideas of his writings. In the year 1767 he published his first considerable work Fragmenle uber die neuere deutsche Literatur, which at once made him widely known and secured for him the favourable interest of Lessing. From this time he continued to pour forth a number of critical writings on literature, art, &c. His bold ideas on these subjects, which were a great advance even on Lessing's doctrines, naturally excited hostile criticism, and in consequence of this opposition, which took the form of aspersions on his religious orthodoxy, he resolved to leave Riga. He was much carried away at this time by the idea of a radical reform of social life in Livonia, which (after the example of Rousseau) he thought to effect by means of a better method of school-training. With this plan in view he began (1769) a tour through France, England, Holland, &c., for the purpose of collecting information , respecting their systems of education. It was during the solitude of his voyage to France, when on deck at night, that he first shaped his idea of the genesis of primitive poetry, and of the gradual evolution of humanity. Having received an offer of an appointment as travelling tutor and chap- lain to the young prince of Eutin-Holstein, he abandoned his somewhat visionary scheme of a social reconstruction of a 348 HERDER Russian province. He has, however, left a curious sketch of his projected school reforms. His new duties led him to Strass- burg, where he met the young Goethe, on whose poetical develop- ment he exercised so potent an influence. At Darmstadt he made the acquaintance of Caroline Flachsland, to whom he soon became betrothed, and who for the rest of his life supplied him with that abundance of consolatory sympathy which his sensitive and rather querulous nature appeared to require. The engage- ment as tutor did not prove an agreeable one, and he soon threw it up (1771) in favour of an appointment as court preacher and member of the consistory at Biickeburg. Here he had to encounter bitter opposition from the orthodox clergy and their followers, among whom he was regarded as a freethinker. His health continued poor, and a fistula in the eye, from which he had suffered from early childhood, and to cure which he had undergone a number of painful operations, continued to trouble him. Further, pecuniary difficulties, from which he never long managed to keep himself free, by delaying his marriage, added to his depression. Notwithstanding these trying circum- stances he resumed literary work, which his travels had inter- rupted. For some time he had been greatly interested by the poetry of the north, more particularly Percy's Reliques, the poems of " Ossian " (in the genuineness of which he like many others believed) and the works of Shakespeare. Under the influence of this reading he now finally broke with classicism and became one of the leaders of the new Sturm und Drang movement. He co-operated with a band of young writers at Darmstadt and Frankfort, including Goethe, who in a journal of their own sought to diffuse the new ideas. His marriage took place in 1773. In 1776 he obtained through Goethe's influence the post of general superintendent and court preacher at Weimar, where he passed the rest of his life. There he enjoyed the society of Goethe, Wieland, Jean Paul (who came to Weimar in order to be near Herder), and others, the patronage of the court, with whom as a preacher he was very popular, and an opportunity of carrying out some of his ideas of school reform. Yet the social atmosphere of the place did not suit him. His personal relations with Goethe again and again became embittered. This, added to ill-health, served to intensify a natural irritability of tempera- ment, and the history of his later Weimar days is a rather dreary page in the chronicles of literary life. He had valued more than anything else a teacher's influence over other minds, and as he began to feel that he was losing it he grew jealous of the success of those who nad outgrown this influence. Yet while presenting these unlovely traits, Herder's character was on the whole a worthy and attractive one. This seems to be sufficiently attested by the fact that he was greatly liked and esteemed, not only in the pulpit but in private intercourse, by cultivated women like the countess of Buckeburg, the duchess of Weimar and Frau von Stein, and, what perhaps is more, was exceedingly popular among the gymnasium pupils, in whose education he took so lively an interest. While much that Herder produced after settling in Weimar has little value, he wrote also some of his best works, among others his collection of popular poetry on which he had been engaged for many years, Stimmen der Volker in Liedern (1778-1779); his translation of the Spanish romances of the Cid (1805); his celebrated work on Hebrew poetry, Vom Geist der hebraiscken Poesie (1782-1783); and his opus magnum, the Ideen zur Philosophic der Geschichte der Menschheit (1784-1791). Towards the close of his life he occupied himself, like Lessing, with speculative questions in philosophy and theology. The boldness of some of his ideas cost him some valuable friendships, as that of Jacobi, Lavater and even of his early teacher Hamann. He died on the i8th of December 1803, full of new literary plans up to the very last. Herder's writings were for a long time regarded as of temporary value only, and fell into neglect. Recent criticism, however, has tended very much to raise their value by tracing out their wide and far-reaching influence. His works are very voluminous, and to a large extent fragmentary and devoid of artistic finish; nevertheless they are nearly always worth investigating for the brilliant suggestions in which they abound. His place in German literature has already been indicated in tracing his mental development. Like Lessing, whose work he immediately continued, he was a pioneer of the golden age of this literature. Lessing had given the first impetus to the formation of a national literature by exposing the folly of the current imitation of French writers. But in doing this he did not so much call his fellow-countrymen to develop freely their own national senti- ments and ideas as send them back to classical example and principle. Lessing was the exponent of German classicism; Herder, on the contrary, was a pioneer of the romantic movement. He fought against all imitation as such, and bade German writers be true to themselves and their national antecedents. As a sort of theoretic basis for this adhesion to national type in literature, he conceived the idea that literature and art, together with language and national culture as a whole, are evolved by a natural process, and that the intellectual and emotional life of each people is correlated with peculiarities of physical temperament and of material environment. In this way he became the originator of that genetic or historical method which has since been applied to all human ideas and institutions. Herder was thus an evolutionist, but an evolutionist still under the influence of Rousseau. That is to say, in tracing back the later acquisitions of civilization to impulses which are as old as the dawn of primitive culture, he did not, as the modern evolutionist does, lay stress on the superiority of the later to the earlier stages of human development, but rather became enamoured of the simplicity and spontaneity of those early impulses which, since they are the oldest, easily come to look like the most real and precious. Yet even in this way he helped to found the historical school in literature and science, for it was only after an excessive and sentimental interest in primitive human culture had been awakened that this subject would receive the amount of attention which was requisite for the genetic explanation of later developments. This historical idea was carried by Herder into the regions of poetry, art, religion, language, and finally into human culture as a whole. It colours all his writings, and is intimately connected with some of the most characteristic attributes of his mind, a quick sympathetic imagination, a fine feeling for local differences, and a scientific instinct for seizing the sequences of cause and effect. Herder's works may be arranged in an ascending series, corre- sponding to the way in which the genetic or historical idea was developed and extended. First come the works on poetic literature, art, language and religion as special regions of development. Secondly, we have in the Ideen a general account of the process of human evolution. Thirdly, there are a number of writings which, though inferior in interest to the others, may be said to supply the philosophic basis of his leading ideas. 1. In the region of poetry Herder sought to persuade his country- men, both by example and precept, to return to a natural and spontaneous form of utterance. His own poetry has but little value ; Herder was a skilful verse-maker but hardly a creative poet. He was most successful in his translation of popular song, in which he shows a rare sympathetic insight into the various feelings and ideas of peoples as unlike as Greenlanders and Spaniards, Indians and Scots. In the Fragmente he aims at nationalizing German poetry and freeing it from all extraneous influence. He ridicules the ambi- tion of German writers to be classic, as Lessing had ridiculed their eagerness to be French. He looked at poetry as a kind of " proteus among the people, which changes its form according to language, manners, habits, according to temperament and climate, nay, even according to the accent of different nations." This fact of the idiosyncrasy of national poetry he illustrated with great fulness and richness in the case of Homer, the nature of whose works he was one of the first to elucidate, the Hebrew poets, and the poetry of the north as typified in " Ossian." This same idea of necessary relation to national character and circumstance is also applied to dramatic poetry, and more especially to Shakespeare. Lessing had done much to make Shakespeare known to Germany, but he had regarded him in contrast to the French dramatists with whom he also contrasted the Greek dramatic poets, and accordingly did not bring out his essentially modern and Teutonic character. Herder does this, and in doing so shows a far deeper understanding of Shakespeare's genius than his predecessor had shown. 2. The views on art contained in Herder's Kritische Wdlder (1769), Plastik (1778), &c., are chiefly valuable as a correction of the excesses into which reverence for Greek art had betrayed Winckelmann and Lessing, by help of his fundamental idea of national idiosyncrasy. He argues against the setting up of classic art as an unchanging type, HEREDIA 349 valid for all peoples and all times. He was one of the first to bring to light the characteristic excellences of Gothic art. Beyond this, he eloquently pleaded the cause of painting as a distinct art, whicl Lessing in his desire to mark off the formative arts from poetry am music had confounded with sculpture. He regarded this as the art of the eye, while sculpture was rather the art of the organ of touch Painting being less real than sculpture, because lacking the thirc dimension of space, and a kind of dream, admitted of much greater freedom of treatment than this last. Herder had a genuine apprecia- tion for early German painters, and helped to awaken the modern interest in Albrecht Dilrer. 3. By his work on language Uber den Ursprung der Sprache (1772). Herder may be said to have laid the first rude foundations of the science of comparative philology and that deeper science of the ulti- mate nature and origin of language. It was specially directed against the supposition of a divine communication of language to man Its main argument is that speech is a necessary outcome of thai special arrangement of mental forces which distinguishes man, and more particularly from his habits of reflection. " If," Herder says, " it is incomprehensible to others how a human mind could invent language, it is as incomprehensible to me how a human mind could be what it is without discovering language for itself." The writer does not make that use of the fact of man's superior organic endow- ments which one might expect from his general conception of the relation of the physical and the mental in human development. 4. Herder's services in laying the foundations of a comparative science of religion and mythology are even of greater value than his somewhat crude philological speculations. In opposition to the general spirit of the l8th century he saw, by means of his historic sense, the naturalness of religion, its relation to man's wants and impulses. Thus with respect to early religious beliefs he rejected Hume's notion that religion sprang out of the fears of primitive men, in favour of the theory that it represents the first attempts of our species to explain phenomena. He thus intimately associated religion with mythology and primitive poetry. As to later forms of religion, he appears to have held that they owe their vitality to their embodiment of the deep-seated moral feelings of our common humanity. His high appreciation of Christianity, which contrasts with the contemptuous estimate of the contemporary rationalists, rested on a firm belief in its essential humanity, to which fact, and not to conscious deception, he attributes its success. His exposition of this religion in his sermons and writings was simply an unfolding of its moral side. In his later life, as we shall presently see, he found his way to a speculative basis for his religious beliefs. 5. Herder's masterpiece, the Ideen zur Philosophic der Geschichte, has the ambitious aim of explaining the whole of human development in close connexion with the nature of man's physical environment. Man is viewed as a part of nature, and all his widely differing forms of development as strictly natural processes. It thus stands in sharp contrast to the anthropology of Kant, which opposes human develop- ment conceived as the gradual manifestation of a growing faculty of rational free will to the operations of physical nature. Herder defines human history as " a pure natural history of human powers, actions and propensities, modified by time and place." The Ideen shows us that Herder is an evolutionist after the manner of Leibnitz, and not after that of more modern evolutionists. The lower forms of life prefigure man in unequal degrees of imperfection; they exist for his sake, but they are not regarded as representing necessary antecedent conditions of human existence. The genetic method is applied to varieties of man, not to man as a whole. It is worth noting, however, that Herder in his provokingly tentative way of thinking comes now and again very near ideas made familiar to us by Spencer and Darwin. Thus in a passage in book xv. chap, ii., which unmistakably foreshadows Darwin's idea of a struggle for existence, we read: "Among millions of creatures whatever could preserve jtself abides, and still after the lapse of thousands of years remains in the great harmonious order. Wild animals and tame, carnivorous and graminivorous, insects, birds, fishes and man are adapted to each other." With this may be compared a passage in the Ursprung der Sprache, where there is a curious adumbration of Spencer's idea that intelligence, as distinguished from instinct, arises from a growing complexity of action, or, to use Herder's words, from the substitution of a more for a less contracted sphere. Herder is more successful in tracing the early developments of particular peoples than in con- structing a scientific theory of evolution. Here he may be said to have laid the foundations of the science of primitive culture as a whole. His account of the first dawnings of culture, and of the ruder Oriental civilizations, is marked by genuine insight. On the other hand the development of classic culture is traced with a less skilful hand. Altogether this work is rich in suggestion to the philosophic historian and the anthropologist, though marked by much vagueness of con- ception and hastiness of generalization. 6. Of Herder's properly metaphysical speculations little needs to be said. He was too much under the sway of feeling and concrete imagination to be capable of great things in abstract thought. It is generally admitted that he had no accurate knowledge either of Spinoza, whose monism he advocated, or of Kant, whose critical philosophy he so fiercely attacked. Herder's Spinozism, which is set forth in his little work, Vom Erkennen und Empfinden der menschlichen Seele (1778), is much less logically conceived than Lessing's. It is the religious aspect of it which attracts him, the presentation in God of an object which at once satisfies the feelings and the intellect. With respect to his attacks on the critical philo- sophy in the Metakritik (1799), it is easy to understand how his concrete mind, ever alive to the unity of things, instinctively rebelled against that analytic separation of the mental processes which Kant attempted. However crude and hasty this critical investigation, it helped to direct philosophic reflection to the unity of mind, and so to develop the post-Kantian line of speculation. Herder was much attracted by Schelling's early writings, but appears to have disliked Hegelianism because of the atheism it seemed to him to involve. In the Kalligone (1800), work directed against Kant's Kritik der Urteilskraft, Herder argues for the close connexion of the beautiful and the good. To his mind the content of art, which he conceived as human feeling and human life in its completeness, was much more valuable than the form, and so he was naturally led to emphasize the moral element in art. Thus his theoretic opposition to the Kantian aesthetics is but the reflection of his practical opposition to the form-idolatry of the Weimar poets. (J. S.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.— An edition of Herder's Sdmtliche Werke in 45 vols. was published after his death by his widow (1805-1820); a second in 60 vols. followed in 1827-1830; a third in 40 vols. in 1852- 1854. There is also an edition by H. Duntzer (24 vols., 1869-1879). But these have all been superseded by the monumental critical edition by B. Suphan (32 vols., 1877 sqq.). Of the many " selected works," mention may be made of those by B. Suphan (4 vols., 1884-1887); by H. Lambel, H. Meyer and E. Kuhnemann in Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur (10 vols., 1885-1894). For Herder's correspondence, see Aus Herders Nachlass (3 vols., 1856-1857), Herders Reise nach Ilalien (1859), Von und an Herder: Ungedruckte Briefe (3 vols., 1861-1862) — all three works edited by H. Duntzer and F. G. von Herder. Herder's Briejwechsel mil Nicolai and his Briefe an Hamann have been edited by O. Hoffmann (1887 and 1889). For biography and criticism, see Erinnerungen aus dem Leben Herders, by his wife, edited by J. G. Muller (2 vols., 1820) ; J. G. von Herders Lebensbild (with his correspondence), by his son, E. G. von Herder (6 vols., 1846); C. Joret, Herder et la renaissance liUeraire en Allemagne au XVIII' siecle (1875); F. von Barenbach, Herder als Vorganger Darwins (1877) ; R. Haym, Herder nach seinem Leben und seinen Werken (2 vols., 1880-1885); H. Nevinson, A Sketch of Herder and his Times (1884); M. Kronenberg, Herders Philosophic nach ihrem Entwicklungsgang (1889) ; E.Kiihnemann, Her- ders Leben (1895) ; R. Burkner, Herder, sein Lebenund Wirken (1904). HEREDIA, JOSE MARIA DE (1842-1905), French poet, the modern master of the French sonnet, was born at Fortuna Cafeyere, near Santiago de Cuba, on the 22nd of November 1842, being in blood part Spanish Creole and part French. At the age of eight he came from the West Indies to France, returning thence to Havana at seventeen, and finally making France his home not long afterwards. He received his classical education with the priests of Saint Vincent at Senlis, and after a visit to Havana he studied at the Ecole des Chartes at. Paris. In the later 'sixties, with Francois Coppee, Sully-Prudhomme, Paul Verlaine and others less distinguished, he made one of the band of poets who gathered round Leconte de Lisle, and received the name of Parnassiens. To this new school, form — the technical side of their art — was of supreme importance, and, in reaction against the influence of Mussel, they rigorously repressed in their work the expression of personal feeling and emotion. " True poetry," said M. de Heredia in his discourse on entering the Academy — " true poetry dwells in nature and in humanity, which are eternal, and not in the heart of the creature of a day, lowever great." M. de Heredia's place in the movement was soon assured. He wrote very little, and published even less, jut his sonnets circulated in MS., and gave him a reputation acfore they appeared in 1893, together with a few longer poems, as a volume, under the title of Les Trophees. He was elected to the Academy on the 22nd of February 1894, in the place of iouis de Mazade-Percin the publicist. Few purely literary men can have entered the Academy with credentials so small in quantity. A small volume of verse — a translation, with intro- duction, of Diaz del Castillo's History of the Conquest of New Spain (1878-1881) — a translation of the life of the nun Alferez 1894), de Quincey's " Spanish Military Nun" — and one or two ihort pieces of occasional verse, and an introduction or so — this s but small literary baggage, to use the French expression. But the sonnets are of their kind among the most superb in modern literature. " A Legende des siecles in sonnets " M. 'rancois Coppee called them. Each presents a picture, striking, >rilliant, drawn with unfaltering hand — the picture of some 350 HEREDIA Y CAMPUZANO— HEREDITY characteristic scene in man's long history. The verse is flawless, polished like a gem; and its sound has distinction and fine harmony. If one may suggest a fault, it is that each picture is sometimes too much of a picture only, and that the poetical line, like that of M. de Heredia's master, Leconte de Lisle himself, is occasionally overcrowded. M. de Heredia was none the less one of the most skilful craftsmen who ever practised the art of verse. In 1901 he became librarian of the BibUotheque de l'Ars6nal at Paris. He died at the Chateau de Bourdonne (Seine-et-Oise) on the 3rd of October 1905, having completed his critical edition of Andre Chenier's works. HEREDIA Y CAMPUZANO, JOSfi MARIA (1803-1839), Cuban poet, was born at Santiago de Cuba on the 3ist of December 1803, studied at the university of Havana, and was called to the bar in 1823. In the autumn of 1823 he was arrested on a charge of conspiracy against the Spanish government, and was sentenced to banishment for life. He took refuge in the United States, published a volume of verses at New York in 1825, and then went to Mexico, where, becoming naturalized, he obtained a post as magistrate. In 1832 a collection of his poems was issued at Toluca, and in 1836 he obtained permission to visit Cuba for two months. Disappointed in his political ambitions, and broken in health, Heredia returned to Mexico in January 1837, and died at Toluca on the 2ist of May 1839. Many of his earlier pieces are merely clever translations from French, English and Italian; but his originality is placed beyond doubt by such poems as the Himno del deslerrado, the epistle to Emilia, Desen- gaiios, and the celebrated ode to Niagara. Bello may be thought to excel Heredia in execution, and a few lines of Olmedo's Canto & Junin vibrate with a virile passion to which the Cuban poet rarely attained; but the sincerity of his patriotism and the sublimity of his imagination have secured for Heredia a real supremacy among Spanish-American poets. The best edition of his works is that published at Paris in 1893 with a preface by Elias Zerolo. HEREDITAMENT (from Lat. hereditare, to inherit, heres, heir), in law, every kind of property that can be inherited. Hereditaments are divided into corporeal and incorporeal; corporeal hereditaments are " such as affect the senses, and may be seen and handled by the body; incorporeal are not the subject of sensation, can neither be seen nor handled, are creatures of the mind, and exist only in contemplation " (Blackstone, Commentaries). An example of a corporeal hereditament is land held in freehold, of incorporeal herditaments, tithes, advowsons, pensions, annuities, rents, franchises, &c. It is still used in the phrase " lands, tenements and hereditaments " to describe property in land, as distinguished from goods and chattels or movable property. HEREDITY, in biological science, the name given to the generalization, drawn from the observed facts, that animals and plants closely resemble their progenitors. (That the resemblance is not complete involves in the first place the subject of variation (see VARIATION AND SELECTION); but it must be clearly stated that there is no adequate ground for the current loose statements as to the existence of opposing " laws " or " forces " of heredity and variation.) In the simplest cases there seems to be no separate problem of heredity. When a creeping plant propagates itself by runners, when a Nais or Myrianida breaks up into a series of similar segments, each of which becomes a worm like the parent, we have to do with the general fact that growing organisms tend to display a symmetrical repetition of equivalent parts, and that reproduction by fission is simply a special case of metamerism. When we try to answer the question why the segments of an organism resemble one another, whether they remain in association to form a segmented animal, or break into different animals, we come to the conclusion, which at least is on the way to an answer, that it is because they are formed from pieces of the same protoplasm, growing under similar conditions. It is apparently a fundamental property of protoplasm to be able to multiply by division into parts, the properties of which are similar to each other and to those of the parent. This leads us directly to the cases of reproduction where there is an obvious problem of heredity. In the majority of cases among animals and plants the new organisms arise from portions of living matter, separated from the parents, but different from the parents in size and structure. These germs of the new organisms may be spores, reproductive cells, fused reproductive cells or multicellular masses (see REPRODUCTION). For the present purpose it is enough to state that they consist of portions of the parental protoplasm. These pass through an embryo- logical history, in which by growth, multiplication and specializa- tion they form structures closely resembling the parents. Now, if it could be shown that these reproductive masses arose directly from the reproductive masses which formed the parent body, the problems of heredity would be extremely simplified. If the first division of a reproductive cell set apart one mass to lie dormant for a time and ultimately to form the reproductive cells of the new generation, while the other mass, exactly of the same kind, developed directly into the new organism, then heredity would simply be a delayed case of what is called organic symmetry, the tendency of similar living material to develop in similar ways under the stimulus of similar external conditions. The cases in which this happens are very rare. In the Diptera the first division of the egg-cell separates the nuclear material of the subsequent reproductive cells from the material that is elaborated into the new organism to contain these cells. In the Daphnidae and in Sagitta a similar separation occurs at slightly later stages; in vertebrates it occurs much later; while in some hydroids the germ-cells do not arise in the individual which is developed from the egg-cell at all, but in a much later generation, which is produced from the first by budding. However, it is not necessary to dismiss the fertile idea of what Moritz Nussbaum and August Weismann, who drew attention to it, called " con- tinuity of the germ-plasm." Weismann has shown that an actual series of organic forms might be drawn up in which the formation of germ-cells begins at stages successively more remote from the first division of the egg-cell. He has also shown evidence, singularly complete in the case of the hydroids, for the existence of an actual migration of the place of formation of the germ-cells, the migration reaching farther and farther from the egg-cell. He has elaborated the conception of the germ-track, a chain of cell generations in the development of any creature along which the reproductive material saved over from the development of one generation for the germ-cells of the next generation is handed on in a latent condition to its ultimate position. And thus he supposes a real continuity of the germ-plasm, extending from generation to generation in spite of the apparent discontinuity in the observed cases. The conception certainly ranks among the most luminous and most fertile contributions of the igth century to biological thought, and it is necessary to examine at greater length the superstructure which Weismann has raised upon it. V/eismann's Theory of the Germ-plasm. — A living being takes its individual origin only where there is separated from the stock of the parent a little piece of the peculiar reproductive plasm, the so-called germ-plasm. In sexless reproduction one parent is enough; in sexual reproduction equivalent masses of germ- plasm from each parent combine to form the new individual. The germ-plasm resides in the nucleus of cells, and Weismann identifies it with the nuclear material named chromatin. Like ordinary protoplasm, of which the bulk of cell bodies is composed, germ-plasm is a living material, capable of growing in bulk without alteration of structure when it is supplied with appro- priate food. But it is a living material much more complex than protoplasm. In the first place, the mass of germ-plasm which is the starting-point of a new individual consists of several, sometimes of many, pieces named " idants," which are either the chromosomes into a definite number of which the nuclear material of a dividing cell breaks up, or possibly smaller units named chromomeres. These idants are a collection of " ids," which Weismann tentatively identifies with the microsomata contained in the chromosomes, which are visible after treatment with certain reagents. Each id contains all the possibilities — HEREDITY generic, specific, individual — of a new organism, or rather the directing substance which in appropriate surroundings of food, &c., forms a new organism. Each id is a veritable micro- cosm, possessed of an historic architecture that has been elaborated slowly .through the multitudinous series of generations that stretch backwards in time from every living individual. This microcosm, again, consists of a number of minor vital units called " determinants," which cohere according to the architec- ture of the whole id. The determinants are hypothetical units corresponding to the number of parts of the organism inde- pendently variable. Lastly, each determinant consists of a number of small hypothetical units, the " biophores." These are adaptations of a conception of H. deVries, and are supposed to become active by leaving the nucleus of the cell in which they lie, passing out into the general protoplasm of the cell and ruling its activities. Each new individual begins life as a nucleated cell, the nucleus of which contains germ-plasm of this complex structure derived from the parent. The reproductive cell gives rise to the new individual by continued absorption of food, by growth, cell-divisions and cell-specializations. The theory supposes that the first divisions of the nucleus are " doubling," or homogeneous divisions. The germ-plasm has grown in bulk without altering its character in any respect, and, when it divides, each resulting mass is precisely alike. From these first divisions a chain of similar doubling divisions stretches along the " germ-tracks," so marshalling unaltered germ-plasm to the generative organs of the new individual, to be ready to form the germ-cells of the next generation. In this mode the continuity of the germ-plasm from individual to individual is maintained. This also is the immortality of the germ-cells, or rather of the germ-plasm, the part of the theory which has laid so large a hold on the popular imagination, although it is really no more than a reassertion in new terms of biogenesis. With this also is connected the celebrated denial of the inheritance of acquired characters. It seemed a clear inference that, if the hereditary mass for the daughters were separated off from the hereditary mass that was to form the mother, at the very first, before the body of the mother was formed, the daughters were in all essentials the sisters of their mother, and could take from her nothing of any characters that might be impressed on her body in subsequent development. In the later elaboration of his theory Weismann has admitted the possibility of some direct modification of the germ-plasm within the body of the individual acting as its host. The mass of germ-plasm which is not retained in unaltered form to provide for the generative cells is supposed to be employed for the elaboration of the individual body. It grows, dividing and multiplying, and forms the nuclear matter of the tissues of the individual, but the theory supposes this process to occur in a peculiar fashion. The nuclear divisions are what Weismann calls " differentiating " or heterogeneous divisions. In them the microcosms of the germ-plasm are not doubled, but slowly disintegrated in accordance with the historical architecture of the plasm, each division differentiating among the determinants and marshalling one set into one portion, another into another portion. There are differences in the observed facts of nuclear division which tend to support the theoretical possibility of two sorts of division, but as yet these have not been correlated definitely with the divisions along the germ-tracks and the ordinary divisions of embryological organogeny. The theoretical conception is, that when the whole body is formed, the cells contain only their own kind of determinants, and it would follow from this that the cells of the tissues cannot give rise to structures containing germ-plasm less disintegrated than their own nuclear material, and least of all to reproductive cells which must contain the undisintegrated microcosms of the germ-plasm. Cases of bud-formation and of reconstructions of lost parts (see RE- GENERATION or LOST PARTS) are regarded as special adaptations made possible by the provision of latent groups of accessory determinants, to become active only on emergency. It is to be noticed that Weismann 's conception of the processes of ontogeny is strictly evolutionary, and in so far is a reversion to the general opinion of biologists of the I7th and i8th centuries. These supposed that the germ-cell contained an image-in-little of the adult, and that the process of development was a mere unfolding or evolution of this, under the influence of favouring and nutrient forces. Hartsoeker, indeed, went so far as to figure the human spermatozoon with a mannikin seated within the " head," and similar extremes of imagination were indulged in by other writers for the spermatozoon or ovum, according to the view they took of the relative importance of these two bodies. C. F. Wolff, in his Theoria generationis (1759), was the first distinguished anatomist to make assault on these evolutionary views, but his direct observations on the process of development were not sufficient in bulk nor in clarity of interpretation to convince his contemporaries. Naturally the improved methods and vastly greater knowledge of modern days have made evolution in the old sense an impossible con- ception; we know that the egg is morphologically unlike the adult, that various external conditions are necessary for its subsequent progress through a slow series of stages, each of which is unlike the adult, but gradually approaching it until the final condition is reached. None the less, Weismann's theory supposes that the important determining factor in these gradual changes lies in the historical architecture of the germ- plasm, and from the theoretical point of view his theory remains strictly an unfolding, a becoming manifest of hidden complexity. Hertwig's View. — The chief modern holder of the rival view, and the writer who has put together in most cogent form the objections to Weismann's theory, is Oscar Hertwig. He points out that there is no direct evidence for the existence of differ- entiating as opposed to doubling divisions of the nuclear matter, and, moreover, he thinks that there is very generally diffused evidence as to the universality of doubling division. In the first place, there is the fundamental fact that single-celled organisms exhibit only doubling division, as by that the persistence of species which actually occurs alone is possible. In the case of higher plants, the widespread occurrence of tissues with power of reproduction, the occurrence of budding in almost any part of the body in lower animals and in plants, and the widespread powers of regeneration of lost parts, are easily intelligible if every cell like the egg-cell has been formed by doubling division, and so contains the germinal material for every part of the organism, and thus, on the call of special conditions, can become a germ-cell again. He lays special stress on those experiments in which the process of development has been interfered with in various ways at various stages, as showing that the cells which arise from the division of the egg-cell were not predestined unalterably for a particular r61e, according to a predetermined plan. He dismisses Weismann's suggestion of the presence of accessory determinants which remain latent unless they happen to be required, as being too complicated a supposition to be supported without exact evidence, a view in which he has received strong support from those who have worked most at the experimental side of the question. From consideration of a large number of physiological facts, such as the results of grafting, transplantations of tissues and transfusions of blood, he con- cludes that the cells of an organism possess, in addition to their patent microscopical characters, latent characters peculiar to the species, and pointing towards a fundamental identity of the germinal substance in every cell. The Nuclear Matter. — Apart from these two characteristic protagonists of extreme and opposing views, the general consensus of biological opinion does not take us very far beyond the plainest facts of observation. The resemblances of heredity are due to the fact that the new organism takes its origin from a definite piece of the substance of its parent or parents. This piece always contains protoplasm, and as the protoplasm of every animal and plant appears to have its own specific reactions, we cannot exclude this factor; indeed many, following the views of M. Verworn, and seeing in the specific metabolisms of proto- plasm a large part of the meaning of life, attach an increasing importance to the protoplasm in the hereditary mass. Next, it always contains nuclear matter, and, in view of the extreme 352 HEREDITY specialization of the nuclear changes in the process of matura- tion and fertilization of the generative cells, there is more than sufficient reason for believing that the nuclear substance, if not actually the specific germ-plasm, is of vast importance in heredity. The theory of its absolute dominance depends on a number of experiments, the interpretation of which is doubtful. Moritz Nussbaum showed that in Infusoria non-nucleated fragments of a cell always died, while nucleated fragments were able to complete themselves; but it may be said with almost equal confidence that nuclei separated from protoplasm also invariably die — at least, all attempts to preserve them have failed. Hertwig and others, in their brilliant work on the nature of fertilization, showed that the process always involved the entrance into the female cell of the nucleus of the male cell, but we now know that part of the protoplasm of the spermatozoon also enters. T. Boveri made experiments on the cross-fertilization of non- nucleated fragments of the eggs of Sphaerechinus granularis with spermatozoa of Echinus microtuberculatus, and obtained dwarf larvae with only the paternal characters; but the nature of his experiments was not such as absolutely to exclude doubt. Finally, in addition to the nucleus and the protoplasm, another organism of the cell, the centrosome, is part of the hereditary mass. In sum, while most of the evidence points to a pre- ponderating importance of the nuclear matter, it cannot be said to be an established proposition that the nuclear matter is the germ-plasm. Nor are we yet definitely in a position to say that the germinal mass (nuclear matter, protoplasm, &c., of the repro- ductive cells) differs essentially from the general substance of the organism — whether, in fact, there is continuity of germ-plasm as opposed to continuity of living material from individual to individual. The origin of sexual cells from only definite places, in the vast majority of cases, and such phenomena as the phylo- genetic migration of their place of origin amcng the Hydro- medusae, tell strongly in favour of Weismann's conception. Early experiments on dividing eggs, in which, by separation or transposition, cells were made to give rise to tissues and parts of the organism which in the natural order they would not have produced, tell strongly against any profound separation between germ-plasm and body-plasm. It is also to be noticed that the failure of germ-cells to arise except in specific places may be only part of the specialized ordering of the whole body, and does not necessarily involve the interpretation that reproductive material is absolutely different in kind. Amphimixis. — Hitherto we have considered the material bearer of heredity apart from the question of sexual union, and we find that the new organism takes origin from a portion of living matter, forming a material which may be called germ- plasm, in which resides the capacity to correspond to the same kind of surrounding forces as stimulated the parent germ-plasm by growth of the same fashion. In many cases (e.g. asexual spores) the piece of germ-plasm comes from one parent, and from an organ or tissue not associated with sexual reproduction; in other cases (parthenogenetic eggs) it comes from the ovary of a female, and may have the apparent characters of a sexual egg, except that it develops without fertilization; here also are to be included the cases where normal female ova have been induced to develop, not by the entrance of a spermatozoon, but by artificial chemical stimulation. In such cases the problem of heredity does not differ fundamentally from the symmetrical repetition of parts. In most of the higher plants and animals, however, sexual reproduction is the normal process, and from our present point of view the essential feature of this is that the germ-plasm which starts the new individual (the fertilized egg) is derived from the male (the spermatozoon) and from the female parent (the ovum). Although it cannot yet be set down sharply as a general proposition, there is considerable evidence to show that in the preparation of the ovum and spermatozoon for fertilization the nuclear matter of each is reduced by half (reduc- ing division of the chromosomes), and that fertilization means the restoration of the normal bulk in the fertilized cell by equal contributions from male and female. So far as the known facts of this process of union of germ-plasms go, they take us no farther than to establish such a relation between the offspring and two parents as exists between the offspring and one parent in the other cases. Amphimixis has a vast importance in the theory of evolution (Weismann, for instance, regards it as the chief factor in the production of variations) ; for its relation to heredity we are as yet dependent on empirical observations. Heredity and Development. — The actual process by which the germinal mass slowly assumes the characters of the adult- — that is, becomes like the parent— depends on the interaction of two sets of factors: the properties of the germinal material itself, and the influences of substances and conditions external to the germinal material. Naturally, as K. W. von Nageli and Hertwig in particular have pointed out, there is no perpetual sharp contrast between the two sets of factors, for, as growth proceeds, the external is constantly becoming the internal; the results of influences, which were in one stage part of the environment, are in the next and subsequent stages part of the embryo. The differences between the exponents of evolution and epigenesis offer practical problems to be decided by experiment. Every phenomenon in development that is proved the direct result of epigenetic factors can be discounted from the complexity of the germinal mass. If, for instance, as H. Driesch and Hertwig have argued, much of the differentiation of cells and tissues is a function of locality and is due to the action of different external forces on similar material, then just so much burden is removed from what evolutionists have to explain. That much remains cannot be doubted. Two eggs similar in appearance develop side by side in the same sea-water, one becoming a mollusc, the other an Amphioxus. Hertwig would say that the slight differ- ences in the original eggs would determine slight differences in metabolism and so forth, with the result that the segmentation of the two is slightly different; in the next stage the differences in metabolisms and other relations will be increased, and so on indefinitely. But in such cases c'est le premier pas qui co&te, and the absolute cost in theoretical complexity of the germinal material can be estimated only after a prolonged course of experimental wprk in a field which is as yet hardly touched. Empirical Study of Heredity. — The fundamental basis of heredity is the separation of a mass from the parent (germ-plasm) which under certain conditions grows into an individual resem- bling the parent. The goal of the study of heredity will be reached only when all the phenomena can be referred to the nature of the germ-plasm and of its relations to the conditions under which it grows, but we have seen how far our knowledge is from any attempt at such references. In the meantime, the empirical facts, the actual relations of the characters in the offspring to the characters of the parents and ancestors, are being collected and grouped. In this inquiry it at once becomes obvious that every character found in a parent may or may not be present in the offspring. When any character occurs in both, it is generally spoken of as transmissible and of having been transmitted. In this broad sense there is no character that is not transmissible. In all kinds of reproduction, the characters of the class, family, genus, species, variety or race, and of the actual individual, are transmissible, the certainty with which any character appears being almost in direct proportion to its rank in the descending scale from order to individual. The transmitted characters are anatomical, down to the most minute detail; physiological, including such phenomena as diatheses, timbre of voice and even compound phenomena, such as gau- cherie and peculiarity of handwriting; psychological; patho- logical; teratological, such as syndactylism and all kinds of individual variations. Either sex may transmit characters which in themselves are necessarily latent, as, for instance, a bull may transmit a good milking strain. In forms of asexual reproduction, such as division, budding, propagation by slips and so forth, every character of the parent may appear in the descendant, and apparently even in the descendants produced from that descendant by the ordinary sexual processes. In reproduction by spore formation, in parthenogenesis and in ordinary sexual modes, where there is an embryological history between the separated mass and the new adult, it is necessary HEREDITY 353 to attempt a difficult discrimination between acquired and innate characters. Acquired Characters. — Every character is the result of two sets of factors, those resident in the germinal material and those imposed from without. Our knowledge has taken us far beyond any such idea as the formation of a germinal material by the collection of particles from the adult organs and tissues (gem- mules of C. Darwin). The inheritance of any character means the transmission in the germinal material of matter which, brought under the necessary external conditions, develops into the character of the parent. There is necessarily an acquired or epigenetic side to every character; but there is nothing in our knowledge of the actual processes to make necessary or even probable the supposition that the result of that factor in one generation appears in the germ-plasm of the subsequent generations, in those cases where an embryological development separates parent and offspring. The development of any normal, so-called " innate," character, such as, say, the assumption of the normal human shape and relations of the frontal bone, requires the co-operation of many factors external to the develop- ing embryo, and the absence of abnormal distorting factors. When we say that such an innate character is transmitted, we mean only that the germ-plasm has such a constitution that, in the presence of the epigenetic factors and the absence of abnormal epigenetic factors, the bone will appear in due course and in due form. If an abnormal epigenetic factor be applied during development, whether to the embryo in utero, to the developing child, or in after life, abnormality of some kind will appear in the bone, and such an abnormality is a good type of what is spoken of as an " acquired " character. Naturally such a character varies with the external stimulus and the nature of the material to which the stimulus is applied, and probability and observation lead us to suppose that as the germ-plasm of the offspring is similar to that of the parent, being a mass separated from the parent, abnormal epigenetic influences would produce results on the offspring similar to those which they produced on the parent. Scrutiny of very many cases of the supposed inheritance of acquired characters shows that they may be explained in this fashion — that is to say, that they do not necessarily involve any feature different in kind from what we understand to occur in normal development. The effects of increased use or of disuse on organs or tissues, the reactions of living tissues to various external influences, to bacteria, to bacterial or other toxins, or to different conditions of respiration, nutrition and so forth, we know empirically to be different in the case of different individuals, and we may expect that when the living matter of a parent responds in a certain way to a certain external stimulus, the living matter of the descendant will respond to similar circumstances in a similar fashion. The operation of similar influences on similar material accounts for a large proportion of the facts. In the important case of the transmission of disease from parent to offspring it is plain that three sets of normal factors may operate, and other cases of transmission must be subjected to similar scrutiny: (i) a child may inherit the anatomical and physiological con- stitution of either parent, and with that a special liability of failure to resist the attacks of a wide-spread disease; (2) the actual bacteria may be contained in the ovum or possibly in the spermatozoon; (3) the toxins of the disease may have affected the ovum, or the spermatozoon, or through the placenta the growing embryo. Obviously in the first two cases the offspring cannot be said in any strict sense to have inherited the disease; in the last case, the theoretical nomenclature is more doubtful, but it is at least plain that no inexplicable factor is involved. It is to be noticed, however, that " Lamarckians "and " Neo- Lamarckians " in their advocacy of an inheritance of " acquired characters " make a theoretical assumption of a different kind, which applies equally to " acquired " and to " innate " char- acters. They suppose that the result of the epigenetic factors is reflected on the germ-plasm in such a mode that in develop- ment the products would display the same or a similar character without the co-operation of the epigenetic factors on the new XIII. 12 individual, or would display the result in an accentuated form if with the renewed co-operation of the external factors. Such an assumption presents its greatest theoretical difficulty if, with Weismann, we suppose the germ-plasm to be different in kind from the general soma-plasm, and its least theoretical difficulty if, with Hertwig, we suppose the essential matter of the repro- ductive cells to be similar in kind to the essential substance of the general body cells. But, apart from the differences between such theories, it supposes, in all cases where an embryological development lies between parent and descendant, the existence of a factor towards which our present knowledge of the actual processes gives us no assistance. The separated hereditary mass does not contain the organs of the adult; the Lamarckian factor would involve the translation of the characters of the adult back into the characters of the germ-cell in such a fashion that when the germ-cell developed these characters would be re- translated again into those which originally had been produced by co-operation between germ-plasm characters and epigenetic factors. In the present state of our knowledge the theoretical difficulty is not fatal to the Lamarckian supposition; it does no more than demand a much more careful scrutiny of the supposed cases. Such a scrutiny has been going on since Weismann first raised the difficulty, and the present result is that no known case has appeared which cannot be explained without the Lamarckian factor, and the vast majority of cases have been resolved without any difficulty into the ordinary events of which we have full experience. Taking the ehipirical data in detail, it would appear first that the effects of single mutilations are not inherited. The effects of long-continued mutilations are not inherited, but Darwin cites as a possible case the Mahom- medans of Celebes, in whom the prepuce is very small. C. E. Brown-S6quard thought that he had shown in the case of guinea- pigs the inheritance of the results of nervous lesions, but analyses of his results leave the question extremely doubtful. The inheritance of the effects of use and disuse is not proved. The inheritance of the effects of changed conditions of life is quite uncertain. Nageli grew Alpine plants at Munich, but found that the change was produced at once and was not increased in a period of thirteen years. Alphonse de Candolle starved plants, with the result of producing better blooms, and found that seedlings from these were also above the average in luxuri- ance of blossom, but in these experiments the effects of selection during the starvation, and of direct effect on the nutrition of the seeds, were not eliminated. Such results are typical of the vast number of experiments and observations recorded. The empirical issue is doubtful, with a considerable balance against the supposed inheritance of acquired characters. Empirical Study of Effects of Amphimixis. — Inheritance is theoretically possible from each parent and from the ancestry of each. In considering the total effect it is becoming customary to distinguish between " blended " inheritance, where the off- spring appears in respect of any character to be intermediate between the conditions in the parents; " prepotent " inheritance, where one parent is supposed to be more effective than the other in stamping the offspring (thus, for instance, Negroes, Jews and Chinese are stated to be prepotent in crosses); " exclusive" inheritance, where the character of the offspring is definitely that of one of the parents. Such a classification depends on the interpretation of the word character, and rests on no certain grounds. An apparently blended character or a prepotent character may on analysis turn out to be due to the inheritance of a certain proportion of minuter characters derived exclusively from either parent. H. de Vries and later on a number of other biologists have advanced the knowledge of heredity in crosses by carrying out further the experimental and theoretical work of Gregor Mendel (see MENDELISM and HYBRIDISM), and results of great practical importance to breeders have already been obtained. These experiments and results, however, appear to relate exclusively to sexual reproduction and almost entirely to the crossing of artificial varieties of animals and plants. So far as they go, they point strongly to the occurrence of alternate inheritance instead of blended inheritance in the case of artificial 354 HEREFORD varieties. On the other hand, in the case of natural varieties it appears that blended inheritance predominates. The diffi- culty of the interpretation of the word " character " still remains and the Mendelian interpretation cannot be dismissed with regard to the behaviour of any " character " in inheritance until it is certain that it is a unit and not a composite. There is another fundamental difficulty in making empirical comparisons between the characters of parents and offspring. At first sight it seems as if this mode of work were sufficiently direct and simple, and involved no more than a mere collection of sufficient data. The cranial index, or the height of a human being and of so many of his ancestors being given, it would seem easy to draw an inference as to whether or no in these cases brachycephaly or stature were inherited. But our modern conceptions of the individual and the race make it plain that the problems are not so simple. With regard to any character, the race type is not a particular measurement, but a curve of variations derived from statistics, and any individual with regard to the particular character may be referable to any point of the curve. A tall race like the modern Scots may contain individuals of any height within the human limits; a dolichocephalic race like the modern Spaniards may contain extremely round-headed individuals. What is meant by saying that one race is tall or the other dolicho- cephalic, is merely that if a sufficiently large number be chosen at random, the average height of the one race will be great, the cranial index of the other low. It follows that the study of variation must be associated with, or rather must precede, the empirical study of heredity, and we are beginning to know enough now to be certain that in both cases the results to be obtained are practically useless for the individual case, and of value only when large masses of statistics are collected. No doubt, when general conclusions have been established, they must be acted on for individual cases, but the results can be predicted not for the individual case, but only for the average of a mass of individual cases. It is impossible within the limits of this article to discuss the mathematical conceptions involved in the formation and applications of the method, but it is necessary to insist on the fact that these form an indispensable part of any valuable study of empirical data. One interesting conclusion, which may be called the " ancestral law " of heredity, with regard to any character, such as height, which appears to be a blend of the male and female characters, whether or no the apparent blend is really due to an exclusive inheritance of separate com- ponents, may be given from the work of F. Gallon and K. Pearson. Each parent, on the average, contributes j or (o-s)2, each grand- parent iV or (o-s)4, and each ancestor of nth place (o^)2". But this, like all other deductions, is applicable only to the mass of cases and not to any individual case. Regression. — An important result of quantitative work brings into prominence the steady tendency to maintain the type which appears to be one of the most important results of am- phimixis. In the tenth generation a man has 1024 tenth grand- parents, and is thus the product of an enormous population, the mean of which can hardly differ from that of the general population. Hence this heavy weight of mediocrity produces regression or progression to type. Thus in the case of height, a large number of cases being examined, it was found that fathers of a stature of 72 in. had sons with a mean stature of 70-8 in., a regression towards the normal stature of the race. Fathers with a stature of 66 in. had sons with a mean of 68-3 in., a progression towards the normal. It follows from this that where there is much in-and-in breeding the weight of mediocrity will be less, and the peculiarities of the breed will be accentuated. Atavism. — Under this name a large number of ordinary cases of variation are included. A tall man with very short parents would probably be set down as a case of atavism if the existence of a very tall ancestor were known. He would, however, simply be a case of normal variation, the probability of which may be calculated from a table of stature variations in his race. Less marked cases set down to atavism may be instances merely of normal regression. Many cases of more abnormal structure, which are really due to abnormal embryonic or post-embryonic development, are set down to atavism, as, for instance, the cervical fistulae, which have been regarded as atavistic per- sistences of the gill clefts. It is also used to imply the reversion that takes place when domestic varieties are set free and when species or varieties are crossed (see HYBRIDISM). Atavism is, in fact, a misleading name covering a number of very different phenomena. Telegony is the name given to the supposed fact that offspring of a mother to one sire may inherit characters from a sire with which the mother had previously bred. Although breeders of stock have a strong belief in the existence of this, there are no certain facts to support it, the supposed cases being more readily explained as individual variations of the kind generally referred to as " atavism." None the less, two theoretical explanations have been suggested: (i) that spermatozoa, or portions of spermatozoa, from the first sire may occasionally survive within the mother for an abnormally long period; (2) that the body, or the reproductive cells of the mother, may be influenced by the growth of the embryo within her, so that she acquires something of the character of the sire. The first supposition has no direct evidence to support it, and is made highly improbable from the fact that a second impregnation is always necessary. Against the second supposition Pearson brings the cogent empirical evidence that the younger children of the same sire show no increased tendency to resemble him. (See TELEGONY.) AUTHORITIES. — The following books contain a fair proportion of the new and old knowledge on this subject :— W.Bateson, Materials for the Study of Variation (1894); Y. Delage, La Structure du proto- plasma et les theories sur I her&dite (a very full discussion and list of literature) ; G. H. T. Eimer, Organic Evolution, Eng. trans, by Cunningham (1890) ; J. C. Ewart, The Penycuik Experiments (1899) ; F. Gallon, Natural Inheritance (1887); O. Hertwig, Evolution or Epigenesis? Eng. trans, by P. C. Milchell (1896); K. Pearson, The Grammar of Science (1900) ; Verworn, General Physiology, Eng. Irans. (1899); A. Weisraann, The Germ Plasm, Eng. Irans. by Parker (1893). Lists of separate papers are given in the annual volumes of the Zoological Record under heading " General Subject." (P.C.M.) HEREFORD, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough, and the county town of Herefordshire, England, on the river Wye, 144 m. W.N.W. of London, on the Worcester-Cardiff line of the Great Western railway and on the wesl-and-norlh joint line of that company and the North- Weslern. It is connected with Ross and Gloucester by a branch of the Great Western, and is the terminus of a line from the west worked by the Mid- land and Neath & Brecon companies. Pop. (1901) 21,382. It is mainly on the left bank of the river, which here traverses a broad valley, well wooded and pleasant. The cathedral of St Elhelberl exemplifies all slyles from Norman lo Perpendicular. The see was delached from Lichfield in 676, Pulla being ils first bishop; and the modern diocese covers most of Herefordshire, a considerable part of Shropshire, and small portions of Worcester- shire, Staffordshire and Monmouthshire; extending also a short distance across the Welsh border. The removal of murdered Aethelbert's body from Marden lo Hereford led lo ihe foundalion of a superior church, reconslrucled by Bishop Athelstane, and burnt by the Welsh in 1055. Begun again in 1079 by Bishop Robert Losinga, it was carried on by Bishop Reynelm and completed in 1148 by Bishop R. de Betun. In 1786 Ihe great western tower fell and carried with it the west front and the first bay of the nave, when the church suffered much from unhappy restoration by James Wyatl, bul his errors were parlly corrected by the further work of Lewis Cottingham and Sir Gilbert Scott in 1841 and 1863 respectively, while the presenl wesl fronl is a reconslruclion compleled in 1905. The lotal length of the cathedral outside is 342 ft., inside 327 ft. 5 in., the nave being 158 ft. 6 in., the choir from screen to reredos 75 ft. 6 in. and the lady chapel 93 ft. 5 in. Without, the principal features are the central lower, of Decoraled work wilh ball-flower ornamenl, formerly surmounted by a timber spire; and the north porch, rich Perpendicular with parvise. The lady chapel has a bold east end wilh five narrow lancel windows. The bishop's clcislers, of which only Iwo walks remain, are Perpendicular of curious design, with heavy tracery in the bays. A picluresque tower HEREFORDSHIRE 355 at the south-east corner, in the same style, is called the " Lady Arbour," but the origin of the name is unknown. Of the former fine decagonal Decorated chapter-house, only the doorway and slight traces remain. Within, the nave has Norman arcades, showing the wealth of ornament common to the work of this period in the church. Wyatt shortened it by one bay, and the clerestory is his work. There is a fine late Norman font, springing from a base with the rare design of four lions at the corners. The south transept is also Norman, but largely altered by the introduction of Perpendicular work. The north transept was wholly rebuilt in 1287 to contain the shrine of St Thomas de Cantilupe, bishop of Hereford, of which there remains the magnificent marble pedestal surmounted by an ornate arcade. The fine lantern, with its many shafts and vaulting, was thrown open to the floor of the bell-chamber by Cottingham. The choir screen is a florid design by Sir Gilbert Scott, in light wrought iron, with a wealth of ornament in copper, brass, mosaic and polished stones. The dark choir is Norman in the arcades and the stage above, with Early English clerestory and vaulting. At the east end is a fine Norman arch, blocked until 1841 by a Grecian screen erected in 1717. The choir stalls are largely Decorated. The organ contains original work by the famous builder Renatus Harris, and was the gift of Charles II. to the cathedral. The small north-east and south-east transepts are Decorated but retain traces of the Norman apsidal terminations eastward. The eastern lady chapel, dated about 1220, shows elaborate Early English work. On the south side opens the little Perpendicular chantry of Bishop Audley (1492-1502). In the north choir aisle is the beautiful fan-vaulted chantry of Bishop Stanbury (1470). The crypt is remarkable as being, like the lady chapel, Early English, and is thus the only cathedral crypt in England of a later date than the nth century. The ancient monastic library remains in the archive room, with its heavy oak cupboards. Deeds, documents and several rare manuscripts and relics are preserved, and several of the precious books are still secured by chains. But the most celebrated relic is in the south choir aisle. This is the Map of the World, dating from about 1314, the work of a Lincolnshire monk, Richard of Haldingham. It represents the world as surrounded by ocean, and embodies many ideas taken from Herodotus, Pliny and other writers, being filled with grotesque figures of men, beasts, birds and fishes, together with representations of famous cities and scenes of scriptural classical story, such as the Labyrinth of Crete, the Egyptian pyramids, Mount Sinai and the journeyings of the Israelites. The map is surmounted by representations of Paradise and the Day of Judgment. From the south-east transept of the cathedral a cloister leads to the quadrangular college of the Vicars-Choral, a beautiful Perpendicular building. On this side of the cathedral, too, the bishop's palace, originally a Norman hall, overlooks the Wye, and near it lies the castle green, the site of the historic castle, which is utterly effaced. There is here a column (1809) com- memorating the victories of Nelson. The church of All Saints is Early English and Decorated, and has a lofty spire. Both this and St Peter's (originally Norman) have good carved stalls, but the fabric of both churches is greatly restored. One only of the six gates and a few fragments of the old walls are still to be seen, but there are ruins of the Black Friars' Monastery in Widemarsh, and a mile out of Hereford on the Brecon Road, the White Cross, erected in 1347 by Bishop Louis Charlton, and restored by Archdeacon Lord Saye and Sele, commemorates the departure of the Black Plague. Of domestic buildings the " Old House " is a good example of the picturesque half-timbered style, dating from 1621, and the Coningsby Hospital (almshouses) date from 1614. The inmates wear a remarkable uniform of red, designed by the founder, Sir T. Coningsby. St Ethelbert's hospital is an Early English foundation. Old-established schools are the Cathedral school (1384) and the Blue Coat school (1710); there is also the County College (1880). The public buildings are the shire hall in St Peter's Street, in the Grecian Doric style, with a statue in front of it of Sir George Cornewall Lewis, who represented the county in parliament from 1847 to 1852, the town hall (1904), the corn-exchange (1858), the free library and museum in Broad Street; the guildhall and mansion house. A musical festival of the choirs of Hereford, Gloucester and Worcester cathedrals is held annually in rotation at these cities. The government is in the hands of a municipal council con- sisting of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 5031 acres. Hereford (Herefortuna), founded after the crossing of the Severn by the West Saxons early in the 7th century, had a strategic importance due to its proximity to the Welsh March. The foundation of the castle is ascribed to Earl Harold, afterwards Harold II. The castle was successfully besieged by Stephen, and was the prison of Prince Edward during the Barons' Wars. The pacification of Wales deprived Hereford of military signifi- cance until it became a Royalist stronghold during the Civil Wars. It surrendered easily to Waller in 1643; but was reoccupied by the king's troops and received Rupert on his march to Wales after Naseby. It was besieged by the Scots during August 1645 and relieved by the king. It fell to the Parliamentarians in this year. In 1086 the town included fees of the bishop, the dean and chapter, and the Knights Hospitallers, but was other- wise royal demesne. Richard I. in 1189 sold their town to the citizens at a fee farm rent, which grant was confirmed by John, Henry III., Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., Henry IV. and Edward IV. Incorporation was granted to the mayor, aldermen and citizens in 1597, and confirmed in 1620 and 1697-1698. Hereford returned two members to parliament from 1295 until 1885, when the Redistribution Act deprived it of one representative. In 1116-1117 a fair beginning on St Ethel- berta's day was conferred on the bishop, the antecedent of the modern fair in the beginning of May. A fair beginning on St Denis' day, granted to the citizens in 1226-1227, is represented by that held in October. The fair of Easter Wednesday was granted in 1682. In 1792 the existing fairs of Candlemas week and the beginning of July were held. Market days were, under Henry VIII. and in 1792, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday; the Friday market was discontinued before 1835. Hereford was the site of a provincial mint in 1086 and later. A grant of an exclusive merchant gild, in 1215-1216, was several times con- firmed. The trade in wool was important in 1202, and eventually- responsible for gilds of tailors, drapers, mercers, dyers, fullers, cloth workers, weavers and haberdashers; it brought into the market Welsh friezes and white cloth; but declined in the i6th cenfury, although it existed in 1835. The leather trade was considerable in the I3th century. In 1835 the glove trade had declined. The city anciently had an extensive trade in bread with Wales. It was the birthplace of David Garrick, the actor, in 1716, and probably of Nell Gwyn, mistress of Charles II., to whose memory a tablet was erected in 1883, marking the supposed site of her house. See R. Johnson, Ancient Customs of Hereford (London, 1882); J. Duncumbe, History of Hereford (Hereford, 1882); Journal of Brit. Arch. Assoc. xxvi. HEREFORDSHIRE, an inland county of England on the south Welsh border, bounded N. by Shropshire, E. by Worcester- shire, S. by Monmouthshire and Gloucestershire, and W. by Radnorshire and Brecknockshire. The area is 839-6 sq. m. The county is almost wholly drained by the Wye and its tribu- taries, but on the north and east includes a small portion of the Severn basin. The Wye enters Herefordshire from Wales at Hay, and with a sinuous and very beautiful course crosses the south- western part of the county, leaving it close above the town of Monmouth. Of its tributaries, the Lugg enters in the north-west near Presteign, and has a course generally easterly to Leominster, where it turns south, receives the Arrow from the west, and joins the Wye 6 m. below Hereford, the Frome flowing in from the east immediately above the junction. The Monnow rising in the mountains of Brecknockshire forms the boundary between Herefordshire and Monmouthshire over one-half of its course (about 20 m.), but it joins the main river at Monmouth. Its principal tributary in Herefordshire is the Dore, which traverses the picturesque Golden Valley. The Wye is celebrated for its 356 HEREFORDSHIRE salmon fishing, which is carefully preserved, while the Lugg, Arrow and Frome abound in trout and grayling, as does the Teme. This last is a tributary of the Severn, and only two short reaches lie within this county in the north, while it also forms parts of the northern and eastern boundary. The Leddon, also flowing to the Severn, rises in the east of the county and leaves it in the south-east, passing the town of Ledbury. High ground, of an elevation from 500 to 800 ft., separates the various valleys, while on the eastern boundary rise the Malvern Hills, reaching 1194 ft. in the Herefordshire Beacon, and 1395 ft. in the Worcestershire Beacon, and on the boundary with Brecknock- shire the Black Mountains exceed 2000 ft. The scenery of the Wye, with its wooded and often precipitous banks, is famous, the most noteworthy point in this county being about Symond's Yat, on the Gloucestershire border below Ross. Geology. — The Archean or Pre-Cambrian rocks, the most ancient in the county, emerge from beneath the newer deposits in three small isolated areas. On the western border, Stanner Rock, a picturesque craggy hill near Kington, consists of igneous materials (granitoid rock, felstone, dolerite and gabbro), apparently of intrusive origin and possibly of Uriconian age. In Brampton Bryan Park, a few miles to the north-east, some ancient conglomerates emerge and may be of Longmyndian age. On the east of the county the Herefordshire Beacon in the Malvern chain consists of gneisses and schists and Uriconian volcanic rocks; these have been thrust over various members of the Cambrian and Silurian systems, and owing to their hard and durable nature they form the highest ground in the county. The Cambrian rocks (Tremadoc Beds) come next in order of age and consist of quartzites, sandstones and shales, well exposed at the southern end of the Malvern chain and also at Pedwardine near Brampton Bryan. The Silurian rocks are well developed in the north-west part of the county, between Presteign and Ludlow; also along the western flanks of the Malvern Hills and in the eroded dome of Woolhope. Smaller patches come to light at Westhide east of Hereford and at May Hill near Newent. They consist of highly fossiliferous sandstones, mudstones, shales and limestones, known as the Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow Series; the Woolhope, Wenlock and Aymestry Limestones are famed for their rich fossil contents. The remainder and by far the greater part of the county is occupied by the Old Red Sandstone, through which the rocks above described project in detached areas. The Old Red Sandstone consists of a great thickness of red sandstones and marls, with impersistent bands of impure concretionary limestone known as cornstones, which by their superior hardness give rise to scarps and rounded ridges; they have yielded remains of fishes and crustaceans. Some of the upper beds are conglomeratic. On its south-eastern margin the county just reaches the Carboniferous Limestone cliffs of the Wye Valley near Ross. Glacial deposits, chiefly sand and gravel, are found in the lower ground along the river-courses, while caves in the Carboniferous Limestone have yielded remains of the hyena, cave-lion, rhinoceros, mammoth and reindeer. Agriculture and Industries. — The soil is generally marl and clay, but in various parts contains calcareous earth in mixed proportions. Westward the soil is tenacious and retentive of water; on the east it is a stiff and often reddish clay. In the south is found a light sandy loam. More than four-fifths of the total area of the county is under cultivation and about two-thirds of this is in permanent pasture. Ash and oak coppices and larch plantations clothe its hillsides and crests. The rich red soil of the Old Red Sandstone formation is famous for its pear and apple orchards, the county, notwithstanding its much smaller area, ranking in this respect next to Devonshire. The apple crop, generally large, is enormous one year out of four. Twenty hogsheads of cider have been made from an acre of orchard, twelve being the ordinary yield. Cider is the staple beverage of the county, and the trade in cider and perry is large. Hops are another staple of the county, the vines of which are planted in rows on ploughed land. As early as Camden's day a Herefordshire adage coupled Weobley ale with Leominster bread, indicating the county's capacity to produce fine wheat and barley, as well as hops. Herefordshire is also famous as a breeding county for its cattle of bright red hue, with mottled or white faces and sleek silky coats. The Herefords are stalwart and healthy, and, though not good milkers, put on more meat and fat at an early age, in proportion to food consumed, than almost any other variety. They produce the finest beef, and are more cheaply fed than Devons or Durhams, with which they are advantageously crossed. As a dairy county Herefordshire does not rank high. Its small, white-faced, hornless, symmetrical breed of sheep- known as " the Ryelands," from the district near Ross, where it was bred in most perfection, made the county long famous both for the flavour of its meat and the merino-like texture of its wool. Fuller says of this that it was best known as " Lempster ore," and the finest in all England. In its original form the breed is extinct, crossing with the Leicester having improved size and stamina at the cost of the fleece, and the chief breeds of sheep on Herefordshire farms at present are Shropshire Downs, Cotswolds and Radnors, with their crosses. Agricultural horses of good quality are bred in the north, and saddle and coach horses may be met with at the fairs. Breeders' names from the county are famous at the national cattle shows, and the number, size and quality of the stock are seen in their supply of the metropolitan and other markets. Prize Herefords are constantly exported to the colonies. Manufacturing enterprise is small. There are some iron foundries and factories for agricultural implements, and some paper is made. There are considerable limestone quarries, as near Ledbury. Communications. — Hereford is an important railway centre. The Worcester and Cardiff line of the Great Western railway, entering on the east, runs to Hereford by Ledbury and then southward. The joint line of the Great Western and North- Western companies runs north from Hereford by Leominster, proceeding to Shrewsbury and Crewe. At Leominster a Great Western branch crosses, connecting Worcester, Bromyard and New Radnor. From Hereford a Great Western branch follows the Wye south to Ross, and thence to the Forest of Dean and to Gloucester; a branch connects Ledbury with Gloucester, and the Golden Valley is traversed by a branch from Pontrilas on the Worcester-Cardiff line. From Hereford the Midland and Neath and Brecon line follows the Wye valley westward. None of the rivers is commercially navigable and the canals are out of use. Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county is 537,363 acres, with a population in 1891 of 115,949 and in 1901 of 114,380. The area of the administrative county is 538,921 acres. The county contains 12 hundreds. It is divided into two parliamentary divisions, Leominster (N.) and Ross (S.), and it also includes the parliamentary borough of Hereford, each returning one member. There are two municipal boroughs — Hereford (pop. 21,382) and Leominster (5826). The other urban districts are Bromyard (1663), Kington (1944), Ledbury (3259) and Ross (3303). The county is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes are held at Hereford. It has one court of quarter sessions and is divided into 1 1 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Hereford and Leominster have separate com- missions of the peace, and the borough of Hereford has in addition a separate court of quarter sessions. There are 260 civil parishes. The ancient county, which is almost entirely in the diocese of Hereford, with small parts in those of Gloucester, Worcester and Llandaff, contains 222 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part. History. — At some time in the 7th century the West Saxons pushed their way across the Severn and established themselves in the territory between Wales and Mercia, with which kingdom they soon became incorporated. The district which is now Herefordshire was occupied by a tribe the Hecanas, who con- gregated chiefly in the fertile area about Hereford and in the mining districts round Ross. In the 8th century Offa extended the Mercian frontier to the Wye, securing it by the earthwork known as Offa's dike, portions of which are visible at Knighton and Moorhampton in this county. In 91 5 the Danes made their way up the Severn to the district of Archenfield, where they took prisoner Cyfeiliawg bishop of Llandaff, and in 921 they besieged Wigmore, which had been rebuilt in that year by Edward. From the time of its first settlement the district was the scene of constant border warfare with the Welsh, and Harold, whose earldom included this county, ordered that any Welshman caught trespassing over the border should lose his right hand. In the period preceding the Conquest much disturbance was HEREFORDSHIRE 357 caused by the outrages of the Norman colony planted in this county by Edward the Confessor. Richard's castle in the north of the county was the first Norman fortress erected on English soil, and Wigmore, Ewyas Harold, Clifford, Weobley, Hereford, Donnington and Caldecot were all the sites of Norman strong- holds. The conqueror entrusted the subjugation of Hereford- shire to William FitzOsbern, but Edric the Wild in conjunction with the Welsh prolonged resistance against him for two years. In the wars of Stephen's reign Hereford and Weobley castles were held against the king, but were captured in 1 138. Edward, afterwards Edward I., was imprisoned in Hereford Castle, and made his famous escape thence in 1265. In 1326 the parliament assembled at Hereford which deposed Edward II. In the i4th and isth centuries the forest of Deerfold gave refuge to some of the most noted followers of Wycliffe. During the Wars of the Roses the influence of the Mortimers led the county to support the Yorkist cause, and Edward, afterwards Edward IV., raised 23,000 men in this neighbourhood. The battle of Mortimer's Cross was fought in 1461 near Wigmore. Before the outbreak of the civil war of the i7th century, complaints of illegal taxation were rife in Herefordshire, but a strong anti- puritan feeling induced the county to favour the royalist cause. Hereford, Goodrich and Ledbury all endured sieges. The earldom of Hereford was granted by William I. to William FitzOsbern, about 1067, but on the outlawry of his son Roger in 1074 the title lapsed until conferred on Henry de Bohun about 1199. It remained in the possession of the Bohuns until the death of Humphrey de Bohun in 1373; in 1397 Henry, earl of Derby, afterwards King Henry IV., who had married Mary Bohun, was created duke of Hereford. Edward VI. created Walter Devereux, a descendant of the Bohun family, Viscount Hereford, in 1550, and his grandson, the famous earl of Essex, was born in this county. Since this date the viscounty has been held by the Devereux family, and the holder ranks as the premier viscount of England. The families of Clifford, Giffard and Mortimer figured prominently in the warfare on the Welsh border, and the Talbots, Lacys, Crofts and Scuda- mores abo had important seats in the county, Sir James Scuda- more of Holme Lacy being the original of the Sir Scudamore of Spenser's Faery Queen. Sir John Oldcastle, the leader of the Lollards, was sheriff of Herefordshire in 1406. Herefordshire probably originated as a shire in the time of .lEthelstan, and is mentioned in the Saxon Chroncile in 1051. In the Domesday Survey parts of Monmouthshire and Radnor- shire are assessed under Herefordshire, and the western and southern borders remained debatable ground until with the incorporation of the Welsh marches in 1535 considerable territory was restored to Herefordshire and formed into the hundreds of Wigmore, Ewyas Lacy and Huntingdon, while Ewyas Harold was united to Webtree. At the time of the Domesday Survey the divisions of the county were very unsettled. As many as nineteen hundreds are mentioned, but these were of varying extent, some containing only one manor, some from twenty to thirty. Of the twelve modern hundreds, only Greytree, Radlow, Stretford, Wolphy and Wormelow retain Domesday names. Herefordshire has been included in the diocese of Hereford since its foundation in 676. In 1291 it comprised the deaneries of Hereford, Weston, Leominster, Weobley, Frome, Archenfield and Ross in the archdeaconry of Hereford, and the deaneries of Burford, Stottesdon, Ludlow, Pontesbury, Clun and Wenlock, in the archdeaconry of Shropshire. In 1877 the name of the archdeaconry of Shropshire was changed to Ludlow, and in 1899 the deaneries of Abbey Dore, Bromyard, Kingsland, Kington and Ledbury were created in the archdeaconry of Hereford. Herefordshire was governed by a sheriff as early as the reign of Edward the Confessor, the shire-court meeting at Hereford where later the assizes and quarter sessions were also held. In 1606 an act was passed declaring Hereford free from the juris- diction of the council of Wales, but the county was not finally relieved from the interference of the Lords Marchers until the reign of William and Mary. Herefordshire has always been esteemed an exceptionally rich agricultural area, the manufactures being unimportant, with the sole exception of the woollen and the cloth trade which flourished soon after the Conquest . Iron was worked in Wormelow hundred in Roman times, and the Domesday Survey mentions iron workers in Marcle. At the time of Henry VIII. the towns had become much impoverished, and Elizabeth in order to encourage local industries, insisted on her subjects wearing English-made caps from the factory of Hereford. Hops were grown in the county soon after their introduction into England in 1524. In 1580 and again in 1637 the county was severely visited by the plague, but in the i7th century it had a flourishing timber trade and was noted for its orchards and cider. Herefordshire was first represented in parliament in 1295, when it returned two members, the boroughs of Ledbury, Here- ford, Leominster and Weobley being also represented. Hereford was again represented in 1299, and Bromyard and Ross in 1304, but the boroughs made very irregular returns, and from 1306 until Weobley regained representation in 1627, only Hereford and Leominster were represented. Under the act of 1832 the county returned three members and Weobley was disfranchised. The act of 1868 deprived Leominster of one member, and under the act of 1885 Leominster was disfranchised, and Hereford lost one member. Antiquities. — There are remains of several of the strongholds which Herefordshire possessed as a march county, some of which were maintained and enlarged, after the settlement of the border, to serve in later wars. To the south of Ross are those of Wilton and Goodrich, commanding the Wye on the right bank, the latter a ruin of peculiar magnificence, and both gaining pictur- esqueness from their beautiful situations. Of the several castles in the valleys of the boundary-river Monnow and its tributaries, those in this county include Pembridge, Kilpeck and Longtown; of which the last shows extensive remains of the strong keep and thick walls. In the north the finest example is Wigmore, consisting of a keep on an artificial mound within outer walls, the seat of the powerful family of Mortimer. Beside the cathedral of Hereford, and the fine churches of Ledbury, Leominster' and Ross, described under separate headings, the county contains some churches of almost unique interest. In that of Kilpeck remarkable and unusual Norman work is seen. It consists of the three divisions of nave, choir and chancel, divided by ornate arches, the chancel ending in an apse, with a beautiful and elaborate west end and south doorway. The columns of the choir arch are composed of figures. A similar plan is seen in Peterchurch in the Golden Valley, and in Moccas church, on the Wye above Hereford. Among the large number of churches exhibiting Norman details that at Bromyard is noteworthy. At Abbey Dore, the Cistercian abbey church, still in use, is a large and beautiful specimen of Early English work, and there are slight remains of the monastic buildings. At Madley, south of the Wye 5 m. W. of Hereford, is a fine Decorated church (with earlier portions), with the rare feature of a Decorated apsidal chancel over an octagonal crypt. Of the churches in mixed styles those in the larger towns are the most noteworthy, together with that of Weobley. The half-timbered style of domestic architecture, common in the west and midlands of England in the i6th and i7th centuries, beautifies many of the towns and villages. Among country houses, that of Treago, 9 m. W. of Ross, is a remarkable example of a fortified mansion of the i3th century, in a condition little altered. Rudhall and Sufton Court, between Ross and Hereford, are good specimens of 15th-century work, and portions of Hampton Court, 8 m. N. of Hereford, are of the same period, built by Sir Rowland Lenthall, a favourite of Henry IV. Holme Lacy, 5 m. S.E. of Hereford, is a fine mansion of the latter part of the 1 7th century, with picturesque Dutch gardens, and much wood-carving by Grinling Gibbons within. This was formerly the seat of the Scudamores, from whom it was inherited by the Stanhopes, earls of Chesterfield, the gth earl of Chester- field taking the name of Scudamore-Stanhope. His son, the loth earl, has recently (1909) sold Holme Lacy to Sir Robert HERERO— HERESY Lucas-Tooth, Bart. Downton Castle possesses historical interest in having been designed in 1774, in a strange mixture of Gothic and Greek styles, by Richard Payne Knight (1750-1824), a famous scholar, numismatist and member of parliament for Leo- minster and Ludlow; while Eaton Hall, now a farm, was the seat of the family of the famous geographer Richard Hakluyt. See Victoria County History, Herefordshire; ]. Duncomb, Collec- tions towards the History and Antiquities of the County of Hereford (Hereford, 1804-1812); John Allen, Bibliotheca Herefordiensis (Here- ford, 1821); John Webb, Memorials of the Civil War between Charles I. and the Parliament of England as it affected Herefordshire and the adjacent Counties (London, 1879); R. Cooke, Visitation of Hereford- shire, 1569 (Exeter, 1886); F. T. Havergal, Herefordshire Words and Phrases (Walsall, 1887); J. Hutchinson, Herefordshire Bio- graphies (Hereford1, 1890). KERERO, or OVAHERERO (" merry people "), a Bantu people of German South- West Africa, living in the region known as Damaraland or Hereroland. They call themselves Ovaherero and their language Otshi-herero. Sometimes they are described as Cattle Damara or " Damara of the Plains " in distinction from the Hill Damara who are of mixed blood and Hottentots in language. The Herero, whose main occupation is that of cattle-rearing, are a warlike race, possessed of considerable mili- tary skill, as was shown in their campaigns of 1904-5 against the Germans. (See further GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA.) HERESY, the English equivalent of the Greek word oXpecris which 'is used in the Septuagint for " free choice," in later classical literature for a philosophical school or sect as " chosen " by those who belong to it, in Philo for religion, in Josephus for a religious party (the Sadducees, the Pharisees and the Essenes). It is in this last sense that the term is used in the New Testa- ment, usually with an implicit censure of the factious spirit to which such divisions are due. The term is applied Testa- to tne Sadducees (Acts v. 17) and Pharisees (Acts xv. meat. 5, xxvi. 5). From the standpoint of opponents, Christianity is itself so described (Acts xxiv. 14, xxviii. 22). In the Pauline Epistles it is used with severe condemnation of the divisions within the Christian Church itself. Heresies with " enmities, strife, jealousies, wraths, factions, divisions, envyings " are reckoned among " the works of the flesh " (Gal. v. 20). Such divisions, proofs of a carnal mind, are censured in the church of Corinth (i Cor. iii. 3, 4); and the church of Rome is warned against those who cause them (Rom. xvi. 17). The term " schism," afterwards distinguished from " heresy," is also used of these divisions (i Cor. i. 10). The estrangements of the rich and the poor in the church at Corinth, leading to a lack of Christian fellowship even at the Lord's Supper, is described as " heresy " (i Cor. xi. 10). Breaches of the law of love, not errors about the truth of the Gospel, are referred to in these passages. But the first step towards the ecclesiastical use of the term is found already in 2 Peter ii. i, " Among you also there shall be false teachers who shah1 privily bring in destructive heresies (R.V. margin " sects of perdition "), denying even the Master that bought them, bringing upon themselves swift destruction." The meaning here suggested is " falsely chosen or erroneous tenets. Already the emphasis is moving from persons and their temper to mental products — from the sphere of sympathetic love to that of objective truth " (Bartlet, art. "Heresy," Hastings's Bible Dictionary). As the parallel passage in Jude, verse 4, shows, however, that these errors had immoral consequences, the moral reference is not absent even from this passage. The first employment of the term outside the New Testament is also its first use for theological error. Ignatius applies it to Docetism (Ad Trail. 6). As doctrine came to be made more important, heresy was restricted to any de- parture from the recognized creed. Even Constantine the Great describes the Christian Church as " the Catholic heresy," " the most sacred heresy " (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, x. c. 5, the letter to Chrestus, bishop of Syracuse); but this use was very soon abandoned, and the Catholic Church distinguished itself from the dissenting minorities, which it condemned as " heresies." The use of the term heresy in the New Testament cannot be regarded as defining the attitude of the Christian Gnostic- ism, Church, even in the Apostolic age, towards errors in belief. The Apostolic writings show a vehement antagonism towards all teaching opposed to the Gospel. Paul declares anathema the Judaizer, who required the circumcision of the Gentiles (Gal. i. 8), and even calls them the " dogs of the concision " and " evil workers " (Phil. iii. 2). The elders of Ephesus are warned against the false teachers who would appear in the church after the apostle's death as " grievous wolves not sparing the flock " (Acts xx. 29) ; and the speculations of the Gnostics are denounced as " seducing spirits and doctrines of devils " (i Tim. iv. i), as " profane babblings and oppositions of the knowledge which is falsely so called " (vi. 20). John's warnings are as earnest and severe. Those who deny the fact of the Incarnation are described as " antichrist," and as " deceivers " (i John iv. 3; 2 John 7). The references to heretics in 2 Peter and Jude have already been dealt with. This antagonism is explicable by the character of the heresies that threatened the Christian Church in the Apostolic age. Each of these heresies involved such a blending of the Gospel with either Jewish or pagan elements, as would not only pollute its purity, but destroy its power. In each of these the Gospel was in danger of being made of none effect by the environ- ment, which it must resist in order that it might transform (see Burton's Bampton Lectures on The Heresies of the Apostolic Age). These Gnostic heresies, which threatened to paganize the Christian Church, were condemned in no measured terms by the fathers. These false teachers are denounced as " servants of Satan, beasts in human shape, dealers in deadly poison, robbers and pirates." Polycarp, Ignatius, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Tertullian and even Clement of Alexandria and Origen are as severe in con- demnation as the later fathers (cf. Matt. xiii. 35-43; Tertullian, Praescr. 31). While the necessity of the heresies is admitted in accordance with i Cor. xi. 19, yet woe is pronounced on those who have introduced them, according to Matt, xviii. 7. (This application of these passages, however, is of altogether doubtful validity.) " It was necessary," says Tertullian (ibid. 30), " that the Lord should be betrayed; but woe to the traitor." The very worst motives, " pride, disappointed ambition, sensual lust, and avarice," are recklessly imputed to the heretics; and no possibility of morally innocent doubt, difficulty or difference in thought is admitted. Origen and Augustine do, however, recognize that even false teachers may have good motives. .While we must admit that there was a very serious peril to the thought and life of the Christian Church in the teaching thus denounced, yet we must not forget that for the most part these teachers are known to us only in the ex parte representation that their opponents have given of them; and we must not assume that even their doctrines, still less their characters, were so bad as they are described. The attitude of the church in the post-Nicene period differs from that in the ante-Nicene in two important respects, (i) As has already been indicated, the earlier heresies threatened to introduce Jewish or pagan elements into the faith of the church, and it was necessary that they should be vigorously resisted if the church was to retain its distinctive character. Many of the later heresies were differences in the interpretation of Christian truth, which did not in the same way threaten the very life of the church. No vital interest of Christian faith justified the extravagant denunciations in which theological partisanship so recklessly and ruthlessly indulged. (2) In the ante-Nicene period only ecclesiastical penalties, such as reproof, deposition or excommunication, could be imposed. In the post-Nicene the union of church and state transformed theological error into legal offence (see below). We must now consider the definition of heresy which was gradually reached in the Christian Church. It is " a religious error held in wilful and persistent opposition to the truth after it has been defined and declared by the church in an authoritative manner," or " pertinax defensio dogmatis ecclesiae universalis judicio con- demnati " (Schaff's Ante-Nicene Christianity, ii. 512-516). (i.) It " denotes an opinion antagonistic to a fundamental HERESY 359 article of the Christian faith," due to the introduction of " foreign elements " and resulting in a perversion of Christianity, and an amalgamation with it of ideas discordant with its nature (Fisher's History of Christian Doctrine, p. 9). It has been generally assumed that the ecclesiastical authority was always competent to determine what are the fundamental articles of the Christian faith, and to detect any departures from them; but it is necessary to admit the possibility that the error was in the church, and the truth was with the heresy, (ii.) There cannot be any heresy where there is no orthodoxy, and, therefore, in the definition it is assumed that the church has declared what is the truth or the error in any matter. Accordingly " heresy is to be distinguished from defective stages of Christian knowledge. For example, the Jewish believers, including the Apostles themselves, at the outset required the Gentile believers to be circumcised. They were not on this account chargeable with heresy. Additional light must first come in, and be rejected, before that earlier opinion could be thus stigmatized. Moreover, heresies are not to be confounded with tentative and faulty hypotheses broached in a period prior to the scrutiny of a topic of Christian doctrine, and before that scrutiny has led the general mind to an assured conclusion. Such hypotheses — for example, the idea that in the person of Christ the Logos is substituted for a rational human spirit — are to be met with in certain early fathers " (ibid. p. 10). Origen indulged in many speculations which were afterwards condemned, but, as these matters were still open questions in his day, he was not reckoned a heretic, (iii.) In accordance with the New Testament use of the term heresy, it is assumed that moral defect accompanies the intel- lectual error, that the false view is held pertinaciously, in spite of warning, remonstrance and rebuke; aggressively to win over others, and so factiously, to cause division in the church, a breach in its unity. A distinction is made between " heresy " and " schism " (from Gr. crxifeii', rend asunder, divide). " The fathers Schism. commonly use ' heresy ' of false teaching in opposition to Catholic doctrine, and ' schism ' of a breach of discipline, in opposition to Catholic government " (Schaff). But as the claims of the church to be the guardian through its episcopate of the apostolic tradition, of the Christian faith itself, were magnified, and unity in practice as well as in doctrine came to be regarded as essential, this distinction became a theoretical rather than a practical one. While severely condemn- ing, both Irenaeus and Tertullian distinguished schismatics from heretics. " Though we are by no means entitled to say that they acknowledged orthodox schismatics they did not yet venture to reckon them simply as heretics. If it was desired to get rid of these, an effort was made to impute to them some deviation from the rule of faith; and under this pretext the church freed herself from the Montanists and the Monarchians. Cyprian was the first to proclaim the identity of heretics and schismatics by making a man's Christianity depend on his belonging to the great episcopal church confederation. But in both East and West, this theory of his became established only by very imperceptible degrees, and indeed, strictly speaking, the process was never completed. The distinction between heretics and schismatics was preserved because it prevented a public denial of the old principles, because it was advisable on political grounds to treat certain schismatic communities with indulgence, and because it was always possible in case of need to prove heresy against the schismatics." (Harnack's History of Dogma, ii. 92-93). There was considerable controversy in the early church as to the validity of heretical baptism. As even " the Christian „ , , virtues of the heretics were described as hypocrisy Heretical „ ' baptism an" 'ove °* ostentation, so no value whatever was attached by the orthodox party to the sacraments performed by heretics. Tertullian declares that the church can have no communion with the heretics, for there is nothing common; as they have not the same God, and the same Christ, so they have not the same baptism (De bapt. 15). Cyprian agreed with him. The validity of heretical baptism was denied " by the church of Asia Minor as well as of Africa; but the practice of the Roman Church was to admit without second baptism heretics who had been baptized with the name of Christ, or of the Holy Trinity. Stephen of Rome attempted to force the Roman practice on the whole church in 253. The controversy his intolerance provoked was closed by Augustine's controversial treatise De Baplismo, in which the validity of baptism ad- ministered by heretics is based on the objectivity of the sacra- ment. Whenever the name of the three-one God is used, the sacrament is declared valid by whomsoever it may be performed. This was a triumph of sacramentarianism, not of charity. Three types of heresy have appeared in the history of the Christian Church.1 The earliest may be called the syncretic; it is the fusion of Jewish or pagan with Christian elements. Ebionitism asserted " the continual obliga- tion to observe the whole of the Mosaic law," and " outran the Old Testament monotheism by a barren monarchian- ism that denied the divinity of Christ " (Kurtz, Church History, i. 120). Gnosticism was the result of the attempt to blend with Christianity the religious notions of pagan mythology, mysterology, theosophy and philosophy " (p. 98). The Judaizing and the paganizing tendency were combined in Gnostic Ebionitism which was prepared for in Jewish Essenism. In the later heresy of Manichaeism there were affinities to Gnosticism, but it was a mixture of many elements, Babylonian-Chaldaic theosophy, Persian dualism and even Buddhist ethics (p. 126). The next type of heresy may be called evolutionary orformatory. When the Christian faith is being formulated, undue emphasis may be put on one aspect, and thus so partial a statement of truth may result in error. Thus when in the ante-Nicene age the doctrine of the Trinity was under discussion, dynamic Monarchianism " regarded Christ as a mere man, who, like the prophets, though in a much higher measure, had been endued with divine wisdom and power "; modal Monarchianism saw in the Logos dwelling in Christ " only a mode of the activity of the Father "; Palripassianism identified the Logos with the Father; and Sabellianism regarded Father, Son and Spirit as "the roles which the God who manifests Himself in the world assumes in succession" (Kurtz, Church History, i. 175-181). When Arius asserted the subordination of the Son to the Father, and denied the eternal generation, Athanasius and his party asserted the Homoousia, the cosubstantiality of the Father and the Son. This assertion of the divinity of Christ triumphed, but other problems at once emerged. How was the relation of the humanity to the divinity in Christ to be conceived? Apollinaris denied the completeness of the human nature, and substituted the divine Logos for the reasonable soul of man. Nestorius held the two natures so far apart as to appear to sacrifice the unity of the person of Christ. Eutyches on the contrary " taught not only that after His incarnation Christ had only one nature, but also that the body of Christ as the body of God is not of like substance with our own " (Kurtz, Church History, i. 330-334). The Church in the Creed of Chalcedon in A.D. 451 affirmed " that Christ is true God and true man, according to His Godhead begotten from eternity and like the Father in everything, only without sin; and that after His incarnation the unity of the person consists in two natures which are con- joined without confusion, and without change, but also without rending and without separation." The problem was not solved, but the inadequate solutions were excluded, and the data to be considered in any adequate solution were affirmed. After this decision the controversies about the Person of Christ degenerated into mere hair-splitting; and the interference of the imperial authority from time to time in the dispute was not conducive to the settlement of the questions in the interests of truth alone. This problem interested the East for the most part; in the West there was waged a theological warfare around the nature of man and the work of Christ. To Augustine's doctrine of man's total depravity, his incapacity for any good, and the absolute sovereignty of the divine grace in salvation according to the divine election, Pelagius opposed the view that " God's grace 1 For fuller details see separate articles. 36° HERESY is destined for all men, but man must make himself worthy of it by honest striving after virtue " (Kurtz, Church History, i. 348). While Pelagius was condemned, it was only a modified Augustinianism which became the doctrine of the church. It is not necessary in illustration of the second type of heresy — that which arises when the contents of the Christian faith are being defined — to refer to the doctrinal controversies of the middle ages. It may be added that after the Reformation Arianism was revived in Socinianism, and Pelagianism in Arminianism; but the conception of heresy in Protestantism demands sub- sequent notice. The third type of heresy is the revolutionary or reformatory. This is not directed against doctrine as such, but against the church, its theory and its practice. Such movements of antagon- ism to the errors or abuses of ecclesiastical authority may be so permeated by defective conceptions and injurious influences as by their own character to deserve condemnation. But on the other hand the church in maintaining its place and power may condemn as heretical genuine efforts at reform by a return, though partial, to the standard set by the Holy Scriptures or the Apostolic Church. On the one hand there were during the middle ages sects, like the Catharists and Albigenses, whose "opposition as a rule developed itself from dualistic or panthe- istic premises (surviving effects of old Gnostic or Manichaean views) " and who " stood outside of ordinary Christendom, and while no doubt affecting many individual members within it, had no influence on church doctrine." On the other hand there were movements, such as the Waldensian, the Wycliffite and Hussite, which are of ten described as " reformations anticipat- ing the Reformation " which " set out from the Augustinian conception of the Church, but took exception to the develop- ment of the conception," and were pronounced by the medieval church as heretical foT (i) " contesting the hierarchical gradation of the priestly order; or (2) giving to the religious idea of the Church implied in the thought of predestination a place superior to the conception of the empirical Church; or (3) applying to the priests, and thereby to the authorities of the Church, the test of the law of God, before admitting their right to exercise, as holding the keys, the power of binding and loosing " (Harnack's History of Dogma, vi. 136-137). The Reformation itself was from the standpoint of the Roman Catholic Church heresy and schism. " In the present divided state of Christendom," says Schaff (Ante-Nicens Christianity, ii. 513-514), " there are different kinds of orthodoxy and heresy. Orthodoxy is con- n°der" formity to the recognized creed or standard of public "term. ' doctrine; heresy is a wilful departure from it. The Greek Church rejects as heretical, because contrary to the teaching of the first seven ecumenical councils, the Roman dogmas of the papacy, of the double procession of the Holy Ghost, the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary, and the infallibility of the Pope. The Roman Church anathematized, in the council of Trent, all the distinctive doctrines of the Pro- testant Reformation. Among Protestant churches again there are minor doctrinal differences, which are held with various degrees of exclusiveness or liberality according to the degree of departure from the Roman Catholic Church. Luther, for instance, would not tolerate Zwingli's view on the Lord's Supper, while Zwingli was willing to fraternize with him notwithstanding this difference." At the colloquy of Marburg " Zwingli offered his hand to Luther with the entreaty that they be at least Christian brethren, but Luther refused it and declared that the Swiss were of another spirit. He expressed surprise that a man of such views as Zwingli should wish brotherly relations with the Wittenberg reformers" (Walker, The Reformation, p. 174). A difference of opinion on the question of the presence of Christ in the elements at the Lord's Supper was thus allowed to divide and to weaken the forces of the Reformation. On the problem of divine election Lutheranism and Calvinism remained divided. The Formula of Concord (1577), which gave to the whole Lutheran Church of Germany a common doctrinal system, declined to accept the Calvinistic position that man's condemnation as well as his salvation is an object of divine predestination. Within Calvinism itself Pelagianism was revived in Arminianism, which denied the irresistibility, and affirmed the universality of grace. This heresy was condemned by the synod of Dort (1619). The standpoint of the Reformed churches was the substitution of the authority of the Scriptures for the authority of the church. Whatever was conceived as contrary to the teaching of the Bible was regarded as heresy. The position is well expressed in the Scotch Confession (1559). "Protesting, that if any man will note in this our Confession any article or sentence repugning to God's Holy Word, that it would please him, of his gentleness, and for Christian charity's sake, to ad- monish us of the same in writ, and we of our honour and fidelity do promise unto him satisfaction from the mouth of God; that is, from His Holy Scripture, or else reformation of that which he shall prove to be amiss. In God we take to record in our consciences that from our hearts we abhor all sects of heresy, and all teachers of erroneous doctrines; and that with all humility we embrace purity of Christ's evangel, which is the only food of our souls " (Preface). Although subsequently to the Reformation period the Pro- testant churches for the most part relapsed into the dogmatism of the Roman Catholic Church, and were ever ready with censure for every departure from orthodoxy — yet to-day a spirit of diffidence in regard to one's own beliefs, and of tolerance towards the beliefs of others, is abroad. The enlargement of the horizon of knowledge by the advance of science, the recogni- tion of the only relative validity of human opinions and beliefs as determined by and adapted to each stage of human development, which is due to the growing historical sense, the alteration of view regarding the nature of inspiration, and the purpose of the Holy Scriptures, the revolt against all ecclesiastical authority, and the acceptance of reason and conscience as alone authorita- tive, the growth of the spirit of Christian charity, the clamorous demand of the social problem for immediate attention, all com- bine in making the Christian churches less anxious about the danger, and less zealous in the discovery and condemnation of heresy. Having traced the history of opinion in the Christian churches on the subject of heresy, we must now return to resume a sub- ject already mentioned, the persecution of heretics. According to the Canon Law, which " was the ecclesi- 11 T-. • r astical law of medieval Europe, and is still the law of the Roman Catholic Church," heresy was defined as " error which is voluntarily held in contradiction to a doctrine which has been clearly stated in the creed, and has become part of the defined faith of the church," and which is " persisted in by a member of the church." It was regarded not only as an error, but also as a crime to be detected and punished. As it belongs, however, to a man's thoughts and not his deeds, it often can be proved only from suspicions. The canonists define the degrees of suspicion as " light " calling for vigilance, " vehement " demanding denunciation, and " violent " requiring punishment. The grounds of suspicion have been formulated " Pope Innocent III. declared that to lead a solitary life, to refuse to accommodate oneself to the prevailing manners of society, and to frequent unauthorized religious meetings were abundant grounds of suspicion; while later canonists were accustomed to give lists of deeds which made the doers suspect: a priest who did not celebrate mass, a layman who was seen in clerical robes, those who favoured heretics, received them as guests, gave them safe conduct, tolerated them, trusted them, defended them, fought under them or read their books were all to be suspect " (T.M. Lindsay in article " Heresy," Ency. Brit, gth edition). That the dangers of heresy might be avoided, laymen were forbidden to argue about matters of faith by Pope Alexander IV., an oath " to abjure every heresy and to maintain in its completeness the Catholic faith " was required by the council of Toledo (1129), the reading of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue was not allowed to the laity by Pope Pius IV. The reading of books was restricted and certain books were prohibited. Regarding heresy as a crime, the church was not content with inflicting its spiritual penalties, heretics. HERESY 361 such as excommunication and such civil disabilities as its own organization allowed it to impose (e.g. the heretics were forbidden to give evidence in ecclesiastical courts, fathers were forbidden to allow a son or a daughter to marry a heretic, and to hold social intercourse with a heretic was an offence). It regarded itself as justified in invoking the power of the state to suppress heresy by civil pains and penalties, including even torture and death. The story of the persecution of heretics by the state must be briefly sketched. As long as the Christian Church was itself persecuted by ,the pagan empire, it advocated freedom of conscience, and insisted that religion could be promoted only by instruction and per- suasion (Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Lactantius); but almost immediately after Christianity was adopted as the religion of the Roman empire the persecution of men for religious opinions began. While Constantine at the beginning of his reign (313) declared complete religious liberty, and kept on the whole to this declaration, yet he confined his favours to the orthodox hierarchical church, and even by an edict of the year 326 formally asserted the exclusion from these of heretics and schismatics. Arianism, when favoured by the reigning emperor, showed itself even more intolerant than Catholic Orthodoxy. Theodosius the Great, in 380, soon after his baptism, issued, with his co- emperors, the following edict: " We, the three emperors, will that all our subjects steadfastly adhere to the religion which was taught by St Peter to the Romans, which has been faithfully preserved by tradition, and which is now professed by the pontiff Damasus of Rome, and Peter, bishop of Alexandria, a man of apostolic holiness. According to the institution of the Apostles, and the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one Godhead of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, of equal majesty in the Holy Trinity. We order that the adherents of this faith be called Catholic Christians; we brand all the senseless followers of the other religions with the infamous name of heretics, and forbid their conventicles assuming the name of churches. Besides the condemnation of divine justice, they must expect the heavy penalties which our authority, guided by heavenly wisdom, shall think proper to inflict " (Schaff's Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity, i. 142). The fifteen penal laws which this emperor issued in as many years deprived them of all right to the exercise of their religion, " excluded them from all civil offices, and threatened them with fines, confiscation, banishment and even in some cases with death." In 385 Maximus, his rival and colleague, caused seven heretics to be put to death at Treves (Trier). Many bishops approved the act, but Ambrose of Milan and Martin of Tours condemned it. While Chrysostom dis- approved of the execution of heretics, he approved " the pro- hibition of their assemblies and the confiscation of their churches." Jerome by an appeal to Deut. xiii. 6-10 appears to defend even the execution of heretics. Augustine found a justification for these penal measures in the " compel them to come in " of Luke xiv. 23, although his personal leanings were towards clemency. Only the persecuted themselves insisted on toleration as a Christian duty. In the middle ages the church showed no hesitation about persecuting unto death all who dared to con- tradict her doctrine, or challenge her practice, or question her authority. The instruction and persuasion which St Bernard favoured found little imitation. Even the Dominicans, who began as a preaching order to convert heretics, soon became persecutors. In the Albigensian Crusade (A.D. 1209-1229) thousands were slaughtered. As the bishops were not zealous enough in enforcing penal laws against heretics, the Tribunal of the Inquisition was founded in 1232 by Gregory IX., and was entrusted to the Dominicans who " as Domini canes subjected to the most cruel tortures all on whom the suspicion of heresy fell, and ah1 the resolute were handed over to the civil authorities, who readily undertook their execution " (Kurtz, Church History, «• 137-138). At the Reformation Luther laid down the principle that the civil government is concerned with the province of the external and temporal life, and has nothing to do with faith and conscience. " How could the emperor gain the right," he asks, " to rule my faith?" With that only the Word of God is concerned. " Heresy is a spiritual thing," he says, " which one cannot hew with any iron, burn with any fire, drown with any water. The Word of God alone is there to do it." Nevertheless Luther assigned to the state, which he assumes to be Christian, the function of maintaining the Gospel and the Word of God in public life. He was not quite consistent in carrying out his principle (see Luthard's Geschichte der chrisllichen Ethik, ii. 33). In the Religious Peace of Augsburg the principle " cujus regio ejus religio " was accepted; by it a ruler's choice between Catholicism and Lutheranism bound his subjects, but any subject unwilling to accept the decision might emigrate without hindrance. In Geneva under Calvin, while the Consistoire, or ecclesiastical court, could inflict only spiritual penalties, yet the medieval idea of the duty of the state to co-operate with the church to maintain the religious purity of the community in matters of belief as well as of conduct so far survived that the civil authority was sure to punish those whom the ecclesiastical had censured. Calvin consented to the death of Servetus, whose views on the Trinity he regarded as most dangerous heresy, and whose denial of the full authority of the Scriptures he dreaded as overthrow- ing the foundations of all religious authority. Protestantism generally, it is to be observed, quite approved the execution of the heretic. The Synod of Dort (1619) not only condemned Arminianism, but its defenders were expelled from the Nether- lands; only in 1625 did they venture to return, and not till 1630 were they allowed to erect schools and churches. In modern Protestantism there is a growing disinclination to deal even with errors of belief by ecclesiastical censure; the appeal to the civil authority to inflict any penalty is abandoned. During the course of the igth century in Scottish Presbyterianism the affirmation of Christ's atoning death for all men, the denial of eternal punishment, the modification of the doctrine of the inspiration of the Scriptures by acceptance of the results of the Higher Criticism, were all censured as perilous errors. The subject cannot be left without a brief reference to the persecution of witches. To the beginning of the i3th century the popular superstitions regarding sorcery, witchcraft and compacts with the devil were condemned by the ecclesiastical authorities as heathenish, sinful and heretical. But after the establishment of the Inquisition " heresy and sorcery were regarded as correlates, like two agencies resting on and service- able to the demoniacal powers, and were therefore treated in the same way as offences to be punished with torture and the stake " (Kurtz, Church History, ii. 195). While the Franciscans rejected the belief in witchcraft, the Dominicans were most zealous in persecuting witches. In the i $th century this delusion , fostered by the ecclesiastical authorities, took possession of the mind of the people, and thousands, mostly old women, but also a number of girls, were tortured and burned as witches. Pro- testantism took over the superstition from Catholicism. It was defended by James I. of England. As late as the i8th century death was inflicted in Germany and Switzerland on men, women and even children accused of this crime. This superstition dominated Scotland. Not till 1736 were the statutes against witchcraft repealed; an act which the Associate Presbytery at Edinburgh in 1743 declared to be " contrary to the express law of God, for which a holy God may be provoked in a way of righteous judgment." The recognition and condemnation of errors in religious belief is by no means confined to the Christian Church. Only a few instances of heresy in other religions can be given. In regard to the fetishism of the Gold Coast rioa~ of Africa, Jevons (Introduction to the History of religions. Religion, pp. 165-166) maintains that " public opinion does not approve of the worship by an individual of a suhman, or private tutelary deity, and that his dealings with it are regarded in the nature of ' black art ' as it is not a god of the community." In China there is a " classical or canonical, primitive and therefore alone orthodox (tsching) and true 362 HERESY religion," Confucianism and Taoism, while the " heterodox (sic)," Buddhism especially, is " partly tolerated, but generally forbidden, and even cruelly persecuted " (Chantepie de la Saussaye, Religionsgeschichte, i. 57). In Islam " according to an unconfirmed tradition Mahomet is said to have foretold that his community would split into seventy-three sects (see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION, § Sects), of which only one would escape the flames of hell." The first split was due to uncertainty regarding the principle which should rule the succession to the Caliphate. The Arabic and orthodox party (i.e. the Sunnites, who held by the Koran and tradition) maintained that this should be determined by the choice of the community. The Persian and heterodox party (the Shiites) insisted on heredity. But this political difference was connected with theological differences. The sect of the Mu'tazilites which affirmed that the Koran had been created, and denied predestination, began to be persecuted by the government in the pth century, and discussion of religious questions was forbidden (see CALIPHATE, sections B and C). The mystical tendency in Islam, Sufism, is also regarded as heretical (see Kuenen's Hibbert Lecture, pp. 45-50). Buddhism is a wide departure in doctrine and practice from Brahmanism, and hence after a swift unfolding and quick spread it was driven out of India and had to find a home in other lands. Essenism from the standpoint of Judaism was heterodox in two respects, the abandonment of animal sacrifices and the adoration of the sun. Although in Greece there was generally wide tolerance, yet in 399 B.C. Socrates " was indicted as an irreligious man, a corrupter of youth, and an innovator in worship." Besides the works quoted above, see Gottfried Arnold's Unpar- teiische Kitchen- und Ketzer-Historie (1699-1700; ed. Schaffhausen, 1740). A very good list of writers on heresy, ancient and medieval, is given in Burton's Bampton Lectures on Heresies of the Apostolic Age (1829). The various Trinitarian and Christological heresies may be studied in Dorner's History of the Doctrine of the Person of C&m«(i 845- 1856; Eng. trans., 1861-1862) ; the Gnostic and Manichaean heresies in the works of Mansel, Matter and Beausobre ; the medieval heresies in Hahn's Geschichte der Ketzer im Mittelalter (1846-1850), and Preger's Geschichte der deutschen Mystik (1875) ; Quietism in Heppe's Geschichte der quietistischen Mystik (1875); the Pietist sects in Palmer's Gemeinschaften und Secten Wilrttembergs (1875); the Reformation and 17th-century heresies and sects in the Anabaptis- ticum et enthusiasticum Pantheon und geistliches Rust-Haus (1702). Bohmer's Jus ecclesiasticum Protestantium (1714-1723), and van Espen's Jus ecclesiasticum (1702) detail at great length the relations of heresy to canon and civil law. On the question of the baptism of heretics see Smith and Cheetham's Diet, of Eccl. Antiquities, " Baptism, Iteration of "; and on that of the readmission of heretics into the church, compare Martene, De ritibus, and Morinus, De poenilentia. (A. E. G.*) Heresy according to the Law of England. — The highest point reached by the ecclesiastical power in England was in the Act De Haeretico comburendo (2 Henry IV. c. 15). Some have supposed that a writ of that name is as old as the common law, but its execution might be arrested by a pardon from the crown. The Act of Henry IV. enabled the diocesan alone, without the co-operation of a synod, to pronounce sentence of heresy, and required the sheriff to execute it by burning the offender, without waiting for the consent of the crown.1 A large number of penal statutes were enacted in the following reigns, and the statute I Eliz. c. I is regarded by lawyers as limiting for the first time the description of heresy to tenets declared heretical either by the canonical Scripture or by the first four general councils, or such as should thereafter be so declared by parliament with theassent of Convocation. The writ was abolished by 29 Car.II. c. 9, which reserved to the ecclesiastical courts their jurisdiction over heresy and similar offences, and their power of awarding punishments not extending to death. Heresy became henceforward a purely ecclesiastical offence, although disabling laws of various kinds continued to be enforced against Jews, Catholics and other dissenters. The temporal courts have no knowledge of any offence known as heresy, although incidentally (e.g. in questions of copyright) they have refused protection to persons promulgating irreligious or blasphemous opinions. As an ecclesiastical offence it would at this moment be almost impossible to say what opinion, in the case of a layman at least, would be deemed heretical. Apparently, if a proper case could be made out, an ecclesiastical court might still sentence a layman to excommunication for heresy, but by no other means could his opinions be brought under censure. The last case on the subject (Jenkins v. Cook, L.R. I P.D. 80) leaves the matter in the same uncertainty. In that case a clergyman refused the communion 1 Stephen's Commentaries, bk. iv. ch. 7. to a parishioner who denied the personality of the devil. The judicial committee held that the rights of the parishioners are expressly defined in the statute of I Edw. VI. c. i, and, without admitting that the canons of the church, which are not binding on the laity, could specify a lawful cause for rejection, held that no lawful cause within the meaning of either the canons or the rubric had been shown. It was maintained at the bar that the denial of the most fundamental doctrines of Christianity would not be a lawful cause for such rejection, but the judgment only queries whether a denial of the personality of the devil or eternal punishment is consistent with membership of the church. The right of every layman to the offices of the church is established by statute without reference to opinions, and it is not possible to say what opinions, if any, would operate to disqualify him. The case of clergymen is entirely different. The statute 13 Eliz. c. 12, § 2, enacts that " if any person ecclesiastical, or which shall have an ecclesiastical living, shall advisedly maintain or affirm any doctrine directly contrary or repugnant to any of the said articles, and by conventicle before the bishop of the diocese, or the ordinary, or before the queen's highness's commissioners in matters ecclesiasti- cal, shall persist therein or not revoke his error, or after such revoca- tion eftsoons affirm such untrue doctrine," he shall be deprived of his ecclesiastical promotions. The act it will be observed applies only to clergymen, and the punishment is strictly limited to depriva- tion of benefice. The judicial committee of the privy council, as the last court of appeal, has on several occasions pronounced judg- ments by which the scope of the act has been confined to its narrowest legal effect. The court will construe the Articles of Religion and formularies according to the legal rules for the interpretation of statutes and written instruments. No rule of doctrine is to be ascribed to the church which is not distinctly and expressly stated or plainly involved in the written law of the Church, and where there is no rule, a clergy- man may express his opinion without fear of penal consequences. In the Essays and Reviews cases (Williams v. the Bishop of Salisbury, and Wilson v. Kendall, 2 Moo. P.C.C., -N.S. 375) it was held to be not penal fora clergyman to speak of merit by transfer as a " fiction," or to express a hope of the ultimate pardon of the wicked, or to affirm that any part of the Old or New Testament, however uncon- nected with religious faith or moral duty, was not written under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. In the case of Noble v. Voysey (L.R. 3 P.C. 357) in 1871 the committee held that it was not bound to affix a meaning to articles of really dubious import, as it would have been in cases affecting property. At the same time any manifest contradiction of the Articles, or any obvious evasion of them, would subject the offender to the penalties of deprivation. In some of the cases the question has been raised how far the doctrine of the church could be ascertained by reference to the opinions generally expressed by divines belonging to its communion. Such opinions, it would seem, might be taken into account as showing the extent of liberty which had been in practice, claimed and exercised on the interpretation of the articles, but would certainly not be allowed to increase their stringency. It is not the business of the court to pronounce upon the absolute truth or falsehood of any given opinion, but simply to say whether it is formally consistent with the legal doctrines of the Church of England. Whether Convocation has any jurisdiction in cases of heresy is a question which has occasioned some difference of opinion among lawyers. Hale, as quoted by Phillimore (Ecc. Law) , say s that before the time of Richard II., that is, before any acts of Parliament were made about heretics, it is without question that in a convocation of the clergy or provincial synod " they might and frequently did here in England proceed to the sentencing of heretics." But later writers, while adhering to the statement that Convocation might declare opinions to be heretical, doubted whether it could proceed to punish the offender, even when he was a clerk in orders. Phillimore states that there is no longer any doubt, even apart from the effect of the Church Discipline Act 1840, that Convocation has no power to condemn clergymen for heresy. The supposed right of Convocation to stamp heretical opinions with its disapproval was exercised on a somewhat memorable occasion. In 1864 the Convocation of the province of Canterbury, having taken the opinion of two of the most eminent lawyers of the day (Sir Hugh Cairns and Sir John Roll), passed judgment upon the volume entitled Essays and Reviews. The judgment purported to " synodically condemn the said volume as containing teaching contrary to the doctrine received by the United Church of England and Ireland, in common with the whole Catholic Church of Christ." These proceedings were challenged in the House of Lords by Lord Houghton, and the lord chancellor (Westbury), speaking on behalf of the government, stated that if there was any "synodical judgment" it would be a violation of the law, subjecting those concerned in it to the penalties of a praemunire, but that the sentence in question was " simply nothing, literally no sentence at all." It is thus at least doubtful whether Convocation has a right even to express an opinion unless specially authorized to do so by the crown, and it is certain that it cannot do anything more. Heresy or no heresy, in the last resort, like all other ecclesiastical questions, is decided by the judicial committee of the council. The English lawyers, following the Roman law, distinguish between heresy and apostasy. The latter offence is dealt with by an act which still stands on the statute book, although it has long been HEREWARD— HERIOT, G. 363 virtually obsolete— the o & 10 Will. III. c. 35. If any person who has been educated in or has professed the Christian religion shall, by writing, printing, teaching, or advised speaking, assert or maintain that there are more Gods than one, or shall deny any of the persons of the Holy Trinity to be God, or shall deny the Christian religion to be true or the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be ot divine authority, he shall for the first offence be declared incapable of holding any ecclesiastical, civil, or military office or employment, and for the second incapable of bringing any action, or of being guardian, executor, legatee, or grantee, and shall suffer three years' imprisonment without bail. Unitarians were saved from these atrocious penalties by a later act (53 Geo. III. c. 160), which permits Christians to deny any of the persons in the Trinity without penal consequences. HEREWARD, usually but erroneously styled " the Wake " (an addition of later days), an Englishman famous for his re- sistance to William the Conqueror. It is now established that he was a tenant of Peterborough Abbey, from which he held lands at Witham-on-the-Hill and Barholme with Stow in the south-western corner of Lincolnshire, and of Crowland Abbey at Rippingale in the neighbouring fenland. His first authentic act is the storm and sacking of Peterborough in 1070, in company with outlaws and Danish invaders. The next year he took part in the desperate stand against the Conqueror's rule made in the isle of Ely, and, on its capture by the Normans, escaped with his followers through the fens. That his exploits made an exceptional impression on the popular mind is certain from the mass of legendary history that clustered round his name; he became, says Mr Davis, " in popular eyes the champion of the English national cause." The Hereward legend has been fully dealt with by him and by Professor Freeman, who observed that " with no name has fiction been more busy." See E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest, vol. iv. ; J. H. Round, Feudal England; H. W. C. Davis, England under the Normans and Angevins. (J- H. R.) HERFORD, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, situated at the confluence of the Werre and Aa, on the Minden & Cologne railway, 9 m. N.E. of Bielefeld, and at the junction of the railway to Detmold and Altenbeken. Pop. (1885) 15,902; (1905) 24,821. It possesses six Evangelical churches, notably the Munsterkirche, a Romanesque building with a Gothic apse of the 1 5th century; the Marienkirche, in the Gothic style; and the Johanniskirche, with a steeple 280 ft. high. The other principal buildings are the Roman Catholic church, the synagogue, the gymnasium founded in 1540, the agricultural school and the theatre. There is a statue of Frederick William of Brandenburg. The industries include cotton and flax-spinning, and the manu- facture of linen cloth, carpets, furniture, machinery, sugar, tobacco and leather. Herford owes its origin to a Benedictine nunnery which is said to have been founded in 832, and was confirmed by the emperor Louis the Pious in 839. From the emperor Frederick I. the abbess obtained princely rank and a seat in the imperial diet. Among the abbesses was the celebrated Elizabeth (1618- 1680), eldest daughter of the elector palatine Frederick V., who was a philosophical princess, and a pupil of Descartes. Under her rule the sect of the Labadists settled for some time in Herford. The foundation was secularized in 1803. Herford was a member of the Hanseatic League, and its suzerainty passed in 1 547 from the abbesses to the dukes of Juliers. In 1631 it became a free imperial town, but in 1647 it was subjugated by the elector of Brandenburg. It came into the possession of Westphalia in 1807, and in 1813 into that of Prussia. See L. Holscher, Reformationsgeschichte der Stadt Herford (Guters- loh, 1888). HERGENROTHER, JOSEPH VON (1824-1890), German theologian, was born at Wiirzburg in Bavaria on the isth of September 1824. He studied at Wiirzburg and at Rome. After spending a year as parish priest at Zellingen, near bis native city, he went, in 1850, at his bishop's command, to the university of Munich, where he took his degree of doctor of theology the same year, becoming in 1851 Privatdozent, and in 1855 professor of ecclesiastical law and history. At Munich he gained the reputation of being one of the most learned theologians on the Ultramontane side of the Infallibility question, which had begun to be discussed; and in 1868 he was sent to Rome to arrange the proceedings of the Vatican Council. He was a stanch supporter of the infallibility dogma; and in 1870 ic wrote Anti- Janus, an answer to The Pope and the Council, " Janus " (Dollinger and J. Friedrich), which made a great sensation at the time. In 1877 he was made prelate of the sapal household; he became cardinal deacon in 1879, and was afterwards made curator of the Vatican archives. He died in Rome on the 3rd of October 1890. Hergenrother's first published work was a dissertation on the doctrine of the Trinity according to Gregory Nazianzen (Regensburg, 1850), and from this time onward his literary activity was immense. After several articles and brochures on Hippolytus and the question of the authorship of the Philosophumena, he turned to the study of Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, and the history of the Greek schism. For twelve years he was engaged upon this work, the result being his monumental Photius, Patriarch von Constantinopel. Sein Leben, seine Schriften und das griechische Schisma (3 vols., Regensburg, 1867-1869); an additional volume (1869) gave, under ;he title Monumenta Graeca ad Photium . . . pertinentia, a collection of the unpublished documents on which the work was largely based. 3f Hergenrother's other works, the most important are his history of the Papal States since the Revolution (Der Kirchenstaat seit der 'ranzosischen Revolution, Freiburg i. B., 1860; Fr. trans., Leipzig, 1 860), his great work on the relations of church and state (Katholische Kirche und christlicher Stoat in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung und in Beziehung auf Fragen der Gegenwart, 2 parts, Freiburg i. B., 1872; 2nd ed. expanded, 1876; Eng. trans., London, 1876, Balti- more, 1889), and his universal church history (Handbuch der allge- meinen Kirchengeschichte, 3 vols., Freiburg i. B., 1876-1880; 2nd ed., 1879, &c.; 3rd ed., 1884-1886; 4th ed., by Peter Kirsch, 1902, &c.; French trans., Paris, 1880, &c.). He also found time for a while to edit the new edition of Wetzer and Welte's Kirchen- lexikon (1877), to superintend the publication of part of the Regesta of Pope Leo X. (Freiburg i. B., 1884-1885), and to add two volumes to Hefele's Conciliengeschichte (ib., 1887 and 1890). HERINGSDORF, a seaside resort of Germany, in the Prussian province, of Pomerania, on the north coast of the island of Usedom, 5 m. by rail N.W. of Swinemiinde. It is surrounded by beech woods, and is perhaps the most popular seaside resort on the German shore of the Baltic, being frequented by some 12,000 visitors annually HERIOT, GEORGE (1563-1623), the founder of Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, was descended from an old Haddington family; his father, a goldsmith in Edinburgh, represented the city in the Scottish parliament. George was born in 1563, and after receiving a good education was apprenticed to his father's trade. In 1586 he married the daughtes of a deceased Edinburgh merchant, and with the assistance of her patrimony set up in business on his own account. At first he occupied a small " buith " at the north-east corner of St Giles's church, and afterwards a more pretentious shop at the west end of the building. To the business of a goldsmith he joined that of a money-lender, and in 1597 he had acquired 'such a reputation that he was appointed goldsmith to Queen Anne, consort of James VI. In 1601 he became jeweller to the king, and followed him to London, occupying a shop opposite the Exchange. Heriot was largely indebted for his fortune to the extravagance of the queen, and the imitation of this extravagance by the nobility. Latterly he had such an extensive business as a jeweller that on one occasion a government proclamation was issued calling upon all the. magistrates of the kingdom to aid him in securing the workmen he required. He died in London on the loth of February 1623. In 1608, having some time previously lost his first wife, he married Alison Primrose, daughter of James Primrose, grandfather of the first earl of Rosebery, but she died in 1612; by neither marriage had he any issue. The surplus of his estate, after deducting legacies to his nearest relations and some of his more intimate friends, was bequeathed to found a hospital for the education of freemen's sons of the town of Edinburgh; and its value afterwards increased so greatly as to supply funds for the erection of several Heriot foundation schools in different parts of the city. Heriot takes a leading part in Scott's novel, The Fortunes of Nigel (see also the Introduction). A History of Heriot's Hospital, with a Memoir of the Founder, by William Steven, D.D., appeared in 1827; 2nd ed. 1859. 364 HERIOT— HERLEN HERIOT, by derivation the arms and equipment (geatwa) of a soldier or army (here); the O. Eng. word is thus here-geatwa. The lord of a fee provided his tenant with arms and a horse, either as a gift or loan, which he was to use in the military service paid by him. On the death of the tenant the lord claimed the return of the equipment. When by the loth century land was being given instead of arms, the heriot was still paid, but more in the nature of a " relief " (4>6pos, the ram-bearer. As a pastoral god he was often closely connected with deities of vegetation, especially Pan and the nymphs. His pastoral character is recognized in the 1 Note the prestige of martyrs and confessors, the ways of true and false prophets in Mand. xi., and the different types of evil and good " walk " among Christians, e.g. in Vis. iii. 5-7 ; Mand. viii. ; Sim. viii. Iliad (xiv. 490) and the later epic hymn to Hermes; and his Homeric titles dKafajra, epiomos, 5amop law, probably refer to him as the giver of fertility. In the Odyssey, however, he appears mainly as the messenger of the gods, and the conductor of the dead to Hades. Hence in later times he is often represented in art and mythology as a herald. The conductor of souls was naturally a chthonian god; at Athens there was a festival in honour of Hermes and the souls of the dead, and Aeschylus (Persae, 628) invokes Hermes, with Earth and Hades, in sum- moning a spirit from the underworld. The function of a messenger- god may have originated the conception of Hermes as a dream- god; he is called the " conductor of dreams " (riyfiriap bvdpuv), and the Greeks offered to him the last libation before sleep. As a messenger he may also have become the god of roads and door- ways; he was the protector of travellers and his images were used for boundary-marks (see HEEMAE). It was a custom to make a cairn of stones near the wayside statues of Hermes, each passer-by adding a stone; the significance of the practice, which is found in many countries, is discussed by Frazer (Golden Bough, 2nd ed., iii. rof.) and Hartland (Legend of Perseus, ii. 228). Treasure found in the road (tpp.a.Lov) was the gift of Hermes, and any stroke of good luck was attributed to him; but it may be doubted whether his patronage of luck in general was developed from his function as a god of roads. As the giver of luck he became a deity of gain and commerce (/cep5<5os, 0.70 polos), an aspect which caused his identification with Mercury, the Roman god of trade. From this conception his thievish character may have been evolved. The trickery and cunning of Hermes is a prominent theme in literature from Homer downwards, although it is very rarely recognized in official cult.2 In the hymn to Hermes the god figures as a precocious child (a type familiar in folk-lore), who when a new-born babe steals the cows of Apollo. In addition to these characteristics various other functions were assigned to Hermes, who developed, perhaps, into the most complete type of the versatile Greek. In many respects he was a counterpart of Apollo, less dignified and powerful, but more human than his greater brother. Hermes was a patron of music, like Apollo, and invented the cithara; he presided over the games, with Apollo and Heracles, and his statues were common in the stadia and gymnasia. He became, in fact, the ideal Greek youth, equally proficient in the " musical " and " gymnastic " branches of Greek education. On the " musical " side he was the special patron of eloquence (Xo-yios) ; in gymnastic, he was the giver of grace rather than of strength, which was the province of Heracles. Though athletic, he was one of the least militant of the gods; a title Trpo^axos, the Defender, is found only in con- nexion with a victory of young men (" ephebes ") in a battle at Tanagra. A further point of contact between Hermes and Apollo may here be noted: both had prophetic powers, although Hermes held a place far inferior to that of the Pythian god, and possessed no famous oracle. Certain forms of popular divination were, however, under his patronage, notably the world-wide process of divination by pebbles (Opiai). The " Homeric " Hymn to Hermes explains these minor gifts of prophecy as delegated by Apollo, who alone knew the mind of Zeus. Only a single oracle is recorded for Hermes, in the market-place of Pharae in Achaea, and here the procedure was akin to popular divination. An altar, furnished with lamps, was placed before the statue; the inquirer, after lighting the lamps and offering incense, placed a coin in the right hand of the god; he then whispered his question into the ear of the statue, and, stopping his own ears, left the market place. The first sound which he heard outside was an omen. From the foregoing account it will be seen that it is difficult to derive the many-sided character of Hermes from a single ele- mental conception. The various theories which identified him with the sun, the moon or the dawn, may be dismissed,, as they do not rest on evidence to which value would now be attached. The Arcadian or " Pelasgic " Hermes may have been an earth-deity, as his connexion with fertility suggests; but his symbol at Cyllene 2 We only hear of a Hermes 66\ios at Pellene (Paus. vii. 27. i) and of the custom of allowing promiscuous thieving during the festival of Hermes at Samos (Plut. Quaest. Graec. 55). 37° HERMES, G.— HERMES TRISMEGISTUS rather points to a mere personification of reproductive powers. According to Plutarch the ancients " set Hermes by the side of Aphrodite," i.e. the male and female principles of generation; and the two deities were worshipped together in Argos and else- where. But this phallic character does not explain other aspects of Hermes, as the messenger-god, the master-thief or the ideal Greek ephebe. It is impossible to adopt the view that the Homeric poets turned the rude shepherd-god of Arcadia into a messenger, in order to provide him with a place in the Olympian circle. To their Achaean audience Hermes must have been more than a phallic god. It is more probable that the Olympian Hermes represents the fusion of several distinct deities. Some scholars hold that the various functions of Hermes may have originated from the idea of good luck which is so closely bound up with his character. As a pastoral god he would give luck to the flocks and herds; when worshipped by townspeople, he would give luck to the merchant, the orator, the traveller and the athlete. But though the notion of luck plays an important part in early thought, it seems improbable that the primitive Greeks would have personified a mere abstraction. Another theory, which has much to commend it, has been advanced by Roscher, who sees in Hermes a wind-god. His strongest arguments are that the wind would easily develop into the messenger of the gods (Atos oCpos), and that it was often thought to promote fertility in crops and cattle. Thus the two aspects of Hermes which seem most discordant are referred to a single origin. The Homeric epithet 'Ap7€i<^>6vr7)s, which the Greeks interpreted as " the slayer of Argus," inventing a myth to account for Argus, is explained as originally an epithet of the wind (d/xyeerrijs), which clears away the mists (a/yyos, aivi\off6op/ios), a term specially applied to warriors of extraordinary strength and courage, and generally to all who were distinguished from their fellows by superior moral, physical or intellectual qualities. No satisfactory derivation of the word has been suggested. Ancient Greek Heroes. In ancient Greece, the heroes were the object of a special cult, and as such were intimately connected with its religious life. Various theories have been put forward as to the nature of these heroes. According to some authorities, they were idealized historical personages; according to others, symbolical repre- sentations of the forces of nature. The view most commonly held is that they were degraded or " depotentiated " gods, occupying a position intermediate between gods and men. According to E. Rohde (in Psyche) they are souls of the dead, which after separation from the body enter upon a higher, eternal existence. But it is only a select minority who attain to the rank of heroes after death, only the distinguished men of the past. The worship of these heroes is in reality an ancestor worship, which existed in pre-Homeric times, and was preserved in local cults. Instances no doubt occur of gods being degraded to the ranks of heroes, but these are not the real heroes, the heroes who are the object of a cult. The cult-heroes were all persons who had lived the life of man on earth, and it was necessary for the degraded gods to pass through this stage. They did not at once become cult-heroes, but only after they had undergone death like other mortals. Only one who has been a man can become a hero. The heroes are spirits of the dead, not demi-gods; their position is not intermediate between gods and men, but by the side of these they exist as a separate class. In Homer the term is applied especially to warrior princes, to kings and kings' sons, even to distinguished persons of lower rank, and free men generally. In Hesiod it is chiefly con- fined to those who fought before Troy and Thebes; in view of their supposed divine origin, he calls them demi-gods (finldeoi ). This name is also given them in an interpolated passage in the Iliad (xii. 23), which is quite at variance with the general Homeric idea of the heroes, who are no more than men, even if of divine origin and of superior strength and prowess. But neither in Homer nor in Hesiod is there any trace of the idea that the heroes after death had any power for good or evil over the lives of those who survived them; and consequently, no cult. Nevertheless, traces of an earlier ancestor worship appear, e.g. in funeral games in honour of Patroclus and other heroes, while the Hesiodic account of the five ages of man is a reminiscence of the belief in the continued existence of souls in a higher life. This pre-historic worship and belief, for a time obscured, were subsequently revived. According to Porphyry (De abstinentia, iv. 22), Draco ordered the inhabitants of Attica to honour the gods and heroes of their country "in accordance with the usage of their fathers " with offerings of first fruits and sacrificial cakes every year, thereby clearly pointing to a custom of high antiquity. Solon also ordered that the tombs of the heroes should be treated with the greatest respect, and Cleis- thenes (q.v.) sought to create a pan-Athenian enthusiasm by calling his new tribes after Attic heroes and setting up their statues in the Agora. Heroic honours were at first bestowed upon the founders of a colony or city, and the ancestors of families; if their name was not known, one was adopted from legend. In many cases these heroes were purely fictitious; such were the supposed ancestors of the noble and priestly families of Attica and elsewhere (Butadae at Athens, Branchidae at Miletus Ceryces at Eleusis), of the eponymi of the tribes and demes. Again, side by side with gods of superior rank, certain heroes were worshipped as protecting spirits of the country or state; such were the Aeacidae amongst the Aeginetans, Ajax son of O'ileus amongst the Epizephyrian Locrians and Hector at Thebes. Neglect of the worship of these heroes was held to be HERO 375 responsible for pestilence, bad crops and other misfortunes, while, on the other hand, if duly honoured, their influence was equally beneficent. This belief was supported by the Delphic oracle, which was largely instrumental in promoting hero-worship and keeping alive its due observance. Special importance was attached to the grave of the hero and to his bodily remains, with which the spirit of the departed was inseparably connected. The grave was regarded as his place of abode, from which he could only be absent for a brief period; hence his bones were fetched from abroad (e.g. Cimon brought those of Theseus from Scyros), or if they could not be procured, at least a cenotaph was erected in his honour. Their relics also were carefully preserved: the house of Cadmus at Thebes, the hut of Orestes at Tegea, the stone on which Telamon had sat at Salamis (in Cyprus). Special shrines (fipqa) were also erected in their honour, usually over their graves. In these shrines a complete set of armour was kept, in accordance with the idea that the hero was essentially a warrior, who on occasion came forth from his grave and fought at the head of his countrymen, putting the enemy to flight as during his lifetime. Like the gods, the cult heroes were supposed to exercise an influence on human affairs, though not to the same extent, their sphere of action being confined to their own localities. Amongst the earliest known historical examples of the elevation of the dead to the rank of heroes are Timesius the founder of Abdera, Miltiades, son of Cypselus, Harmodius and Aristogiton and Brasidas, the victor of Amphipolis, who ousted the local Athenian hero Hagnon. In course of time admission to the rank of a hero became far more common, and was even accorded to the living, such as Lysimachus in Samothrace and the tyrant Nicias of Cos. Antiochus of Commagene instituted an order of priests to celebrate the anniversary of his birth and coronation in a special sanctuary, and the kings of Pergamum claimed divine honours for themselves and their wives during their lifetime. The birthday of Eumenes was regularly kept, and every month sacrifice was offered to him and games held in his honour. In addition to persons of high rank, poets, legendary and others (Linus, Orpheus, Homer, Aeschylus and Sophocles), legislators and physicians (Lycurgus, Hippocrates), the patrons of various trades or handicrafts (artists, cooks, bakers, potters), the heads of philosophical schools (Plato, Democritus, Epicurus) received the honours of a cult. At Teos incense was offered before the statue of a flute-player during his lifetime. In some countries the honour became so general that every man after death was described as a hero in his epitaph — in Thessaly even slaves. The cult of the heroes exhibits points of resemblance with that of the chthonian divinities and of the dead, but differs from that of the ordinary gods, a further indication that they were not " depotentiated " gods. Thus, sacrifice was offered to them at night or in the evening; not on a high, but on a low altar (faxapa), surrounded by a trench to receive the blood of the victim, which was supposed to make its way through the ground to the occupant of the grave; the victims were black male animals, whose heads were turned downwards, not upwards; their blood was allowed to trickle on the ground to appease the departed (alpaKovpia); the body was entirely consumed by fire and no mortal was allowed to eat of it; the technical expression for the sacrifice was not Bvtiv but kvayi^tiv (less commonly kvrtiu>v.v). The chthonian aspect of the heft) is further shown by his attribute the snake, and in many cases he appears under that form himself. On special occasions a sacrificial meal of cooked food was set out for the heroes, of which they were solemnly invited to partake. The fullest description of such a festival is the account given by Plutarch (Aristides, 21) of the festival celebrated by the Plataeans in honour of their countrymen who had fallen at the battle of Plataea. On the i6th of the month Maimacterion, a long pro- cession, headed by a trumpeter playing a warlike air, set out for the graves; wagons decked with myrtle and garlands of flowers followed, young men (who must be of free birth) carried jars of wine, milk, oil and perfumes; next came the black bull destined for the sacrifice, the rear being brought up by the archon, who wore the purple robe of the general, a naked sword in one hand, in the other an urn. When he came near the tombs, he drew some water with which he washed the gravestones, afterwards anointing them with perfume; he then sacrificed the bull on the altar calling upon Zeus Chthonios and Hermes Psychopompos, and inviting them in company with the heroes to the festival of blood. Finally, he poured a libation of wine with the words: " I drink to those who died for the freedom of the Hellenes." See especially E. Rohde, Psyche (1905) and in Rheinisches Museum, 1!- (1895), 28; P. Stengel, Die griechischen Kultusaltertumer (Munich, 1898), p. 124; G. F. Schomann, Griechische AUerlumer, n. (1897), 159; J. Wassner, De heroum apud Graecos cullu (Kiel, 1883); article by F. Deneken in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie, in which a large amount of material is accumulated; J. A. Hild, Etude sur les demons (1881) and article in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites. Teutonic Legend. Many of the chief characteristics of the ancient Greek heroes are reproduced in those of the Teutonic North, the parallel being in some cases very striking; Siegfried, for instance, like Achilles, is vulnerable only in one spot, and Wayland Smith, like Hephaestus, is lame. Superhuman qualities and powers, too, are commonly ascribed to both, an important difference, however, being that whatever worship may have been paid to the Teutonic heroes never crystallized into a cult. This applies equally to those who have a recognized historical origin and to those who are regarded as purely mythical. Of the latter the number has tended to diminish in the light of modern scholarship. The fashion during the igth century set strongly in the other direction, and the " degraded gods " theory was applied not only to such conspicuous heroes as Siegfried, Dietrich and Beowulf, but to a host of minor characters, such as the good marquis Riideger of the Nibelungenlied and our own Robin Hood (both identified with Woden Hruodperaht). The reaction from one extreme has, indeed, tended to lead to another, until not only the heroes, but the very gods themselves, are being traced to very human, not to say commonplace, origins. Thus M. Henri de Tourville, in his Histoire de la formation particulariste (1903), basing his argument on the Ynglinga Saga, interpreted in the light of " Social Science," reveals Odin, " the traveller," as a great " caravan-leader " and warrior, who, driven from Asgard — a trading city on the borders of the steppes east of the Don — by " the blows that Pompey aimed at Mithridates," brought to the north the arts and industries of the East. The argument is developed with convincing ingenuity, but it may be doubted whether it has permanently " rescued Odin from the misty dreamland of mythology and restored him to history." It is now, however, admitted that, whatever influence the one may have from time to time exercised on the other, Teutonic myth and Teutonic heroic legend were developed on independent lines. The Teutonic heroes are, in the main, historical personages, never gods; though, like the Greek heroes, they are sometimes endowed with semi-divine attributes or interpreted as symbolical representations of natural forces. The origin of Teutonic heroic saga, which may be regarded as including that of the Germans, Goths, Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians, is to be looked for in the period of the so-called migration of nations (A.D. 350-650). It consequently rests upon a distinct basis of fact, the saga (in the older and wider sense of any story said or sung) being indeed the oldest form of historical tradition; though this of course does not exclude the probability of the accretion of mythical elements round persons and episodes from the very first. As to the origin of the heroic sagas as we now have them, Tacitus tells us that the deeds of Arminius were still celebrated in song a hundred years after his death (Annals, ii. 88) and in the Germania he speaks of " old songs " as the only kind of " annals " which the ancient Germans possessed; but, whatever relics of the old songs may be embedded in the Teutonic sagas, they have left no recognizable mark on the heroic poetry of the German peoples. The attempt to identify Arminius with Siegfried is 'now generally abandoned. Teutonic heroic saga, properly so-called, consists of the traditions connected with the migration period, the earliest traces of which are found in the works of historical writers such as Ammianus Marcellinus and Cassiodorus. According to Jordanes (the epitomator of HERO Cassiodorus's History of the Goths) at the funeral of Attila his vassals, as they rode round the corpse, sang of his glorious deeds. The next step in the development of epic narrative was the single lay of an episodic character, sung by a single individual, who was frequently a member of a distinguished family, not merely a professional minstrel. Then, as different stories grew up round the person of a particular hero, they formed a connected cycle of legend, the centre of which was the person of the hero (e.g. Dietrich of Bern). The most important figures of these cycles are the following. (i) Beowulf, king of the Geatas (Jutland), whose story in its present form was probably brought from the continent by the Angles. It is an amalgamation of the myth of Beowa, the slayer of the water-demon and the dragon, with the historical legend of Beowulf, nephew and successor of Hygelac (Chochil- aicus), king of the Geatas, who was defeated and slain (c. 520) while ravaging the Frisian coast. The water-demon Grendel and the dragon (probably), by whom Beowulf is mortally wounded, have been supposed to represent the powers of autumn and darkness, the floods which at certain seasons overflow the low-lying countries on the coast of the North Sea and sweep away all human habitations; Beowulf is the hero of spring and light who, after overcoming the spirit of the raging waters, finally succumbs to the dragon of approaching winter. Others regard him as a wind-hero, who disperses the pestilential vapours of the fens. Beowulf is also a culture-hero. His father Sceaf- Scyld (i.e. Scyld Scefing," the protector with the sheaf ") lands on the Anglian or Scandinavian coast when a child, in a rudder- less ship, asleep on a sheaf of grain, symbolical of the means whereby his kingdom shall become great; the son indicates the blessings of a fixed habitation, secured against the attacks of the sea. (2) Hildebrand, the hero of the oldest German epic. A loyal supporter of Theodoric, he follows his master, when threatened by Odoacer, to the court of Attila. After thirty years' absence, he returns to his home in Italy; his son Hadu- brand, believing his father to be dead, suspects treachery and refuses to accept presents offered by the father in token of good-will. A fight takes place, in which the son is slain by the father. In a later version, recognition and reconciliation take place. Well-known parallels are Odysseus and Telegonis, Rustem and Sohrab. (3) Ermanaric, the king of the East Goths, who according to Ammianus Marcellinus slew himself (c. 375) in terror at the invasion of the Huns. With him is connected the old German Dioscuri myth of the Harlungen. (4)Dietrich of Bern (Verona), the legendary name of Theodoric the Great. Contrary to historical tradition, Italy is supposed to have been his ancestral inheritance, of which he has been deprived by Odoacer, or by Ermanaric, who in his altered character of a typical tyrant appears as his uncle and contemporary. He takes refuge in Hungary with Etzel (Attila), by whose aid he finally recovers his kingdom. In the later middle ages he is represented as fighting with giants, dragons and dwarfs, and finally disappears on a black horse. Some attempts have been made to identify him as a kind of Donar or god of thunder. (5) Siegfried (M.H. Ger. Sivrit), the hero of the Niebelungenlied, the Sigurd of the related northern sagas, is usually regarded as a purely mythical figure, a hero of light who is ultimately overcome by the powers of darkness, the mist-people (Niebelungen). He is, however, closely associated with historical characters and events, e.g. with the Burgundian king Gundahari (Gunther, Gunnar) and the overthrow of his house and nation by the Huns; the scholars have exercised considerable ingenuity in attempting to identify him with various historical figures. Theodor Abeling (Das Nibelungenlied, Leipzig, 1907) traces the Nibelung sagas to three groups of Burgundian legends, each based on fact: the Frankish-Burgundian tradition of the murder of Segeric, son of the Burgundian king Sigimund, who was slain by his father at the instigation of his stepmother; the Frankish-Burgundian story, as told by Gregory of Tours (iii. n), of the defeat of the Burgundian kings Sigimund and Godomar, and the captivity and murder of Sigimund, by the sons of Clovis, at the instigation of their mother Chrothildis, in revenge for the murder of her father Chilperich and of her mother, by Godomar; the Rhenish- Burgundian story of the ruin of Gundahari's kingdom by Attila's Huns. Herr Abeling identifies Siegfried (Sigurd) with Segeric, while — according to him — the heroine of the Nibelung sagas, Kriemhild (Gudrun), represents a confusion of two historical persons: Chrothildis, the wife of Clovis, and Ildico (Hilde),. the wife of Attila. (See also the articles KRIEMHILD, NIBELUN- GENLIED). (6)Hugdietrich, Wolfdietrich and Ortnit, whose legend, like that of Siegfried, is of Prankish origin. It is preserved in four versions, the best of which is the oldest, and has an historical foundation. Hugdietrich is the " Prankish Dietrich " ( = Hugo Theodoric), king of Austrasia (d. 534), who like his son and successor Theodebert, was illegitimate; both had to fight for their inheritance with relatives. The transference of the scene ta Constantinople is a reminiscence of the events of the Crusades and Theodebert's projected campaign against that city. The version in which Hugdietrich gains access to his future wife by disguising himself as a woman has also a foundation in fact. As the myth of the Harlungen is connected with Ermanaric, so another Dioscuri myth (of the Hartungen) is combined with the Ortnit-Wolfdietrich legend. The Hartungen are probably identical with the divine youths (mentioned in Tacitus as worshipped by the Vandal Naharvali or Nahanarvali), from whom the Vandal royal family, the Asdingi, claimed descent. Asdingi ("A5toj: A.-S. hragra; Icelandic, hegre; Swed. hager; Dan. heire; Ger. Heiger, Reiher, Heergans; Dutch, reiger), a long-necked, long-winged and long-legged bird, the typical representative of the group Ardeidae. It is difficult or even im- possible to estimate with any accuracy the number of species of Ardeidae which exist. Professor Hermann Schlegel in 1863 enumerated 61, besides 5 of what he terms " conspecies," as FIG. I. — Heron. contained in the collection at Leyden (Mus. des Pays-Bas, Ardeae, 64 pp.), — on the other hand, G. R. Gray in 1871 (Handlist, &c. iii. 26-34) admitted above 90, while Dr Anton Reichenow (Journ.furOrnithologie, 187 7, pp. 232-275) recognizes 67 as known, besides 15 " subspecies " and 3 varieties, arranging them in 3 genera, Nycticorax, Botaurus and Ardea, with 17 sub- genera. But it is difficult to separate the family, with any satisfactory result, into genera, if structural characters have to be found for these groups, for in many cases they run almost § insensibly into each other— though in common language it is I easy to speak of herons, egrets, bitterns, night-herons and HERON 387 boatbills. With the exception of the last, Professor Schlegel retains all in the genus Ardea, dividing it into eight sections, the names of which may perhaps be Englished — great herons, small herons, egrets, semi-egrets, rail-like herons, little bitterns, bitterns and night-herons. The common heron of Europe, Ardea cinerea of Linnaeus, is universally allowed to be the type of the family, and it may also be regarded as that of Professor Schlegel's first section. The species inhabits suitable localities throughout the whole of Europe, Africa and Asia, reaching Japan, many of the islands of the Indian Archipelago and even Australia. Though by no means so numerous as formerly in Britain, it is still sufficiently common,1 and there must be few persons who have not seen it rising slowly from some river-side or marshy flat, or passing over- head in its lofty and leisurely flight on its way to or from its daily haunts; while they are many who have been enter- tained by watching it as it sought its food, consisting chiefly of fishes (especially eels and flounders) and amphibians — though young birds and small mammals come not amiss — wading midleg in the shallows, swimming occasionally when out of its depth, or standing motionless to strike its prey with its formidable and sure beak. When sufficiently numerous the heron breeds in societies, known as heronries, which of old time were protected both by law and custom in nearly all European countries, on account of the sport their tenants afforded to the falconer. Of late years, partly owing to the withdrawal of the protection they had enjoyed, and still more, it would seem, from agricultural improvement, which, by draining meres, fens and marshes, has abolished the feeding- places of a great population of herons, many of the larger heronries have broken up — the birds composing them dispersing to neighbouring localities and forming smaller settlements, most of which are hardly to be dignified by the name of heronry, though commonly accounted such. Thus the number of so-called heronries in the United Kingdom, and especially in England and Wales, has become far greater than formerly, but no one can doubt that the number of herons has dwindled. The sites chosen by the heron for its nest vary greatly. It is generally built in the top of a lofty tree, but not unf requently (and this seems to have been much more usual in former days) near or on the ground among rough vegetation, on an island in a lake, or again on a rocky cliff of the coast. It commonly consists of a huge mass of sticks, often the accumulation of years, lined with twigs, and in it are laid from four to six sea-green eggs. The young are clothed in soft flax-coloured down, and remain in the nest for a consider- able time, therein differing remarkably from the " pipers " of the crane, which are able to run almost as soon as they are hatched. The first feathers assumed by young herons in a general way resemble those of the adult, but the pure white breast, the black throat-streaks and especially the long pendent plumes, which characterize only the very old birds, and are most beautiful in the cocks, are subsequently acquired. The heron measures about 3 ft. from the bill to the tail, and the expanse of its wings is sometimes not less than 6 ft., yet it weighs only between 3 and 4 Ib. Large as is the common heron of Europe, it is exceeded in size by the great blue heron of America (Ardea herodias), which generally resembles it in appearance and habits, and both are smaller than the A. sumalrana or A. typhon of India and the Malay Archipelago, while the A. goliath, of wide distribution in Africa and Asia, is the largest of all. The purple heron, A. purpurea, as a well-known European species having a great range over the Old World, also deserves mention here. The species included in Professor Schlegel's second section inhabit the tropical parts of Africa, Australasia and America. The egrets, forming his third group, require more notice, distinguished as they are by their pure white plumage, and, when in breeding-dress, by 1 In many parts of England it is generally called a " hernser " — being a corruption of " heronsewe," which, as Professor Skeat states (Elymol. Dictionary, p. 264), is a perfectly distinct word from " heronshaw," commonly confounded with it. The further corrup- tion of " hernser " into handsaw," as in the well-known proverb, was easy in the mouth of men to whom hawking the heronsewe was unfamiliar. the beautiful dorsal tufts of decomposed feathers that ordinarily droop over the tail, and are so highly esteemed as ornaments by Oriental magnates. The largest species is A. occidentalis, only known apparently from Florida and Cuba; but one not much less, the great egret (4. alba), belongs to the Old World, breeding regularly in south-eastern Europe, and occasionally straying to Britain. A third, A. egretta, represents it in America, while much the same may be said of two smaller species, A. garzetta, the little egret of English authors, and A. candidissima; and a sixth, A. intermedia, is common in India, China and Japan, besides occurring in Australia. The group of semi-egrets, containing some nine or ten forms, among which the buff-backed heron (A. bubulcus), is the only species that is known to have occurred in Europe, is hardly to be distinguished from the last section except by their plumage being at certain seasons varied in some species with slaty-blue and in others with rufous. The rail-like herons form Professor Schlegel's next section, but it can scarcely be satisfactorily differentiated, and the epithet is misleading, for its members have no rail-like affinities, though the typical species, FIG. 2. — Bittern. which inhabits the south of Europe, and occasionally finds its way to England, has long been known as A. ralloid.es? Nearly all these birds are tropical or subtropical. Then there is the somewhat better defined group of little bitterns, containing about a dozen species — the smallest of the whole family. One of them, A. minuta, though very local in its distribution, is a native of the greater part of Europe, and has bred in England. It has a close counterpart in the A. exilis of North America, and is represented by three or four forms in other parts of the world, the A. pusilla of Australia especially differing very slightly from it. Ranged by Professor Schlegel with these birds, which are all remarkable for their skulking habits, but more resembling the true herons in their nature, are the common green bittern of America (A. mrescens) and its very near ally the African A. atricapilla, from which last it is almost impossible to distinguish the A. javanica, of wide range throughout Asia and its islands, while other species, less closely related, occur elsewhere as A.flavicollis — one form of which, A. gouldi, inhabits Australia. The true bitterns, forming the genus Botaurus of most authors, seem to be fairly separable, but more perhaps on account of their wholly nocturnal habits and correspondingly adapted plumage than on strictly structural grounds, though some differences of proportion are observable. The common bittern (q.v.) of J It is the " Squacco-Heron " of modern British authors — the distinctive name, given " Sguacco " by Willughby and Ray from Aldrovandus, having been misspelt by Latham. 388 HERPES— HERRERA Europe (B. stellaris), is widely distributed over the eastern hemisphere.1 Australia and New Zealand have a kindred species, B. pocciloptilus, and North America a third, B. mugitans* or B. lentiginosus. Nine other species from various parts of the world are admitted by Professor Schlegel, but some of them should perhaps be excluded from the genus Botaurus. Of the night-herons the same author recognizes six species, all of which may be reasonably placed in the genus Nycticorax, characterized by a shorter beak and a few other peculiarities, among which the large eyes deserve mention. The first is N. griseus, a bird widely spread over the Old World, and not un- frequently visiting England, where it would undoubtedly breed if permitted. Professor Schlegel unites with it the common night- heron of America; but this, though very closely allied, is generally deemed distinct, and is the N. naevius or If, gardcni of most writers. A clearly different American species, with a more southern habitat, is the N. violaceus or N. cayennensis, while others are found in South America, Australia, some of the Asiatic Islands and in West Africa. The Galapagos have a peculiar species, N. pauper, and another, so far as is known, peculiar to Rodriguez, N. megacephalus, existed in that island at the time of its being first colonized, but is now extinct. The boatbill, of which only one species is known, seems to be merely a night-heron with an ex- aggerated bill, — so much widened as to suggest its English name, — but has al- ways been allowed generic rank. This curious bird, the Cancroma cochlearia of most authors, is a native of tropical America, and what is known of its habits shows that they are essentially those of a Nycticorax? Bones of the common heron and bittern are not uncommon in the peat of the East-Anglian fens. Remains from Sansan and Langy in France have been referred by Alphonse Milne-Edwards to herons under the names of Ardea perplexa and A.formosa; a tibia from the Miocene of Steinheim am Albuch by Dr Fraas to an A. similis, while Sir R. Owen recognized a portion of a sternum from the London Clay as most nearly approaching this family. It remains to say that the herons form part of Huxley's section Pelargomorphae, belonging to his larger group Desmognathae, and to draw attention to the singular development of the patches of " powder-down " which in the family Ardeidae attain a magnitude hardly to be found elsewhere. Their use is utterly unknown. (A. N.) 1 The last-recorded instance of the bittern breeding in England was in 1868, as mentioned by Stevenson (Birds of Norfolk, ii. 164). 2 Richardson, a most accurate observer, asserts (Fauna Boreali- Amerirana, ii. 374) that its booming (whence the epithet) exactly resembles that of its Old-World congener, but American ornitholo- gists seem only to have heard the croaking note it makes when disturbed. 3 The very wonderful shoe-bird (Balaeniceps) has been regarded by many authorities as allied to Cancroma ; but there can be little doubt that it is more nearly related to the genus Scopus belonging to the storks. The sun-bittern (Eurypyga) forms a family of itself, allied to the rails and cranes. FIG. 3.— Boatbill. HERPES (from the Gr. epirfiv, to creep), an inflammation of the true skin resulting from a lesion of the underlying nerve or its ganglion, attended with the formation of isolated or grouped vesicles of various sizes upon a reddened base. They contain a clear fluid, and either rupture or dry up. Two well-marked varieties of herpes are frequently met with, (a) In herpes labialis el nasalis the eruption occurs about the lips and nose. It is seen in cases of certain acute febrile ailments, such as fevers, inflammation of the lungs or even in a severe cold. It soon passes off. (6) In the herpes zoster, zona or " shingles " the eruption occurs in the course of one or more cutaneous nerves, often on one side of the trunk, but it may be on the face, limbs or other parts. It may occur at any age, but is probably more frequently met with in elderly people. The appearance of the eruption is usually preceded by severe stinging neuralgic pains for several days, and, not only during the continuance of the herpetic spots, but long after they have dried up and disappeared, these pains sometimes continue and give rise to great suffering. The disease seldom recurs. The most that can be done for its relief is to protect the parts with cotton wool or some dusting powder, while the pain may be allayed by opiates or bromide of potassium. Quinine internally is often of service. HERRERA, FERNANDO DE (c. 1534-1597), Spanish lyrical poet, was born at Seville. Although in minor orders, he addressed many impassioned poems to the countess of Gelves, wife of Alvaro Colon de Portugal; but it is suggested that these should be regarded as Platonic literary exercises in the manner of Petrarch. As is shown by his Anotaciones a las obras de Garcilaso de la Vega (1580), Herrera had a boundless admiration for the Italian poets, and continued the work of Boscan in naturalizing the Italian metrical system in Spain. His commentary on Garcilaso involved him in a series of literary polemics, and his verbal innovations laid him open to attack. But, even if his amatory sonnets are condemned as insincere in sentiment, their work- manship is admirable, while his odes on the battle of Lepanto. on Don John of Austria, and the elegy on King Sebastian of Portugal entitle him to rank as the greatest of Andalusian poets and as the most important of the followers of Garcilaso de la Vega (see VEGA). His poems were published in 1582, and reprinted with additions in 1619; they are reissued in the Biblioleca de autores cspanoles, vol. xxxii. Of Herrera's prose works only the Vida y mucrla de Tomas Moro (1592) survives; it is a translation of the life in Thomas Stapleton's Tres Thomae (1588). BIBLIOGRAPHY. — E. Bourciez, " Les Sonnets de Fernando de Herrera," Annales de la Faculte des Lettres de Bordeaux (1891); Fernando de Herrera, controversia sobre sus anotaciones a les obras de Garcilaso de la Vega (Seville, 1870); A. Morel-Fatio, L'Hymne sur Lepanle (Paris, 1893). HERRERA, FRANCISCO (1576-1656), surnamed el Viejo (the old), Spanish historical and fresco painter, studied under Luis Fernandez in Seville, his native city, where he spent most of his life. Although so rough and coarse in manners that neither scholar nor child could remain with him, the great talents of Herrera, and the promptitude with which he used them, brought him abundant commissions. He was also a skilful worker in bronze, an accomplishment that led to his being charged with coining base money. From this accusation, whether true or false, he sought sanctuary in the Jesuit college of San Hermene- gildo, which he adorned with a fine picture of its patron saint. Philip IV., on his visit to Seville in 1624, having seen this picture, and learned the position of the artist, pardoned him at once, warn- ing him, however, that such powers as his should not be degraded. In 1 6 50 Herrera removed to Madrid, where he lived in great honour till his death in 1656. Herrera was the first to relinquish the timid Italian manner of the old Spanish school of painting, and to initiate the free, vigorous touch and style which reached such perfection in Velazquez, who had been for a short time his pupil. His pictures are marked by an energy of design and freedom of execution quite in keeping with his bold, rough character. He is said to have used very long brushes in his painting; and it is also said that, when pupils failed, his servant used to dash the colours on the canvas with a broom under his directions, and that he worked them up into his designs before they dried. The drawing HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS— HERRICK 389 in his pictures is correct, and the colouring original and skilfully managed, so that the figures stand out in striking relief. What has been considered his best easel-work, the " Last Judgment," in the church of San Bernardo at Seville, is an original and striking composition, showing in its treatment of the nude how ill-founded the common belief was that Spanish painters, through ignorance of anatomy, understood only the draped figure. Perhaps his best fresco is that on the dome of the church of San Buenaventura; but many of his frescoes have perished, some by the effects of the weather and others by the artist's own carelessness in preparing his surfaces. He has, however, preserved several of his own designs in etchings. For his easel-works Herrera often chose such humble subjects as fairs, carnivals, ale-houses and the like. His son FRANCISCO HERRERA (1622-1685), surnamed el Mozo (the young), was also an historical and fresco painter. Unable to endure his father's cruelty, the younger Herrera, seizing what money he could find, fled from Seville to Rome. There, instead of devoting himself to the antiquities and the works of the old Italian masters, he gave himself up to the study of architecture and perspective, with the view of becoming a fresco-painter. He did not altogether neglect easel-work, but became renowned for his pictures of still-life, flowers and fruit, and from his skill in painting fish was called by the Italians Lo Spagnuolo degli pcsci. In later life he painted portraits with great success. He returned to Seville on hearing of his father's death, and in 1660 was appointed subdirector of the new academy there under Murillo. His vanity, however, brooked the superiority of no one; and throwing up his appointment he went to Madrid. There he was employed to paint a San Hermenegildo for the barefooted Carmelites, and to decorate in fresco the roof of the choir of San Felipe el Real. The success of this last work procured for him a commission from Philip IV. to paint in fresco the roof of the Atocha church. He chose as his subject for this the Assumption of the Virgin. Soon afterwards he was rewarded with the title of painter to the king, and was appointed superintendent of the royal buildings. He died at Madrid in 1685. Herrera el Mozo was of a somewhat similar temperament to his father, and offended many people by his inordinate vanity and suspicious jealousy. His pictures are inferior to the older Herrera's both in design and in execution; but in some of them traces of the vigour of his father, who was his first teacher, are visible. He was by no means an unskilful colourist, and was especially master of the effects of chiaroscuro. As his best picture Sir Edmund Head in his Handbook names his " San Francisco," in Seville Cathedral. An elder brother, known as Herrera el Rubio (the ruddy), who died very young, gave great promise as a painter. HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS, ANTONIO DE (1549-1625), Spanish historian, was born at Cuellar, in the province of Segovia in Spain. His father, Roderigo de Tordesillas, and his mother, Agnes de Herrera, were both of good family. After studying for some time in his native country, Herrera proceeded to Italy, and there became secretary to Vespasian Gonzago, with whom, on his appointment as viceroy of Navarre, he returned to Spain. Gonzago, sensible of his secretary's abilities, commended him to Philip II. of Spain; and that monarch appointed Herrera first historiographer of the Indies, and one of the historiographers of Castile. Placed thus in the enjoyment of an ample salary, Herrera devoted the rest of his life to the pursuit of literature, retaining his offices until the reign of Philip IV., by whom he was appointed secretary of state very shortly before his death, which took place at Madrid on the 2gth of March 1625. Of Herrera's writings, the most valuable is his Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos en las islas y tierra firme del Mar Oceano (Madrid, 1601-1615, 4 vols.), a work which relates the history of the Spanish-American colonies from 1492 to 1554. The author's official position gave him access to the state papers and to other authentic sources not attainable by other writers, while he did not scruple to borrow largely from other MSS., especially from that of Bartolome de Las Casas. He used his facilities carefully and judiciously; and the result is a work on the whole accurate and unprejudiced, and quite indispensable to the student either of the history of the early colonies, or of the institutions and customs of the aboriginal American peoples. Although it is written in the form of annals, mistakes are not wanting, and several glaring anachronisms have been pointed out by M. J. Quintana. " If," to quote Dr Robertson, " by attempting to relate the various occurrences in the New World in a strict chronological order, the arrangement of events in his work had not been rendered so perplexed, disconnected and obscure that it is an unpleasant task to collect from different parts of his book and piece together the detached shreds of a story, he might justly have been ranked among the most eminent historians of his country." This work was republished in 1730, and has been translated into English by J. Stevens (London, 1740), and into other European languages. Herrera's other works are the following: Historia de lo sucedido en Escocia e Inglalerra en quarenta y quatro anos que vii'io la reyna Maria Estuarda (Madrid, 1589); Cinco libros de la historia de Portugal, y conquista de las islas de los Azores, 1582-1583 (Madrid, 1591); Historia de lo sucedido en Francia, 1585-1594 (Madrid, 1598); Historia general del mundo del tiempo del rey Felipe II, desde 1559 hasla su muerte (Madrid, 1601-1612, 3 vols.); Tralado, relacion, y discurso historico de los movimientos de Aragon (Madrid, 1612); Comentarios de los hechos de los Espanoles, Franceses, y Venecianos en Italia, &c., 1281-1550 (Madrid, 1624, seq.). See W. H. Prescott, History of the Conquest of Mexico, vol. ii. HERRICK, ROBERT (1591-1674), English poet, was born at Cheapside, London, and baptized on the 24th of August 1591. He belonged to an old Leicestershire family which had settled in London. He was the seventh child of Nicholas Herrick, gold- smith, of the city of London, who died in 1592, under suspicion of suicide. The children were brought up by their uncle, Sir William Herrick, one of the richest goldsmiths of the day, to whom in 1607 Robert was bound apprentice. He had probably been educated at Westminster school, and in 1614 he proceeded to Cambridge; and it was no doubt during his apprenticeship that the young poet was introduced to that circle of wits which he was afterwards to adorn. He seems to have been present at the first performance of The Alchemist in 1610, and it was probably about this time that Ben Jonson adopted him as his poetical " son." He entered the university as fellow-commoner of St John's College, and he remained there until, in 1616, upon taking his degree, he removed to Trinity Hall. A lively series of fourteen letters to his uncle, mainly begging for money, exists at Beau- manoir, and shows that Herrick suffered much from poverty at the university. He took his B.A. in 1617, and in 1620 he became master of arts. From this date until 1627 we entirely lose sight of him; it has been variously conjectured that he spent these years preparing for the ministry at Cambridge, or in much looser pursuits in London. In 1629 (September 30) he was presented by the king to the vicarage of Dean Prior, not far from Totnes in Devonshire. At Dean Prior he resided quietly until 1648, when he was ejected by the Puritans. The solitude there oppressed him at first; the village was dull and remote, and he felt very bitterly that he was cut off from all literary and social associa- tions; but soon the quiet existence in Devonshire soothed and delighted him. He was pleased with the rural and semi-pagan customs that survived in the village, and in some of his most charming verses he has immortalized the morris-dances, wakes and quintains, the Christmas mummers and the Twelfth Night revellings, that diversified the quiet of Dean Prior. Herrick never married, but lived at the vicarage surrounded by a happy family of pets, and tended by an excellent old servant named Prudence Baldwin. His first appearance in print was in some verses he contributed to A Description of the King and Queen of Fairies, in 1635. In 1650 a volume of Wit's Recreations contained sixty-two small poems afterwards acknowledged by Herrick in the Hesperides, and one not reprinted until our own day. These partial appearances make it probable that he visited London from time to time. We have few hints of his life as a clergyman. Anthony Wood says that Herricks's sermons were florid and witty, and that he was " beloved by the neighbouring gentry." A very aged woman, one Dorothy King, stated that the poet once threw his sermon at his congregation, cursing them for their inattention. The same old woman recollected his favourite pig, which he taught to drink out of a tankard. He 39° HERRIES, J. C.— HERRING was a devotedly loyal supporter of the king during the Civil War, and immediately upon his ejection in 1648 he published his celebrated collection of lyrical poems, entitled Hesperides; or the Works both Human and Divine of Robert Herrick. The " divine works " bore the title of Noble Numbers and the date 1647. That he was reduced to great poverty in London has been stated, but there is no evidence of the fact. In August 1662 Herrick returned to Dean Prior, supplanting his own supplanter, Dr John Syms. He died in his eighty-fourth year, and was buried at Dean Prior, October 15, 1674. A monument was erected to his memory in the parish church in 1857, by Mr Perry Herrick, a descendant of a collateral branch of the family. The Hesperides (and Noble Numbers) is the only volume which Herrick published, but he contributed poems to Lachrymae Musarum (1649) and to Wit's Recreations. As a pastoral lyrist Herrick stands first among English poets. His genius is limited in scope, and comparatively unambitious, but in its own field it is unrivalled. His tiny poems — and of the thirteen hundred that he has left behind him not one is long — are like jewels of various value, heaped together in a casket. Some are of the purest water, radiant with light and colour, some were originally set in f?lse metal that has tarnished, some were rude and repulsive from the first. Out of the unarranged, heterogeneous mass the student has to select what is not worth reading, but, after he has cast aside all the rubbish, he is astonished at the amount of excellent and exquisite work that remains. Herrick has himself summed up, very correctly, the themes of his sylvan muse when he says: — " I sing of brooks, of blossoms, birds and bowers, Of April, May, of June and July flowers, I sing of May-poles, hock-carts, wassails, wakes, Of bridegrooms, brides and of their bridal-cakes." He saw the picturesqueness of English homely life as no one before him had seen it, and he described it in his verse with a certain purple glow of Arcadian romance over it, in tones of immortal vigour and freshness. His love poems are still more beautiful; the best of them have an ardour and tender sweetness which give them a place in the forefront of modern lyrical poetry, and remind us of what was best in Horace and in the poets of the Greek anthology. After suffering complete extinction for more than a century, the fame of Herrick was revived by John Nichols, who introduced his poems to the readers of the Gentleman's Magazine of 1796 and 1797. Dr Drake followed in 1798 with considerable enthusiasm. By 1810 interest had so far revived in the forgotten poet that Dr Nott ventured to print a selection from his poems, which attracted the favourable notice of the Quarterly Review. In 1823 the Hesperides and the Noble Numbers were for the first time edited by Mr T. Maitland, afterwards Lord Dundrennan. Since then the reprints of Herrick's have been too numerous to be mentioned here; there are few English poets of the .I7th century whose writings are now more accessible. See F. W. Moorman, Robert Herrick (1910). (E. G.) HERRIES, JOHN CHARLES (1778-1855), English politician, son of a London merchant, began his career as a junior clerk in the treasury, and became known for his financial abilities as private secretary to successive ministers. He was appointed commissary-in-chief (1811), and, on the abolition of that office (1816), auditor of the civil list. In 1823 he entered parliament as secretary to the treasury, and in 1827 became chancellor of the exchequer under Lord Goderich; but in consequence of internal differences, arising partly out of a slight put upon Herries, the ministry was broken up, and in 1828 he was appointed master of the mint. In 1830 he became president of the board of trade, and for the earlier months of 1835 he was secretary at war. From 1841 to 1847 he was out of parliament, but during 1852 he was president of the board of control under Lord Derby. He was a consistent and upright Tory of the old school, who carried weight as an authority on financial subjects. His eldest son, SIR CHARLES JOHN HERRIES (1815-1882), was chairman of the board of inland revenue. See the Life by his younger son, Edward Herries (1880). HERRIES, JOHN MAXWELL, 4TH LORD (c. 1512-1583), Scottish politician, was the second son of Robert Maxwell, 4th Lord Maxwell (d. 1546). In 1547 he married Agnes (d. 1594), daughter of William Herries, 3rd Lord Herries (d. 1543), a grandson of Herbert Herries (d. c. 1500) of Terregles, Kirkcud- brightshire, who was created a lord of the Scottish parliament about 1490, and in 1567 he obtained the title of Lord Herries. But before this event Maxwell had become prominent among the men who rallied round Mary queen of Scots, although during the earlier part of his public life he had been associated with the religious reformers and had been imprisoned by the regent, Mary of Lorraine. He was, moreover — at least until 1563 — very friendly with John Knox, who calls him " a man zealous and stout in God's cause." But the transition from one party to the other was gradually accomplished, and from March 1566, when Maxwell joined Mary at Dunbar after the murder of David Rizzio and her escape from Holyrood, he remained one of her staunches! friends, although he disliked her marriage with Bothwell. He led her cavalry at Langside, and after this battle she committed herself to his care. Herries rode with the queer into England in May 1568, and he and John Lesley, bishop of Ross, were her chief commissioners at the conferences at York. He continued to labour in Mary's cause after returning to Scotland, and was imprisoned by the regent Murray; he also incurred Elizabeth's displeasure by harbouring the rebel Leonard Dacres, but he soon made his peace with the English queen. He showed himself in general hostile to the regent Morton, but he was among the supporters of the regent Lennox until his death on the 2oth of January 1583. His son William, 5th Lord Herries (d. 1604), was, like his father, warden of the west marches. William's grandson John, 7th Lord Herries (d. 1677), became 3rd earl of Nithsdale in succession to his cousin Robert Maxwell, the 2nd earl, in 1667. John's grandson was William, 5th earl of Nithsdale, the Jacobite (see NITHSDALE). William was deprived of his honours in 1716, but in 1858 the House of Lords decided that his descendant William Constable-Maxwell (1804-1876) was rightly Lord Herries of Terregles. In 1876 William's son Marma- duke Constable-Maxwell (b. 1837) became i2th Lord Herries, and in 1884 he was created a baron of the United Kingdom. HERRING (Clupea harengus, Haring in German, le hareng in French, sill in Swedish), a fish belonging to the genus Clupea, of which more than sixty different species are known in various parts of the globe. The sprat, pilchard or sardine and shad are species of the same genus.. Of all sea-fishes Clupeae are the most abundant; for although other genera may comprise a greater variety of species, they are far surpassed by Clupea with regard to the number of individuals. The majority of the species of Clupea are of greater or less utility to man; it is only a few tropical species that acquire, probably from their food, highly poisonous properties, so as to be dangerous to persons eating them. But no other species equals the common herring in importance as an article of food or commerce. It inhabits in incredible numbers the North Sea, the northern parts of the Atlantic and the seas north of Asia. The herring inhabiting the corresponding latitudes of the North Pacific is another species, but most closely allied to that of the eastern hemisphere. Formerly it was the general belief that the herring inhabits the open ocean close to the Arctic Circle, and that it migrates at certain seasons towards the northern coasts of Europe and America. This view has been proved to be erroneous, and we know now that this fish lives throughout the year in the vicinity of our shores, but at a greater depth, and at a greater distance from the coast, than at the time when it approaches land for the purpose of spawning. Herrings are readily recognized and distinguished from the other species of Clupea by having an ovate patch of very small teeth on the vomer (that is, the centre of the palate). In the dorsal fin they have from 17 to 20 rays, and in the anal fin from 1 6 to 18; there are from 53 to 59 scales in the lateral line and 54 to 56 vertebrae in the vertebral column. They have a smooth gill-cover, without those radiating ridges of bone which are so conspicuous in the pilchard and other Clupeae. The sprat cannot be confounded with the herring, as it has no teeth on the vomer and only 47 or 48 scales in the lateral line. The spawn of the herring is adhesive, and is deposited on HERRING-BONE— HERSCHEL, SIR F. W. 391 rough gravelly ground at varying distances from the coast and always in comparatively shallow water. The season of spawning is different in different places, and even in the same district, e.g. the east coast of Scotland, there are herrings spawning in spring and others in autumn. These are not the same fish but different races. Those which breed in winter or spring deposit their spawn near the coast at the mouths of estuaries, and ascend the estuaries to a considerable distance at certain times, as in the Firths of Forth and Clyde, while those which spawn in summer or autumn belong more to the open sea, e.g. the great shoals that visit the North Sea annually. Herrings grow very rapidly; according to H. A. Meyer's observations, they attain a length of from 17 to 18 mm. during the first month after hatching, 34 to 36 mm. during the second, 45 to 50 mm. during the third, 55 to 61 mm. during the fourth, and 65 to 72 mm. during the fifth. The size which they finally attain and their general condition depend chiefly on the abund- ance of food (which consists of crustaceans and other small marine animals), on the temperature of the water, on the season at which they have been hatched, &c. Their usual size is about 12 in., but in some particularly suitable localities they grow to a length of 15 in., and instances of specimens measuring 17 in. are on record. In the Baltic, where the water is gradually losing its saline constituents, thus becoming less adapted for the development of marine species, the herring continues to exist in large numbers, but as a dwarfed form, not growing either to the size or to the condition of the North-Sea herring. The herring of the American side of the Atlantic is specifically identical with that of Europe. A second species (Clupea leachii) has been supposed to exist on the British coast; but it comprises only individuals of a smaller size, the produce of an early or late spawn. Also the so-called " white-bait " is not a distinct species, but consists chiefly of the fry or the young of herrings and sprats, and is obtained "in perfection" at localities where these small fishes find an abundance of food, as in the estuary of the Thames. Several excellent accounts of the herring have been published, as by Valenciennes in the 2oth vol. of the Histoire naturette des poissons, and more especially by Mr J. M. Mitchell, The Herring, Us Natural History and National Importance (Edinburgh, 1864). Recent investigations are described in the Reports of the Fishery Board for Scotland, and in the reports of the German Kommisxion zur Untersuchung der Deutschen Meere (published at Kiel). (J. T. C.) HERRING-BONE, a term in architecture applied to alternate courses of bricks or stone, which are laid diagonally with binding courses above and below: this is said to give a better bond to the wall, especially when the stone employed is stratified, such as Stonefield stone, and too thin to be laid in horizontal courses. Although it is only occasionally found in modern buildings, it was a type of construction constantly employed in Roman, Byzantine and Romanesque work, and in the latter is regarded as a test of very early date. It is frequently found in the Byzan- tine walls in Asia Minor, and in Byzantine churches was employed decoratively to give variety to the wall surface. Sometimes the diagonal courses are reversed one above the other. Examples in France exist in the churches at Querqueville in Normandy and St Christophe at Suevres (Loir et Cher), both dating from the loth century, and in England herring-bone masonry is found in the walls of castles, such as at Guildford, Colchester and Tamworth. The term is also applied to the paving of stable yards with bricks laid flat diagonally and alternating so that the head of one brick butts against the side of another; and the effect is more pleasing than when laid in parallel courses. HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE, the name applied to the action of Rouvray, fought in 1429 between the French (and Scots) and the English, who, under Sir John Falstolfe (or Falstaff), were convoying Lenten provisions, chiefly herrings, to the besiegers of Orleans. (See ORLEANS and HUNDRED YEARS' WAR.) HERRNHUT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 18 m. S.E. of Bautzen, and situated on the Lobau-Zittau rail- way. Pop. 1200. It is chiefly known as the principal seat of the Moravian or Bohemian brotherhood, the members of which ire called Herrnhuter. A colony of these people, fleeing from persecution in Moravia, settled at Herrnhut in 1722 on a site presented by Count Zinzendorf. The buildings of the society include a church, a school and houses for the brethren, the sisters and the widowed of both sexes, while it possesses an ethno- graphical museum and other collections of interest. The town is remarkable for its ordered, regular life and its scrupulous cleanliness. Linen, paper (to varieties of which Herrnhut gives its name), tobacco and various minor articles are manufactured. The Hutberg, at the foot of which the town lies, commands a pleasant view. Berthelsdorf, a village about a mile distant, has been the seat of the directorate of the community since about 1789. HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA (1750-1848), English astronomer, sister of Sir William Herschel, the eighth child and fourth daughter of her parents, was born at Hanover on the 1 6th of March 1750. On account of the prejudices of her mother, who did not desire her to know more than was necessary for being useful in the family, she received in youth only the first elements of education. After the death of her father in' 1767 she obtained permission to learn millinery and dressmaking with a view to earning her bread, but continued to assist her mother in the management of the household until the autumn of 1772, when she joined her brother William, who had established himself as a teacher of music at Bath. At once she became a valuable co-operator with him both in his professional duties and in the astronomical researches to which he had already begun to devote all his spare time. She was the principal singer at his oratorio concerts, and acquired such a reputation as a vocalist that she was offered an engagement for the Birmingham festival, which, however, she declined. When her brother accepted the office of astronomer to George III., she became his constant assistant in his observations, and also executed the laborious calcula- tions which were connected with them. For these services she received from the king in 1787 a salary of £50 a year. Her chief amusement during her leisure hours was sweeping the heavens with a small Newtonian telescope. By this means she detected in 1783 three remarkable nebulae, and during the eleven years 1786-1797 eight comets, five of them with un- questioned priority. In 1797 she presented to the Royal Society an Index to Flamsteed s observations, together with a catalogue of 561 stars accidentally omitted from the " British Catalogue," and a list of the errata in that publication. Though she returned to Hanover in 1822 she did not abandon her astro- nomical studies, and in 1828 she completed the reduction, to January 1800, of 2500 nebulae discovered by her brother. In 1828 the Astronomical Society, tc mark their sense of the benefits conferred on science by such a series' of laborious exertions, unanimously'resolved to present her with their gold medal, and in 1835 elected her an honorary member of the society. In 1846 she received a gold medal from the king of Prussia. She died on the gth of January 1848. See The Memoir and Correspondence of Caroline Herschel, by Mrs John Herschel (1876). HERSCHEL, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1738-1822), generally known as Sir William Herschel, English astronomer, was born at Hanover on the isth of November 1738. His father was a musician employed as hautboy player in the Hanoverian guard. The family had quitted Moravia for Saxony in the early part of the i7th century on account of religious troubles, they themselves being Protestants. Herschel's earlier education was necessarily of a very limited character, chiefly owing to the warlike commotions of his country; but being at all times an indomitable student, he, by his own exertions, more than repaired this deficiency. He became a very skilful musician, both theoretical and practical; while his attainments as a self-taught mathematician were fully adequate to the prosecution of those branches of astronomy which he so eminently advanced and adorned. Whatever he did he did methodically and thoroughly; and in this methodical thoroughness lay the secret of what Arago very properly termed his astonishing scientific success. 392 HERSCHEL, SIR F. W. In 1752, at the age of fourteen, he joined the band of the Hanoverian guard, and with his detachment visited England in 1755, accompanied by his father and eldest brother; in the following year he returned to his native country; but the hardships of campaigning during the Seven Years' War imperil- ling his health, his parents privately removed him from the regiment, and on the 26th of July 1757 despatched him to England. There, as might have been expected, the earlier part of his career was attended with formidable difficulties and much privation. We find him engaged in several towns in the north of England as organist and teacher of music, which were not lucrative occupations. But the tide of his fortunes began to flow when he obtained in 1766 the appointment of organist to the Octagon chapel in Bath, at that time the resort of the wealth and fashion of the city. During the next five or six years he became the leading musical authority, and the director of all the chief public musical enter- tainments at Bath. His circumstances having thus become easier, he revisited Hanover for the purpose of bringing back with him his sister Caroline, whose services he much needed in his multifarious undertakings. She arrived in Bath in August 1772, being at that time in her twenty-third year. She thus describes her brother's life soon after her arrival: " He used to retire to bed with a bason of milk or a glass of water, with Smith's Harmonics and Ferguson's Astronomy, &c., and so went to sleep buried under his favourite authors; and his first thoughts on waking were how to obtain instruments for viewing those objects himself of which he had been reading." It is not without significance that we find him thus reading Smith's Harmonics; to that study loyalty to his profession would impel him; as a reward for his thoroughness this led him to Smith's Optics; and this, by a natural sequence, again led him to astronomy, for the purposes of which the chief optical instruments were devised. It was in this way that he was introduced to the writings of Ferguson and Keill, and subsequently to those of Lalande, whereby he educated himself to become an astronomer of undying fame. In those days telescopes were very rare, very expensive and not very efficient, for the Dollonds had not as yet perfected even their beautiful little achromatics of zf in. aperture. So Herschel was obliged to content himself with hiring a small Gregorian reflector of about 2 in. aperture, which he had seen exposed for loan in a tradesman's shop. Not satisfied with this implement, he procured a small lens of about 18 ft. focal length, and set his sister to work on a pasteboard tube to match it, so as to make him a telescope. This unsatisfactory material was soon replaced by tin, and thus a sorry sort of vision was obtained of Jupiter, Saturn and the moon. He then sought in London for a reflector of much larger dimensions; but no such instrument was on sale; and the terms demanded for the construction of a reflecting telescope of 5 or 6 ft. focal length he regarded as too exorbitant even for the gratification of such desires as his own. So he was driven to the only alternative that remained; he must himself build a large telescope. His first step in this direction was to purchase the debris of an amateur's implements for grinding and polishing small mirrors; and thus, by slow degrees, and by indomitable perseverance, he in 1774 had, as he says, the satisfaction of viewing the heavens with a Newtonian telescope of 6 ft. focal length made by his own hands. But he was not contented to be a mere star-gazer; on the contrary, he had from the very first conceived the gigantic project of surveying the entire heavens, and, if possible, of ascertaining the plan of their general structure by a settled mode of procedure, if only he could provide himself with adequate instrumental means. For this purpose he, his brother and his sister toiled for many years at the grinding and polishing of hundreds of specula, always retaining the best and recasting the others, until the most perfect of the earlier products had been surpassed. This was the work of the daylight in those seasons of the year when the fashionable visitors of Bath had quitted the place, and had thus freed the family from professional duties. After 1774 every available hour of the night was devoted to the long-hoped- for scrutiny of the skies. In those days no machinery had been invented for the construction of telescopic mirrors; the man who had the hardihood to undertake polishing them doomed himself to walk leisurely and uniformly round an upright post for many hours, without removing his hands from the mirror, until his work was done. On these occasions Herschel received his food from the hands of his faithful sister. But his reward was nigh. In May 1780 his first two papers containing some results of his observations on the variable star " Mira " and the mountains of the moon were communicated to the Royal Society through the influential introduction of Dr William Watson. Herschel had made his acquaintance in a characteristic manner. In order to obtain a sight of the moon the astronomer had taken his telescope into the street opposite his house; the celebrated physician happening to pass at the time, and seeing his eye removed for a moment from the instrument, requested permission to take his place. The mutual courtesies and intelligent conversa- tion which ensued soon ripened this casual acquaintance into a solid and enduring regard. The phenomena of variable stars were examined by Herschel as a guide to what might be occurring in our own sun. The sun, he knew, rotated on its axis, and he knew that dark spots often exist on its photosphere; the questions that he put to himself were — Are there dark spots also on variable stars? Do the stars also rotate on their axes? or are they sometimes partially eclipsed by the intervention of opaque bodies? And he went on to enquire, What are these singular spots upon the sun? and have they any practical relation to the inhabitants of this planet? To these questions he applied his telescopes and his thoughts; and he communicated the results to the Royal Society in no less than six memoirs, occupying very many pages in the Philosophical Transactions, and extending in date from 1780 to 1 80 1. It was in the latter year that these remarkable papers culminated in the inquiry whether any relation could be traced in the recurrence of sun-spots, regarded as evidences of solar activity, and the varying seasons of our planet, as exhibited by the varying price of corn. Herschel's reply was inconclusive; nor has a final solution of the related problems yet been obtained. In 1781 he communicated to the Royal Society the first of a series of papers on the rotation of the planets and of their several satellites. The object which he had in view was not so much to ascertain the times of their rotation as to discover whether those rotations are strictly uniform. From the result he expected to gather, by analogy, the probability of an alteration in the length of our own day. These inquiries occupy the greaterpart of seven memoirs extending from 1781 to 1797. While engaged on them he noticed the curious appearance of a white spot near to each of the poles of the planet Mars. On investigat ing the inclina- tion of its axis to the plane of its orbit, and finding that it differed little from that of the earth, he concluded that its changes of climate also would resemble our own, and that these white patches were probably polar snow. Modern researches have con- firmed his conclusion. He also discovered that, as far as his observations extended, the times of the rotations of the various satellites round their axes conform to the analogy of our moon by equalling the times of their revolution round their primaries. Here again we perceive that his discoveries arose out of the systematic and comprehensive nature of his investigation. Nothing with such a man is accidental. In the same year (1781) Herschel made a discovery which completely altered the character of his professional life. In the course of a methodical review of the heavens he lighted on an object which at first he supposed to be a comet, but which, by its subsequent motions and appearance, averred itself to be a new planet, moving outside the orbit of Saturn. The name of Georgium Sidus was by him assigned to it, but has by general consent been laid aside in favour of Uranus. The object was detected with a 7-ft. reflector having an aperture of 65 in.; sub- sequently, when he had provided himself with a much more powerful telescope, of 20 ft. focal length, he discovered, as he believed, no less than six Uranian satellites. Modern observations, while abolishing four of these supposed attendants, have added two others apparently not observed by Herschel. Seven memoirs HERSCHEL, SIR J. F. W. on the subject were communicated by him to the Royal Society, extending from the date of the discovery in 1781 to 1815. A noteworthy peculiarity in Herschel's mode of observation led to the discovery of this planet. He had observed that the spurious diameters of stars are not much affected by increasing the magni- fying powers, but that the case is different with other celestial objects; hence if anything in his telescopic field struck him as unusual in aspect, he immediately varied the magnifying power in order to decide its nature. Thus Uranus was discovered ; and had a similar method been applied to Neptune, that planet would have been found at Cambridge some months before it was recognized at Berlin. We now come to the beginning of Herschel's most important series of observations, culminating in what ought probably to be regarded as his capital discovery. A material part of the task which he had set himself embraced the determination of the relative distances of the stars from our sun and from each other. Now, in the course of his scrutiny of the heavens, he had observed many stars in apparently very close contiguity, but often differing greatly in relative brightness. He concluded that, on the average, the brighter star would be the nearer to us, the smaller enormously more distant; and considering that an astronomer on the earth, in consequence of its immense orbital displacement of some 180 millions of miles every six months, would see such a pair of stars under different perspective aspects, he perceived that the measurement of these changes should lead to an approximate determination of the stars' relative distances. He therefore mapped down the places and aspects of all the double stars that he met with, and communicated in 1782 and 1785 very extensive catalogues of the results. Indeed, his very last scientific memoir, sent to the Royal Astronomical Society in the year 1822, when he was its first president and already in the eighty-fourth year of his age, related to these investigations. In the memoir of 1 78 2 he threw out the hint that these apparently contiguous stars might be genuine pairs in mutual revolution; but he significantly added that the time had not yet arrived for settling the question. Eleven years afterwards (1793), he re- measured the relative positions of many such couples, and we may conceive what his feelings must have been at finding his prediction verified. For he ascertained that some of these stars circulated round each other, after the manner required by the laws of gravitation, and thus demonstrated the action among the distant members of the starry firmament of the same mechanical laws which bind together the harmonious motions of our solar system. This sublime discovery, announced in 1802, would of itself suffice to immortalize his memory. If only he had lived long enough to learn the approximate distances of some of these binary combinations, he would at once have been able to calculate their masses relative to that of our own sun; and the quantities being, as we now know, strictly comparable, he would have found another of his analogical conjectures realized. In the year 1782 Herschel was invited to Windsor by George III., and accepted the king's offer to become his private astronomer, and henceforth devote himself wholly to a scientific career. His salary was fixed at £200 per annum, to which an addition of £50 per annum was subsequently made for the astronomical assistance of his sister. Dr Watson, to whom alone the amount was mentioned, made the natural remark, " Never before was honour purchased by a monarch at so cheap a rate." In this way the great astronomer removed from Bath, first to Datchet and soon afterwards permanently to Slough, within easy access of his royal patron at Windsor. The old pursuits at Bath were soon resumed at Slough, but with renewed vigour and without the former professional interruptions. The greater part, in fact, of the papers already referred to are dated from Datchet and Slough; for the magnifi- cent astronomical speculations in which he was engaged, though for the most part conceived in the earlier portion of his philo- sophical career, required years of patient observation before they could be fully examined and realized. It was at Slough in 1783 that he wrote his first memorable paper on the " Motion of the Solar System in Space," — a sublime 393 speculation, yet through his genius realized by considerations of the utmost simplicity. He returned to the same subject with fuller details in 1805. It was also after his removal to Slough that he published his first memoir on the construction of the heavens, which from the first had been the inspiring idea of his varied toils. In a long series of remarkable papers, addressed as usual to the Royal Society, and extending from the year 1784 to 1818, when he was eighty years of age, he demon- strated the fact that our sun is a star situated not far from the bifurcation of the Milky Way, and that all the stars visible to us lie more or less in clusters scattered throughout a comparatively thin, but immensely extended stratum. At one time he imagined that his powerful instruments had pierced through this stellar stratum, and that he had approximately determined the form of some of its boundaries. In the last of his memoirs, having convinced himself of his error, he admitted that to his telescopes the Milky Way was " fathomless." On either side of this assemblage of stars, presumably in ceaseless motion round their common centre of gravity, Herschel discovered a canopy of discrete nebulous masses, such as those from the condensation of which he supposed the whole stellar universe to have been formed, — a magnificent conception, pursued with a force of genius and put to the practical test of observation with an industry almost incredible. Hitherto we have said nothing about the great reflecting telescope, of 40 ft. focal length and 4 ft. aperture, the construction of which is often, though mistakenly, regarded as his chief performance. The full description of this celebrated instrument will be found in the 8sth volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society. On the day that it was finished (August 28, 1789) Herschel saw at the first view, in a grandeur not witnessed before, the Saturnian system with six satellites, five of which had been discovered long before by C. Huygens and G. D. Cassini, while the sixth, subsequently named Enceladus, he had, two years before, sighted by glimpses in his exquisite little telescope of 6% in. aperture, but now saw in unmistakable brightness with the towering giant he had just completed. On the 1 7th of September he discovered a seventh, which proved to be the nearest to the globe of Saturn. It has since received the name of Mimas. It is somewhat remarkable that, notwith- standing his long and repeated scrutinies of this planet, the eighth satellite, Hyperion, and the crape ring should have escaped him. Herschel married, on the 8th of May 1788, the widow of Mr John Pitt, a wealthy London merchant, by whom he had an only son, John Frederick William. The prince regent conferred a Hanoverian knighthood upon him in 1816. But a far more valued and less tardy distinction was the Copley medal assigned to him by his associates in the Royal Society in 1781. He died at Slough on the 25th of August 1822, in the eighty- fourth year of his age, and was buried under the tower of St Laurence's Church, Upton, within a few hundred yards of the old site of the 4o-ft. telescope. A mural tablet on the wall of the church bears a Latin inscription from the pen of the late Dr Goodall, provost of Eton College. See Mrs John Herschel, Memoir of Caroline Herschel (1876); E. S. Holden, Herschel, his Life and Works (1881); A. M. Clerke, The Herschels and Modern Astronomy (1895); E. S. Holden and C. S. Hastings, Synopsis of the Scientific Writings of Sir William Herschel (Washington, 1881); Baron Laurier, £loge historique, Paris Memoirs (1823), p. Ixi. ; F. Arago, Analyse historique, Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes (1842), p. 249; Arago, Biographies of Scientific Men, p. 167; Madame d'Arblay's Diary, passim; Public Characters (1798-1799), p. 384 (with portrait); J. Sime, William Herschel and his Work (1900). Herschel's photometric Star Catalogues were discussed and reduced by E. C. Pickering in Harvard Annals, vols. xiv. p. 345, xxiii. p. 185, and xxiv. (C. P. ; A. M. C.) HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM, BAKT. (1792-1871), English astronomer, the only son of Sir William Herschel, was born at Slough, Bucks, on the 7th of March 1792. His scholastic education commenced at Eton, but maternal fears or prejudices soon removed him to the house of a private tutor. Thence, at the early age of seventeen, he was sent to St John's College, Cambridge, and the form and method of the HERSCHEL, SIR J. F. W. 394 mathematical instruction he there received exercised a material influence on the whole complexion of his scientific career. In due time the young student won the highest academical distinc- tion of his year, graduating as senior wrangler in 1813. It was during his undergraduateship that he and two of his fellow- students who subsequently attained to very high eminence, Dean Peacock and Charles Babbage, entered into a compact that they would " do their best to leave the world wiser than they found it," — a compact loyally and successfully carried out by all three to the end. As a commencement of this laudable attempt we find Herschel associated with these two friends in the production of a work on the differential calculus, and on cognate branches of mathematical science, which changed the style and aspect of mathematical learning in England, and brought it up to the level of the Continental methods. Two or three memoirs communicated to the Royal Society on new applica- tions of mathematical analysis at once placed him in the front rank of the cultivators of this branch of knowledge. Of these his father had the gratification of introducing the first, but the others were presented in his own right as a fellow. With the intention of being called to the bar, he entered his name at Lincoln's Inn on the 24th of January 1814, and placed himself under the guidance of an eminent special pleader. Probably this temporary choice of a profession was inspired by the extraordinary success in legal pursuits which had attended the efforts of some noted Cambridge mathematicians. Be that as it may, an early acquaintance with Dr Wollaston in London soon changed the direction of his studies. He experimented in physical optics; took up astronomy in 1816; and in 1820, assisted by his father, he completed for a reflecting telescope a mirror of 18 in. diameter and 20 ft. focal length. This, subse- quently improved by his own hands, became the instrument which enabled him to effect the astronomical observations forming the chief basis of his fame. In 1821-1823 we find him associated with Sir James South in the re-examination of his father's double stars, by the aid of two excellent refractors, of 7 and 5 ft. focal length respectively. For this work he was presented in 1826 with the Astronomical Society's gold medal; and with the Lalande medal of the French Institute in 1825; while the Royal Society had in 1821 bestowed upon him the Copley medal for his mathematical contributions to their Transactions. From 1824 to 1827 he held the responsible post of secretary to that society; and was in 1827 elected to the chair of the Astronomical Society, which office he also filled on two subsequent occasions. In the discharge of his duties to the last- named society he delivered presidential addresses and wrote obituary notices of deceased fellows, memorable for their combination of eloquence and wisdom. In 1831 the honour of knighthood was conferred on him by William IV., and two years later he again received the recognition of the Royal Society by the award of one of their medals for his memoir " On the In- vestigation of the Orbits of Revolving Double Stars." The award significantly commemorated his completion of his father's discovery of gravitational stellar systems by the invention of a graphical method whereby the eye could as it were see the two component stars of the binary system revolving under the prescription of the Newtonian law. Before the end of the year 1833, being then about forty years of age, Sir John Herschel had re-examined all his father's double stars and nebulae, and had added many similar bodies to his own lists; thus accomplishing, under the conditions then pre- vailing, the full work of a lifetime. • For it should be remembered that astronomers were not as yet provided with those valuable automatic contrivances which at present materially abridge the labour and increase the accuracy of their determinations. Equatorially mounted instruments actuated by clockwork, electrical chronographs for recording the times of the phenomena observed, were not available to Sir John Herschel; and he had no assistant. His scientific life now entered upon another and very char- acteristic phase. The bias of his mind, as he subsequently was wont to declare, was towards chemistry and the phenomena of light, rather than towards astronomy. Indeed, very shortly after taking his degree at Cambridge, he proposed himself as a candidate for the vacant chair of chemistry in that university; but, as he said with some humour, the result of the election was to leave him in a glorious minority of one. In fact Herschel had become an astronomer from a sense of duty, and it was by filial loyalty to his father's memory that he was now impelled to undertake the completion of the work nobly begun at Slough. William Herschel had searched the northern heavens; John Herschel determined to explore the southern, besides re-explor- ing northern skies. " I resolved," he said, " to attempt the completion of a survey of the whole surface of the heavens; and for this purpose to transport into the other hemisphere the same instrument which had been employed in this, so as to give a unity to the results of both portions of the survey, and to render them comparable with each other." In accordance with this resolution, he and his family embarked for the Cape on the i3th November 1833; they arrived in Table Bay on the isth January 1834; and proceedings, he says, " were pushed forward with such effect that on the 22nd of February I was enabled to gratify my curiosity by a view of K Crucis, the nebula about TJ Argus, and some other remarkable objects in the zo-ft. reflector, and on the night of the 4th of March to commence a regular course of sweeping." To give an adequate description of the vast mass of labour com- pleted during the next four busy years of his life at Feldhausen would require the transcription of a considerable portion of the Cape Observations, a volume of unsurpassed interest and importance; although it might perhaps be equalled by a judicious selection from Sir William's " Memoirs," now scattered through some thirty volumes of the Philosophical Transactions. It was published, at the sole expense of the late duke of Northumberland, but not till 1847, nine years after the author's return to England, for the cogent reason, that as he said, " The whole of the observations, as well as the entire work of reducing, arranging and preparing them for the press, have been executed by myself." There are 164 pages of catalogues of southern nebulae and clusters of stars. There are then careful and elaborate drawings of the great nebula in Orion, and of the region surrounding the remarkable star in Argo. The labour and the thought bestowed upon some of these objects are almost incredible; several months were spent upon a minute spot in the heavens containing 1216 stars, but which an ordinary spangle, held at a distance of an arm's length, would eclipse. These catalogues and charts being completed, he proceeded to discuss their significance. He confirmed his father's hypothesis that these wonderful masses of glowing vapours are not irregularly scattered over the visible heavens, but are collected in a sort of canopy, whose vertex is at the pole of that vast stratum of stars in which our solar system finds itself buried, as Herschel supposed, at a depth not greater than that of the average distance from us of an eleventh magnitude star. Then follows his catalogue of the relative positions and magnitudes of the southern double stars, to one of which, y Virginis, he applied the beautiful method of orbital determination invented by himself, and he had the satisfaction of witnessing the fulfilment of his prediction that the components would, in the course of their revolution, appear to close up into a single star, inseparable by any telescopic power. In the next chapter he proceeded to describe his observations on the varying and relative brightness of the stars. It has been already detailed how his father began his scientific career by similar observations on stellar light-fluctuations, and how his remarks culminated years afterwards in the question whether the radiative changes of our sun, due to the presence or absence of sun-spots, affected our harvests and the price of corn. Sir John carried speculation still farther, pointing out that variations to the extent of half a magnitude in the sun's brightness would account for those strange alternations of semi-arctic and semi-tropical climates which geological researches show to have occurred in various regions of our globe. Herschel returned to his English home in the spring of 1838. As was natural and right, he was welcomed with an enthusiastic greeting. By the queen at her coronation he was created a baronet; and, what to him was better than all such rewards, other men caught the contagion of his example, and laboured in fields similar to his own, with an adequate portion of his success. Herschel was a highly accomplished chemist. His discovery in 1819 of the solvent power of hyposulphite of soda on the otherwise insoluble salts of silver was the prelude to its use as a fixing agent in photography; and he invented in 1839, independently of Fox Talbot, the process of photography on sensitized paper. He was the first person to apply the now well-known terms positive and negative to photographic images, HERSCHELL, BARON 395 and to imprint them upon glass prepared by the deposit of a sensitive Mm. He also paved the way for Sir George Stokes's discovery of fluorescence, by his addition of the lavender rays to the spectrum, and by his announcement in 1845 of " epipolic dis- persion," as exhibited by sulphate of quinine. Several other important researches connected with the undulatory theory of light are embodied in his treatise on " Light " published in the Encyclopaedia metropolitana. Perhaps no man can become a truly great mathematician or philosopher if devoid of imaginative power. John Herschel possessed this endowment to a large extent; and he solaced his declining years with the translation of the Iliad into verse, having earlier executed a similar version of Schiller's Walk. But the main work of his later life was the collection of all his father's catalogues of nebulae and double stars combined with his own observations and those of other astronomers each into a single volume. He lived to complete the former, to present it to the Royal Society, and to see it published in a separate form in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. cliv). The latter work he left unfinished, bequeathing it, in its imperfect form, to the Astro- nomical Society. That society printed a portion of it, which serves as an index to the observations of various astronomers on double stars up to the year 1866. A complete list of his contributions to learned societies will be found in the Royal Society's great catalogue, and from them may be gathered most of the records of his busy scientific life. Sir John Herschel met with an amount of public recognition which was unusual in the time of his illustrious father. Naturally he was a member of almost every important learned society in both hemispheres. For five years he held the same office of master of the mint, which more than a century before had belonged to Sir Isaac Newton; his friends also offered to propose him as president of the Royal Society and again as member of parliament for the university of Cambridge, but neither position was desired by him. In private life Sir John Herschel was a firm and most active friend; he had no jealousies; he avoided all scientific feuds; he gladly lent a helping hand to those who consulted him in scientific difficulties; he never discouraged, and still less dis- paraged, men younger than or inferior to himself; he was pleased by appreciation of his work without being solicitous for applause; it was said of him by a discriminating critic, and without extravagance, that " his was a life full of serenity of the sage and the docile innocence of a child." He died at Collingwood, his residence near Hawkhurst in Kent, on the nth of May 1871, in the seventy-ninth year of his age, and his remains are interred in Westminster Abbey close to the grave of Sir Isaac Newton. Besides the laborious Cape Observations, Sir John Herschel was the author of several books, one of which at least, On the Study of Natural Philosophy (1830), possesses an interest which no future advances of the subjects on which he wrote can obliterate. In 1849 came the Outlines of Astronomy, a volume still replete with charm and instruction. His articles, " Meteorology," Physical Geography," and " Telescope," contributed to the 8th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, were afterwards published separately. When he was at the Cape he was more than once assisted in the attempts there made to diffuse a love of knowledge among men not engaged in literary pursuits; and with the same purpose he, on his return to England, published, in Good Words and elsewhere, a series of papers on interesting points of natural philosophy, subsequently collected in a volume called Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects. Another less widely known volume is his Collected Addresses, in which he is seen in his happiest and most instructive mood. See also Mrs John Herschel, "Memoir of Caroline Herschel," Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xxxii. 122 (C. Pritchard); Pro- ceedings Roy. Society, xx. p. xvii. (T. Romney Robinson) ; Proceedings Roy. Society of Edinburgh yii. 543 (P. G. Tait); Nature iv. 69; E. Dunkin, Obituary Notices, p. 47; Report Brit. Association (1871), p. Ixxxv. (Lord Kelvin); The Times (May 13, 1871); R. Grant, History of Phys. Astronomy; A. M. Clerke, Popular Hist, of Astronomy; A. M. Clerke, The Herschels and Modern Astronomy; J. H. Madler, Geschichte der Himmelskunde,Bd. ii. ; Memoires de la Societe Physique de Geneve, xxi. 586 (E. Gautier). Reductions, based on standard magnitudes of 919 southern stars, observed by Herschel in sequences of relative brightness, were published by W. Doberck in the Astrophysical Journal, xi. 192, 270, and in Harvard Annals, vol. xli., No. viii. (C. P.; A. M. C.) HERSCHELL, FARRER HERSCHELL, IST BARON (1837- 1899), lord chancellor of England, was born on the 2nd of November 1837. His father was the Rev. Ridley Haim Herschell, a native of Strzelno, in Prussian Poland, who, when a young man, exchanged the Jewish faith for Christianity, took a leading part in founding the British Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews, and, after many journeyings, settled down to the charge of a Nonconformist chapel near the Edgware Road, in London, where he ministered to a large congregation. His mother was a daughter of William Mowbray, a merchant of Leith. He was educated at a private school and at University College, London. In 1857 he took his B.A. degree at the Uni- versity of London. He was reckoned the best speaker in the school debating society, and he displayed there the same command of language and lucidity of thought which were his characteristics during his official life. The reputation which Herschell enjoyed during his school days was maintained after he became a law- student at Lincoln's Inn. In 1858 he entered the chambers of Thomas Chitty, the famous common law pleader, father of the late Lord Justice Chitty. His fellow pupils, amongst whom were A. L. Smith, afterwards master of the rolls, and Arthur Charles, afterwards judge of the queen's bench division, gave him the sobriquet of " the chief baron" in recognition of his superiority. He subsequently read with James Hannen, after- wards Lord Hannen. In 1860 he was called to the bar and joined the northern circuit, then in its palmy days of undivided- ness. For four or five years he did not obtain much work. Fortunately, he was never a poor man, and so was not forced into journalism, or other paths of literature, in order to earn a living. Two of his contemporaries, each of whom achieved great eminence, found themselves in like case. One of these, Charles Russell, became lord chief justice of England ; the other, William Court Gully, speaker of the House of Commons. It is said that these three friends, dining together during a Liverpool assize some years after they had been called, agreed that their prospects were anything but cheerful. Certain it is that about this time Herschell meditated quitting England for Shanghai and practising in the consular courts there. Herschell, however, soon made himself useful to Edward James, the then leader of the northern circuit, and to John Richard Quain, the leading stuff- gownsman. For the latter he was content to note briefs and draft opinions, and when, in 1866, Quain donned " silk," it was on Herschell that a large portion of his mantle descended. In 187 2 Herschell was made a queen's counsel. He had all the necessary qualifications for a leader — a clear, though not resonant voice; a calm, logical mind; a sound knowledge of legal prin- ciples; and (greatest gift of all) an abundance of common sense. He never wearied the judges by arguing at undue length, and he knew how to retire with dignity from a hopeless cause. His only weak point was cross-examination. In handling a hostile witness he had neither the insidious persuasiveness of a Hawkins nor the compelling, dominating power of a Russell. But he made up for all by his speech to the jury, marshalling such facts as told in his client's favour with the most consummate skill. He very seldom made use of notes, but trusted to his memory, which he had carefully trained. By this means he was able to conceal his art, and to appear less as a paid advocate than as an outsider interested in the case anxious to assist the jury in arriving at the truth. By 1874 Herschell's business had become so good that he turned his thoughts to parliament. In February of that year there was a general election, with the result that the Conservative party came into power with a majority of fifty. The usual crop of petitions followed. The two Radicals (Thompson and Henderson) who had been returned for Durham city were unseated, and an attack was then made on the seats of two other Radicals (Bell and Palmer) who had been returned for Durham county. For one of these last Herschell was briefed. He made so excellent an impression on_the local Radical leaders that they asked him to stand for Durham city; and after a fortnight's electioneering, he was elected as junior member. Between 1874 and 1880 Herschell was most assiduous in his attendance in the House of Commons. He was not a frequent speaker, but a few 396 HERSCHELL, BARON great efforts sufficed in his case to gain for him a reputation as a debater. The best examples of his style as a private member will be found in Hansard under the dates i8th February 1876, 23rd May 1878, 6th May 1879 On the last occasion he carried a resolution in favour of abolishing actions for breach of promise of marriage except when actual pecuniary loss had ensued, the damages in such cases to be measured by the amount of such loss. The grace of manner and solid reasoning with which he acquitted himself during these displays obtained for him the notice of Gladstone, who in 1880 appointed Herschell solicitor- general. Herschell's public services from 1880 to 1885 were of great value, particularly in dealing with the " cases for opinion " submitted by the Foreign Office and other departments. He was also very helpful in speeding government measures through the House, notably the Irish Land Act 1881, the Corrupt Practices and Bankruptcy Acts 1883, the County Franchise Act 1884 and the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885. This last was a bitter pill for Herschell, since it halved the representation of Durham city, and so gave him statutory notice to quit. Reckoning on the local support of the Cavendish family, he contested the North Lonsdale division of Lancashire; but in spite of the powerful influence of Lord Hartington, he was badly beaten at the poll, though Mr Gladstone again obtained a majority in the country. Herschell now thought he saw the solicitor-generalship slipping away from him, and along with it all prospect of high promotion. Lord Selborne and Sir Henry James, however, successively declined Gladstone's offer of the Woolsack, andin 1886 Herschell, by a sudden turn of fortune's wheel, found himself in his forty- ninth year lord chancellor. Herschell's chancellorship lasted barely six months, for in August 1886 Gladstone's Home Rule Bill was rejected in the Commons and his administration fell. In August 1892, when Gladstone returned to power, Herschell again became lord chancellor. In September 1893, when the second Home Rule Bill came on for second reading in the House of Lords, Herschell took advantage of the opportunity to justify the " sudden con- version" to Home Rule of himself and his colleagues in 1885 by comparing it to the duke of Wellington's conversion to Catholic Emancipation in 1829 and to that of Sir Robert Peel to Free Trade in 1846. In 1895, however, his second chancellorship came to an end with the defeat of the Rosebery ministry. Whether sitting at the royal courts in the Strand, on the judicial committee of the privy council, or in the House of Lords, Lord Herschell's judgments were distinguished for their acute and subtle reasoning, for their grasp of legal principles, and, whenever the occasion arose, for their broad treatment of con- stitutional and social questions. He was not a profound lawyer, but his quickness of apprehension was such that it was an excellent substitute for great learning. In construing a real property will or any other document, his first impulse was to read it by the light of nature, and to decline to be influenced by the construction put by the judges on similar phrases occurring elsewhere. But when he discovered that certain expressions had acquired a technical meaning which could not be disturbed with- out fluttering the dovecotes of the conveyancers, he would yield to the established rule, even though he did not agree with it. He was perhaps seen at his judicial best in Vagliano v. Bank of England ( 1 89 1 ) and A lien v. Flood ( 1 898) . Latterly he showed a tendency, which seems to grow on some judges, to interrupt counsel overmuch. The case last mentioned furnishes an example of this. The question involved was what constituted a molestation of a man in the pursuit of his lawful calling. At the close of the argument of counsel, whom he had frequently interrupted, one of their lordships, noted for his pretty wit, observed that although there might be a doubt as to what amounted to such molestation in point of law, the House could well understand, after that day's proceedings, what it was in actual practice. In addition to his political and judicial work, Herschell rendered many public services. In 1888 he presided over an inquiry directed by the House of Commons with regard to the Metropolitan Board of Works. He acted as chairman of two royal commissions, one on Indian currency, the other on vaccina- tion. He took a great interest in the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, not only promoting the acts of 1889 and 1894, but also bestowing a good deal of time in sifting the truth of certain allegations which had been brought against the management of that society. In June 1893 he was appointed chancellor of the university of London in succession to the earl of Derby, and he entered on his new duties with the usual thoroughness. " His views of reform," according to Victor Dickins, the accomplished registrar of the university, " were always most liberal and most frankly stated, though at first they were not altogether popular with an important section of university opinion. He disarmed opposition by his intellectual power, rather than conciliated it by compromise, and sometimes was perhaps a little masterful, after a fashion of his own, in his treatment of the various burning questions that agitated the university during his tenure of office. His characteristic power of detachment was well illustrated by his treatment of the proposal to remove the university to the site of the Imperial Institute at South Kensington. Although he was at that time chairman of the Institute, the most irreconcilable opponent of the removal never questioned his absolute impartiality." With the Imperial Institute Herschell had been officially connected from its inception. He was chairman of the provisional committee appointed by the prince of Wales to formulate a scheme for its organization, and he took an active part in the preparation of its charter and constitution in conjunction with Lord Thring, Lord James, Sir Frederick Abel and Mr John Hollams. He was the first chairman of its council, and, except during his tour in India in 1888, when he brought the Institute under the notice of the Indian authorities, he was hardly absent from a single meeting. For his special services in this connexion he was made G.C.B. in 1893, this being the only instance of a lord chancellor being decorated with an order. In 1897 he was appointed, jointly with Lord Justice Collins, to represent Great Britain on the Venezuela Boundary Commission, which assembled in Paris in the spring of 1899. So complicated a business involved a great deal of preparation and a careful study of maps and historic documents. Not content with this, he accepted in 1898 a seat on the joint high commission appointed to adjust certain boundary and other important questions pending between Great Britain and Canada on the one hand and the United States on the other hand. He started for America in July of that year, and was received most cordially at Washington. His fellow commissioners elected him their president. In February 1899, while the commission was in full swing, he had the misfortune to slip in the street and in falling to fracture a hip bone. His constitution, which at one time was a robust one, had been undermined by constant hard work, and proved unequal to sustaining the shock. On the ist of March, only a fortnight after the accident, he died at the Shoreham Hotel, Washington, a. post-mortem examination revealing disease of the heart. Mr Hay, secretary of state, at once telegraphed to Mr Choate, the United States ambassador in London, the "deep sorrow" felt by President McKinley; and Sir Wilfred Laurier said the next day, in the parliament chamber at Ottawa, that he regarded Herschell's death " as a misfortune to Canada and to the British Empire." A funeral service held in St John's Episcopal Church, Washington, was attended by the president and vice-president of the United States, by the cabinet ministers, the judges of the Supreme Court, the members of the joint high commission, and a large number of senators and other representative men. The body was brought to London in a British man-of-war, and a second funeral service was held in Westminster Abbey before it was conveyed to its final resting-place at Tincleton, Dorset, in the parish church of which he had been married. Herschell left a widow, granddaughter of Vice-Chancellor Kindersley; a son, Richard Farrer (b. 1878), who succeeded him as second baron ; and two daughters. A "reminiscence" of Herschell by Mr Speaker Gully (LordSelby) will be found in The Law Quarterly Review for April 1899. The Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation (of which he had been HERSENT— HERTFORD, EARLS OF 397 president from its formation in 1893) contains, in its part for July of the same year, notices of him by Lord James of Hereford, Lord Dayey, Mr Victor Williamson (his executor and intimate friend), and also by Mr Justice D. J. Brewer and Senator C. W. Fairbanks (both of the United States). (M. H. C.) HERSENT, LOUIS (1777-1860), French painter, was born at Paris on the loth of March 1777, and becoming a pupil of David, obtained the Prix de Rome in 1797; in the Salon of 1802 appeared his " Metamorphosis of Narcissus," and he continued to exhibit with rare interruptions up to 183 1 . His most considerable works under the empire were " Achilles parting from Briseis," and " Atala dying in the arms of Chactas " (both engraved in Landon's Annales du Musfe) ; an " Incident of the life of Fenelon," painted in 1810, found a place at Malmaison, and "Passage of the Bridge atLandshut," which belongs to the same date, is now at Versailles. Hersent's typical works, however, belong to the period of the Re- storation; " Louis XVI. relieving the Afflicted" (Versailles) and " Daphnis and Chloe " (engraved by Langier and by Gelee) were both in the Salon of 1817; at that of 1819 the " Abdication of Gustavus Vasa " brought to Hersent a medal of honour, but the picture, purchased by the duke of Orleans, was destroyed at the Palais Royal in 1848, and the engraving by Henriquel-Dupont is now its sole record. " Ruth," produced in 1822, became the property of Louis XVIII., who from the moment that Hersent rallied to the Restoration jealously patronized him, made him officer of the legion of honour, and pressed his claims at the Institute, where he replaced van Spaendonck. He continued in favour under Charles X., for whom was executed " Monks of Mount St Gotthard," exhibited in 1824. In 1831 Hersent made his last appearance at the Salon with portraits of Louis Philippe, Marie- Amelie and the duke of Montpensier; that of the king though good, is not equal to the portrait of Spontini (Beilin), which is probably Hersent's chef-d'oeuvre. After this date Hersent ceased to exhibit at the yearly salons. Although in 1846 he sent an excellent likeness of Delphine Gay and one or two other works to the rooms of the Societe d'Artistes, he could not be tempted from his usual reserve even by the international contest of 1855. He died on the 2nd of October 1860. HERSFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, is pleasantly situated at the confluence of the Geis and Haun with the Fulda, on the railway from Frankfort- on-Main to Bebra, 24 m. N.N.E. of Fulda. Pop. (1905) 8688. Some of the old fortifications of the town remain, but the ramparts and ditches have been laid out as promenades. The principal buildings are the Stadt Kirche, a beautiful Gothic building, erected about 1320 and restored in 1899, with a fine tower and a large bell; the old and interesting town hall (Rathaus) and the ruins of the abbey church. This church was erected on the site of the cathedral in the beginning of the i2th century; it was built in the Byzantine style and was burnt down by the French in 1761. Outside the town are the Frauenberg and the Johannesberg, on both of which are monastic ruins. Among the public institutions are a gymnasium and a military school. The town has important manufactures of cloth, leather and machinery; it has also dye- works, worsted mills and soap-boiling works. Hersfeld owes its existence to the Benedictine abbey (see below). It became a town in the i2th century and in 1370 the burghers, having meanwhile shaken off the authority of the abbots, placed themselves under the protection of the landgraves of Hesse. It was taken and retaken during the Thirty Years' War and later it suffered from the attacks of the French. The Benedictine abbey of Hersfeld was founded by Lullus, afterwards archbishop of Mainz, about 769. It was richly endowed by Charlemagne and became an ecclesiastical princi- pality in the i2th century, passing under the protection of the landgraves of Hesse in 1423. It was secularized in 1648, having been previously administered for some years by a member of the ruling family of Hesse. As a secular principality Hersfeld passed to Hesse, and with electoral Hesse was united with Prussia in 1866. In the middle ages the abbey was famous for its library. See Vigelius, Denkwurdigkeiten von Hersfeld (Hersfeld, 1888); Demme, Nachrichten und Urkunden zur Chronik von Hersfeld (Hersfeld, 1891-1901), and P. Hafner, Die Reichsabtei Hersfeld bis zur Mitte des I3ten Jahrhunderts (Hersfeld, 1889). HERSTAL, or HERISTAL, a town of Belgium, less than 2 m. N. of Liege and practically one of its suburbs. The name is supposed to be derived from Heerstelle, i.e. " Permanent Camp." The second Pippin was born here, and this mayor of the palace acquired the control of the kingdom of the Franks. His grand- son, Pippin the Short, died at Herstal in A.D. 768, and it disputes with Aix la Chapelle the honour of being the birthplace of Charlemagne. It is now a very active centre of iron and 'steel manufactures. The Belgian national small arms factory and cannon foundry are fixed here. Pop. (1904) 20,114. HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. The English earldom of Hertford was held by members of the powerful family of Clare from about 1138, when Gilbert de Clare was created earl of Hertford, to 1314 when another earl Gilbert was killed at Bannockburn. In 1537 EDWARD SEYMOUR, viscount Beau- champ, a brother of Henry VIII. 's queen, Jane Seymour, was created earl of Hertford, being advanced ten years later to the dignity of duke of Somerset and becoming protector of England. His son EDWARD (c. 1540-1621) was styled earl of Hertford from 1547 until the protector's attainder and death in January 1552, when the title was forfeited; in 1559, however, he was created earl of Hertford. In 1560 he was secretly married to Lady Catherine Grey (c. 1538-1568), daughter of Henry Grey, duke of Suffolk, and a descendant of Henry VII. Queen Elizabeth greatly disliked this union, and both husband and wife were imprisoned, while the validity of their marriage was questioned. Catherine died on the 27th of January 1568 and Hertford on the 6th of April 1621. Their son Edward, Lord Beauchamp (1561- 1612), who inherited his mother's title to the English throne, predeceased his father; and the latter was succeeded in the earldom by his grandson WILLIAM SEYMOUR (1588-1660), who was created marquess of Hertford in 1640 and was restored to his ancestor's dukedom of Somerset in 1660. The title of marquess of Hertford became extinct when JOHN, 4th duke of Somerset, died in 1675, and the earldom when ALGERNON, the 7th duke, died in February 1750. In August 1750 FRANCIS SEYMOUR CONWAY, 2nd Baron Conway (1718-1794), who was a direct descendant of the protector Somerset, was created earl of Hertford; this noble- man was the son of Francis Seymour Conway (1670-1732), who had taken the name of Conway in addition to that of Seymour, and was the brother of Field-marshal Henry Seymour Conway. Hertford was ambassador to France from 1763 to 1765; was lord- lieutenant of Ireland in 1765 and 1766; and lord chamberlain of the household from 1766 to 1782. Horace Walpole speaks of his " decorum and piety " and refers to him as a " perfect courtier," but says that he had " too great propensity to heap emoluments on his children." In 1793 he became earl of Yarmouth and marquess of Hertford, and he died on the i4th of June 1 794. His son, FRANCIS INGRAM SEYMOUR CONWAY (1743-1822), who was known during his father's lifetime as Lord Beauchamp, took a prominent part in the debates of the House of Commons from 1766 until he succeeded to the marquessate in 1794. He was sent as ambassador to Berlin and Vienna in 1793 and from 1812 to 1821 he was lord chamberlain. His son FRANCIS CHARLES, the 3rd marquess (1777-1842), was an intimate friend of the prince regent, afterwards George IV., and is the original of the " Marquis of Steyne " in Thackeray's Vanity Fair and of " Lord Monmouth " in Disraeli's Coningsby. The 4th marquess was his son, RICHARD (1800-1870), whose mother was the great heiress, Maria Emily Fagniani, and whose brother was Lord Henry Seymour (1805-1859), the founder of the Jockey Club at Paris. When Richard died unmarried in Paris in August 1870. his title passed to his kinsman, FRANCIS HUGH GEORGE SEYMOUR (1812- 1884), a descendant of the ist marquess, whose son, HUGH DE GREY (b. 1843) became 6th marquess in 1884. The 4th mar- quess left his great wealth and his priceless collection of art treasures to Sir Richard Wallace (1818-1890), his reputed half- brother, and Wallace's widow, who died in 1897, bequeathed the collection to the British nation. It is now in Hertford House, formerly the London residence of the marquesses of Hertford. 39^ HERTFORD— HERTFORDSHIRE HERTFORD, a market-town and municipal borough, and the county town of Hertfordshire, England, in the Hertford parlia- mentary division of the county, 24 m. N. from London, the terminus of branch lines of the Great Eastern and Great Northern railways. Pop. (1901) 9322. It is pleasantly situated in the valley of the river Lea. The chief buildings are the modern churches of St Andrew and of All Saints, on the sites of old ones,' a town hall, corn exchange, public library, school of art and the old castle, which retains the wall and part of a tower dating from the Norman period, and is represented by a picturesque Jacobean building of brick, largely modernized. There are several educational establishments, including the preparatory school for Christ's Hospital, a picturesque building (in great part, however, rebuilt) at the east end of the town, Kale's grammar school, the Cowper Testimonial school, and a Green-coat school for boys and girls. Two miles S.E. is Haileybury College, one of the principal public schools of England, founded in 1805 by the East India Company for their civil service students, who were then temporarily housed in Hertford Castle. The school lies high above the Lea valley, towards Hoddesdon, in the midst of a stretch of finely-wooded country. Hertford has a considerable agricultural trade, and there are mailings, breweries, iron foundries, and oriental printing works. The town is governed by a mayor, 5 aldermen and 15 councillors. Area, 1134 acres. Hertford (Herutford, Heorolford, Hurtford) was the scene of a synod in 673. Its communication with London by way of the Lea and the Thames gave it strategic importance during the Danish occupation of East Anglia. In 1066 and later it was a royal garrison and burgh. It made separate payments for aids to the Norman and Angevin kings; and in 1331 was governed by a bailiff annually elected by the commonalty. A charter in- corporated the bailiffs and burgesses in 1555, and was confirmed under Elizabeth and in 1606. A charter of 1680 to the mayor, aldermen and commonalty was effective until the Municipal Corporation Act. Hertford returned two burgesses to the parliament of 1298, and to others until, after 1375/6, such right became abeyant, to be restored by order of parliament in 1623/4. One representative was lost by the Representation Act in 1868, and separate representation by the Redistribution Act in 1885. A grant of fairs in 1226 probably originated or confirmed those held in 1331 on the feasts of the Assumption and of St Simon and St Jude, their vigils and morrows, which fairs were confirmed by Elizabeth and Charles II. Another on the vigil, morrow and feast of the Nativity of the Virgin was granted by Elizabeth: its date was changed to May-day under James I. Modern fairs are on the third Saturda> before Easter, the I2th of May, the sth of July and the 8th of November. Markets were held in 1331 on Wednesday and Saturday; after 1368 on Thursday and Saturday; and they returned to Wednesdays and Saturdays in 1680. HERTFORDSHIRE [HERTS], a county of England, bounded N. by Cambridgeshire, N.W. by Bedfordshire, E. by Essex, S. by Middlesex, and S.W. by Buckinghamshire. The area is 634-6 sq. m., the county being the sixth smallest in England. Its aspect is always pleasant, the surface generally undulating, while in some parts, where these undulations form a quick succession of hills and valleys, the woodland scenery becomes very beautiful, as in the upper Lea valley, in the neighbourhood of Tewin near Hertford, and elsewhere. To the north-west and north considerable elevations are reached, a line of hills, facing north-westward with a sharp descent, crossing this portion of the county, and overlooking the flat lands of Bedfordshire and Cambridgeshire. They continue the line of the Chiltern Hills, under the name of the East Anglian Ridge. They exceed 800 ft. near Dunstable, sinking gradually north-eastward. These uplands are generally bare, and in parts remarkably sparsely populated as compared with the home counties at large. In the greater part of the county, however, rich arable lands are inter- mingled with the parks and woodlands of numerous fine country seats, which impart to the county a peculiar luxuriance. Of the principal rivers, the Lea, rising beyond Luton in Bedfordshire, enters Hertfordshire near East Hyde, flows S.E. to near Hatfield, then E. by N. to Hertford and Ware, whence it bends S. and passing along the eastern boundary of the county falls into the Thames below London. It receives in its course the Maran, or Mimram, the Beane, the Rib and the Stort, all joining on the north side; the Stort for some distance forming the county boundary with Essex. The Colne flows through the south- western part of the county, to fall into the Thames at Staines. It receives the Ver, the Bulborne and the Chess. The Ivel, rising in the N.W. soon passes into Bedfordshire to join the Great Ouse. To the south of Hatfield, near North Mimms, two streams of moderate size are lost in pot-holes, except in the highest floods. The New River, one of the water supplies of London, has its source near Ware, and runs roughly parallel with the Lea. Most of the rivers are full of fish, including trout in the upper parts (of the Lea and Colne especially), which are carefully preserved. Geology. — The rocks of Hertfordshire belong to the shallow syncl'ne known as the London basin, the beds dipping in a south- easterly direction. The two most important formations are the Chalk, which forms the high ground in the north and west; and the Eocene Reading beds and London Clay which occupy the remaining southern part of the county. On the northern boundary, at the foot of the chalk hills, a small strip of Gault Clay and the Upper Greensand above it falls just within the county. The lowest subdivision of the chalk is the Chalk Marl, which with the Totternhoe Stone above it, lies at the base of the Chalk escarpment, by Ashwell, Pirton and Miswell to Tring. Above these beds, the Lower Chalk, without flints, rises up sharply to form the downs which are the easterly continuation of the Chiltern Hills. Next comes the Chalk Rock, which being a hard bed, lies near the hilltops by Boxmoor, Apsley End and near Baldock. The Upper Chalk slopes southward towards the Eocene boundary previously mentioned. The Reading beds consist of mottled and yellow clays and sands, the latter are frequently hardened into masses made up of pebbles in a siliceous cement, known locally as Hertfordshire puddingstone. The London Clay, a stiff blue clay which weathers brown, rests nearly everywhere upon the Reading beds. Outliers of Eocene rocks rest on the chalk at Mickle- field Green, Sarrat, Bedmont, &c. The Chalk is often covered by the Clay-with-flints, a detrital deposit, formed of the remnants of Tertiary rocks and Chalk. Glacial gravels, clays and loams cover a great deal of the whole area, and the Upper Chalk itself has been disturbed at Reed and Barley by the same agency. Chalk was formerly used for building purposes; it is now burned for lime. Reading beds and London clay are dug for brickmaking at Watford, Hertford and Hatfield. Phosphatic nodules have been excavated from the base of the Chalk Marl at several places along the outcrop; the Marl is worked for cement. Climate and Agriculture. — The climate is mild, dry and generally healthy. On this account London physicians were formerly accustomed to recommend the county to persons in weak health, and it was so much coveted by the noble and wealthy as a place of residence that it was a common saying that " he who buys a home in Hertfordshire pays two years' purchase for the air." Of the total area about four-fifths is under cultiva- tion, and of this more than one-third is in permanent pasture. The principal grain crop is wheat, occupying about two-fifths of the area under corn, but gradually decreasing. The varieties mostly grown are white, and they are unsurpassed by those of any English county. Wheathampstead on the upper Lea receives its name from the fine quality of the wheat grown in that district. Barley is largely used in the county for malting purposes. Vetches are grown for the London stables, and the greater part of the permanent grass is used for hay. There are some very rich pastures on the banks of the Stort, and also near Rickmansworth on the Colne. Some two-thirds of the area occupied by green crops is under turnips, swedes and mangolds, many cows being kept for the supply of milk and butter to London. The quantity of stock is generally small, but increasing except in the case of sheep, of which the numbers have greatly decreased. Of cows the most common breed is the Suffolk variety; of sheep, Southdowns, Wiltshires and a cross between Cotteswolds and Leicesters. In the south-west large quantities of cherries, apples and strawberries are grown for the London market; and on the best soils near London vegetables are forced by the aid of manure, and more than one crop is sometimes obtained in a year. A considerable industry lies in the growth of watercresses in the pure water of the upper parts of the rivers and HERTFORDSHIRE 399 the smaller streams. There are a number of rose-gardens and nurseries. Other Industries. — The manufacturing industries are slight; though the great brewing establishments at Watford may be mentioned, and straw-plaiting, paper-making, coach-building, tanning and brick-making are carried on in various towns. Communications. — Owing to its proximity to the metropolis, Hertfordshire is particularly well served by railways. On the eastern border there is the Great Eastern (Cambridge line) with branches to Hertford and to Buntingford. The main line of the Great Northern passes through the centre by Hatfield, Stevenage and Hitchin, with branches from Hatfield to Hertford, to St Albans and to Luton and Dunstable, and from Hitchin to Baldock, Royston and so to Cambridge. The Midland passes through St Albans and Harpenden, with a branch to Hemel Hempstead. The London & North- Western traverses the south- west by Watford, Berkhampstead and Tring, with branches to Rickmansworth and to St Albans. The Metropolitan & Great Central joint line serves Rickmansworth, and suburban lines of the Great Northern the Barnet district. The existence of these communications has combined with the natural attractions of the county to cause many villages to become large residential centres. Water communications are supplied from Hertford, Ware and Bishop Stortford, southward to the Thames by the Lea and Stort Navigation; and the Grand Junction canal from London to the north-west traverses the south-western corner of the county by Rickmansworth and Berkhampstead. Three great highways from London to the north traverse the county. The Holyhead Road passes Chipping Barnet, South Mimms and St Albans, quitting the county near Dunstable. The Great North Road branches from the Holyhead Road at Barnet, and passes Potter's Bar, Hatfield, Stevenage and Baldock, with a branch from Welwyn to Hitchin and beyond. Another road follows the Lea valley to Ware, whence it runs to Royston, being here coincident with the Roman Ermine Street and known as the Old North Road. Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county is 406,157 acres with a population in 1891 of 220,162, and in 1901 of 250,152. The area of the administrative county is 404,518 acres. The county comprises eight hundreds. The municipal boroughs are: Hemel Hempstead (11,264), Hertford 9322), St Albans, a city (16,019). The other urban districts are: Baldock (2057), Barnet (7876), Berkhampstead (Great Berk- hampstead, 5140), Bishop Stortford (7143), Bushey (4564), Cheshunt (12,292), East Barnet Valley (10,094), Harpenden (4725), Hitchin (10,072), Hoddesdon (4711),' Rickmansworth (5627), Royston (3517), Sawbridgeworth (2085), Stevenage (3957), Tring (4349), Ware (5573) and Watford (29,327). The county is in the home circuit, and assizes are held at Hertford. It has two courts of quarter-sessions, and is divided into 15 petty- sessional divisions. The boroughs of Hertford and St Albans have separate commissions of the peace. The total number of civil parishes is 158. All the civil parishes within 12 m. of, or in which no portion is more than 15 m. from, Charing Cross, London, are included in the metropolitan police district. The county contains 1 70 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part; it is nearly all in the diocese of St Albans, but small parts are in the dioceses of Ely, Oxford and London. It is divided into four parliamentary divisions — Northern or Hitchin, Eastern or Hertford, Mid or St Albans, Western or Watford, each returning one member. There is no parliamentary borough within the county. History. — Relics of Saxon occupation have been found in Hertfordshire for the most part near St Albans and Hitchin. The diocesan limits show that part of the shire was included in the West Saxon kingdom. The East Saxons, as early as the 6th century, were settled about Hertford, which in 673 was sufficiently important to be the meeting-place of a synod con- vened by Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, while in 675 the Witenagemot assembled at a place which has been identified with Hatfield. In the gth century the district was frequently visited by the Danes; and after the peace of Wedmore the country east of the Lea was included in the Danelaw; in 911 Edward the Elder erected forts on both sides of the river at Hertford. After the battle of Hastings William advanced on Hertford- shire and ravaged as far as Berkhampstead, where the Conquest received its formal ratification. In the sweeping confiscation of estates which followed, the church was generously endowed, the abbey of St Albans alone holding 172 hides, while Count Eustace of Boulogne, the chief lay tenant, held a.vast fief in the north-east of the county. Large estates were held by Geoffrey de Mandeville, and the barony of Peter de Valognes, sheriff of the county in 1086, though extending over six counties in the east of England, was returned in 1166 as a Hertfordshire barony. Berkhampstead was the head of an honour carved from the fief of Robert of Mortain. The Hertfordshire estates, however, for the most part changed hands very frequently and the county is noticeably lacking in historic families. Edmund Langley, fifth son of Edward III., was born at King's Langley in this county. During the war between John and his barons, William, earl of Salisbury and Falkes de Breaute had the king's orders to ravage Hertfordshire, and in 1216 Hertford Castle was captured and Berkhampstead Castle besieged by Louis of France, who had come over by invitation of the barons. At the time of the rising of 1381 the abbot's tenants broke into the abbey of St Albans and forced the abbot to grant them a charter. During the Wars of the Roses, Henry VI. was defeated at St Albans in 1455; at the second battle of St Albans the earl of Warwick was defeated by Queen Margaret; and in 1471 Edward IV. again defeated the earl at Barnet. On the outbreak of the Civil War of the i7th century, Hertfordshire joined with Bedfordshire and Essex in petitioning for peace, and St Albans again played an important part in the struggle, being at different times the headquarters of Essex and Fairfax. As a shire Hertfordshire is of purely military origin, being the district assigned to the fortress which Edward the Elder erected at Hertford. It is first mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle in 101 1 . At the time of the Domesday Survey the boundaries were ap- proximately those of the present day, but part of Meppershall in Bedfordshire formed a detached portion of the shire and is still assessed for land and income tax in Hertfordshire. Of the nine Domesday hundreds, those of Danais and Tring were consolidated about 1 200 under the name of Dacorum; the modern hundred of Cashio, from being held by the abbots of St Albans, was known as Albaneston, while the remaining six hundreds correspond approximately both in name and extent with those of the present day. Hertfordshire was originally divided between the dioceses of London and Lincoln. In 1291 that part included in the Lincoln diocese formed part of the archdeaconry of Huntingdom and comprised the deaneries of Berkhampstead, Hitchin, Hertford and Baldock, and the archdeaconry and deanery of St Albans; while that part within the London diocese formed the deanery of Braughing within the archdeaconry of Middlesex. In 1535 the jurisdiction of St Albans had been transferred to the London diocese, the division being otherwise unchanged. In 1846 the whole county was placed within the diocese of Rochester and archdeaconry of St Albans, and in the next year the deaneries of Welwyn, Bennington, Buntingford, Bishop Stortford and Ware were created, and that of Braughing abolished. In 1864 the archdeaconries of Rochester and St Albans were united under the name of the archdeaconry of Rochester and St Albans. In 1878 the county was placed in the newly created diocese of St Albans, and formed the archdeaconry of St Albans, the deaneries being unchanged. Hertfordshire was closely associated with Essex from the time of its first settlement, and the counties paid a joint fee-farm and were united under one sheriff until 1565, the shire-court being held at Hertford. The hundred of St Albans was at an early date constituted a separate liberty, with independent courts and coroners under the control of the abbot; it preserved a separate commission of the peace until 1874, when by act of parliament the county was arranged in two divisions, the eastern division HERTHA— HERTZ, H. R. being named Hertford, and the western the liberty of St Albans. These divisions have since been abolished. Hertfordshire has always been an agricultural county, with few manufactures, and at the time of the Domesday Survey its wealth was derived almost entirely from its rural manors, with their water meadows, woodlands, fisheries paying rent in eels, and water-mills, the shire on its eastern side being noticeably free from waste land. In Norman times the woollen trade was considerable, and the great corn market at Royston has been famous since the reign of Elizabeth. At the time of the Civil War the malting industry was largely carried on, and saltpetre was produced in the county. In the i7th century Hertfordshire was famous for its horses, and the i8th century saw the introduction of several minor industries, such as straw-plaiting, paper-making and silk weaving. In 1290 Hertfordshire returned two members to parliament, and in 1298 the borough of Hertford was represented. St Albans, Bishop Stortford and Berkhampstead acquired repre- sentation in the I4th century, but from 1375 to 1553 no returns were made for the boroughs. St Albans regained representation >n J5S3 and Hertford in 1623. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned three members. St Albans was dis- franchised on account of bribery in 1852. Hertford lost one member in 1868, and was disfranchised by the act of 1885. Antiquities. — Among the objects of antiquarian interest may be mentioned the cave of Royston, doubtless once used as a hermitage; Waltham Cross, erected to mark the spot where rested the body of Eleanor, queen of Edward I., on its way to Westminster for interment; and the Great Bed of Ware referred to in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night and preserved at Rye House. The principal monastic buildings are the noble pile of St Albans abbey; the remains of Sopwell Benedictine nunnery near St Albans, founded in 1140; the remains of the priory of Ware, dedicated to St Francis, and originally a cell to the monastery of St Ebrulf at Utica in Normandy; and the remains of the priory at Hitchin built by Edward II. for the Carmelites. Among the more interesting churches may be mentioned those of Abbots Langley and Hemel Hempstead, both of Late Norman archi- tecture; Baldock, a handsome mixed Gothic building supposed to have been erected by the Knights Templars in the reign of Stephen; Royston, formerly connected with the priory of canons regular; Hitchin of the i5th century; Hatfield, dating from the i3th century but in the main later; Berkhampstead, chiefly in the Perpendicular style, with a tower of the i6th century. Sandridge church shows good Norman work with the use of Roman bricks; Wheathampstead church, mainly very fine Decorated, has pre-Norman remains. The remains of secular buildings of importance are those of Berkhampstead castle, Hertford castle, Hatfield palace of the bishops of Ely, the slight traces at Bishop Stortford, and the earthworks at Anstey. Among the numerous mansions of interest, Rye House, erected in the reign of Henry VI., was tenanted by Rumbold, one of the principal agents in the plot to assassinate Charles II. Moor Park, Rickmansworth, once the property of St Albans abbey, was granted by Henry VII. to John de Vere, earl of Oxford, and was afterwards the property of the duke of Monmouth, who built the present mansion, which, however, was subsequently cased with Portland stone and received various other additions. Knebworth, the seat of the Lyttons, was originally a Norman fortress, rebuilt in the time of Elizabeth in the Tudor style and restored in the igth century. Hatfield House is the seat of the marquis of Salisbury; but its earlier history is of great interest, as is that of Theobalds near Cheshunt. Panshanger House, until recently the principal seat of the Cowpers, is a splendid mansion in Gothic style erected at the beginning of the igth century. The manor of Cashiobury House, the seat of the earls of Essex, was formerly held by the abbot of St Albans, but the mansion was rebuilt in the beginning of the igth century from designs by Wyatt. Gorhambury House, near St Albans, the seat of the earl of Verulam, formerly the seat of the Bacons, and the residence of the great chancellor, was rebuilt at the close of the i8th century. At Kings Langley and Hunsdon were also former royal residences. See Sir H. Chauncy, Historical Antiquities of Hertfordshire (London, 1700, 2nd cd., Bishop Stortford, 1826); N. Salmon, History of Hertfordshire (London, 1728); R. Clutterbuck, History and Antiquities of the County of Hertford (London, 1815-1827); W. Berry, Pedigrees of the Hertfordshire Families (London, 1844); J. E. Cussans, History of Hertfordshire (London, 1870-1881); Victoria County History, Hertfordshire (London, 1902, &c.) ; see also " Visitation of Hertfordshire, 1572-1634," in Harleian Society's Publ. vol. xvii., and various papers in Middlesex and Hertfordshire Notes and Queries (1895-1898), which in January 1899 was incor- porated in the Home Counties Magazine. HERTHA, or NERTHUS, in Teutonic mythology, the goddess of fertility, "Mother Earth." Tacitus states that many Teutonic tribes worshipped her with orgies and mysterious rites celebrated at night. The chief seat of her cult was an island which has not been identified. A single priest performed the service. Her veiled statue was moved from place to place by sacred cows on which none but the priest might lay hands. At the conclusion of the rites the image, its vestments and its vehicle were bathed in a lake. HERTZ, HEINRICH RUDOLF (1857-1894), German physicist, was born at Hamburg on the 22nd of February 1857. On leaving school he determined to adopt the profession of engineering, and in the pursuance of this decision went to study in Munich in 1877. But soon coming to the conclusion that engineering was not his vocation he abandoned it in favour of physical science, and in October 1878 began to attend the lectures of G. R. Kirchhoff and H. von Helmholtz at Berlin. In preparation for these he spent the winter of 1877-1878 in reading up original treatises like those of Laplace and Lagrange on mathematics and mechanics, and in attending courses on practical physics under P. G. von Jolly and J. F. W. von Bezold; the consequence was that within a few days of his arrival in Berlin in October 1878 he was able to plunge into original research on a problem of electric inertia. For the best solution a prize was offered by the philosophical faculty of the University, and this he succeeded in winning with the paper which was published in 1 880 on the " Kinetic Energy of Electricity in Motion." His next investigation, on " Induction in Rotating Spheres," he offered in 1880 as his dissertation for his doctor's degree, which he obtained with the rare distinction of sttmnia cum laude. Later in the same year he became assistant to Helmholtz in the physical laboratory of the Berlin Institute. During the three years he held this position he carried out researches on the contact of elastic solids, hardness, evaporation and the electric discharge in gases, the last earning him the special commendation of Helmholtz. In 1883 he went to Kiel, becoming Privatdozent, and there he began the studies in Maxwell's electro-magnetic theory which a few years later resulted in the discoveries that rendered his name famous. These were actually made between 1885 and 1889, when he was professor of physics in the Carlsruhe Polytechnic. He himself recorded that their origin is to be sought in a prize problem proposed by the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1879, having reference to the experi- mental establishment of some relation between electromagnetic forces and the dielectric polarization of insulators. Imagining that this would interest Hertz and be successfully attacked by him, Helmholtz specially drew his attention to it, and promised him the assistance of the Institute if he decided to work on the subject; but Hertz did not take it up seriously at that time, because he could not think of any procedure likely to prove effective. It was of course well known, as a necessity of Maxwell's mathematical theory, that the polarization and depolarization of an insulator must give rise to the same electromagnetic effects in the neighbourhood as a voltaic current in a conductor. The ex- perimental proof, however, was still lacking, and though several experimenters had come very near its discovery, Hertz was the first who actually succeeded in supplying it, in 1887. Continuing his inquiries for the next year or two, he was able to discover the pro- gressive propagation of electromagnetic action through space, to measure the length and velocity of electromagnetic waves, and to show that in the transverse nature of their vibration and their sus- ceptibility to reflection, refraction and polarization they are in complete correspondence with the waves of light and heat. The result, was in Helmholtz's words, to establish beyond doubt that HERTZ, H.— HERTZBERG 401 ordinary light consists of electrical vibrations in an all-pervading ether which possesses the properties of an insulator and of a magnetic medium. Hertz himself gave an admirable account of the significance of his discoveries in a lecture on the relations between light and electricity, delivered before the German Society for the Advancement of Natural Science and Medicine at Heidel- berg in September 1889. Since the time of these early experi- ments, various other modes of detecting the existence of electric waves have been found out in addition to the spark-gap which he first employed, and the results of his observations, the earliest interest of which was simply that they afforded a confirmation of an abstruse mathematical theory, have been applied to the practical purposes of signalling over considerable distances (see TELEGRAPHY, WIRELESS). In 1889 Hertz was appointed to succeed R. J. E. Clausius as ordinary professor of physics in the university of Bonn. There he continued his researches on the discharge of electricity in rarefied gases, only just missing the discovery of the X-rays described by W. C. Rontgen a few years later, and produced his treatise on the Principles of Mechanics. This was his last work, for after a long illness he died at Bonn on the ist of January 1894. By his premature death science lost one of her most promising disciples. Helmholtz thought him the one of all his pupils who had penetrated farthest into his swn circle of scientific thought, and looked to him with the greatest confidence for the further extension and development of his work. Hertz's scientific papers were translated into English by Professor D. E. Jones, and published in three volumes: Electric Waves (1893), Miscellaneous Papers (1896), and Principles of Mechanics (1899). The preface contributed to the first of these by Lord Kelvin, and the introductions to the second and third by Professors P. E. A. Lenard and Helmholtz, contain many biographical details, together with statements of the scope and significance of his investigations. HERTZ, HENRIK (1797-1870), Danish poet, was born of Jewish parents in Copenhagen on the 2$th of August 1798. In 1817 he was sent to the university. His father died in his infancy, and the family property was destroyed in the bombard- ment of 1807. The boy was brought up by his relative, M. L. Nathanson, a well-known newspaper editor. Young Hertz passed his examination in law in 1825. But his taste was all for polite literature, and in 1826-1827 two plays of his were produced, Mr Burchardt and his Family and Love and Policy; in 1828 followed the comedy of Flytledagen. In 1830 he brought out what was a complete novelty in Danish literature, a comedy in rhymed verse, A mor's Strokes of Genius. In the same year Hertz published anonymously Gengangerbrevene, or Letters from a Ghost, which he pretended were written by Baggesen, who had died in 1826. The book was written in defence of J. L. Heiberg, and was full of satirical humour and fine critical insight. Its success was overwhelming; but Hertz preserved his anonymity, and the secret was not known until many years later. In 1832 he published a didactic poem, Nature and Art, and Four Poetical Epistles. A Day on the Island of Als was his next comedy, followed in 1835 by The Only Fault. Hertz passed through Germany and Switzerland into Italy in 1833; he spent the winter there, and returned the following autumn through France to Denmark. In 1836 his comedy of The Sailings Bank enjoyed a great success. But it was not till 1837 that he gave the full measure of his genius in the romantic national drama of Svend Dyrings Hus, a beautiful and original piece. His historical tragedy Valdemar Alter dag was not so well received in 1839; but in 1845 he achieved an immense success with his lyrical drama Kong Rene's Dalter (King Rene's Daughter), which has been translated into almost every European language. To this succeeded the tragedy of Ninon in 1848, the romantic comedy of Tonietta in 1849, A Sacrifice in 1833, The Youngest in 1854. His lyrical poems appeared in successive collections, dated 1832, 1840 and 1844. From 1858 to 1859 he edited a literary journal entitled Weekly Leaves. His last drama, Three Days in Padua, was produced in 1869, and he died on the 2$th of February of the next year. Hertz is one of the first of Danish lyrical poets. His poems are full of colour and passion, his versification has more witch- craft in it than any other poet's of his age, and his style is grace itself. He has all the sensuous fire of Keats without his proclivity to the antique. As a romantic dramatist he is scarcely less original. He has bequeathed to the Danish theatre, in Svend Dyrings Hus and King Rene's Daughter, two pieces which have become classic. He is a troubadour by instinct; he has little or nothing of Scandinavian local colouring, and succeeds best when he is describing the scenery or the emotions of the glowing south. His Dramatic Works (18 vols.) were published at Copenhagen in 1854-1873; and his Foems (4 vols.) in 1851-1862. HERTZBERG, EWALD FRIEDRICH, COUNT VON (1725-1795), Prussian statesman, who came of a noble family which had been settled in Pomerania since the i3th century, was born at Lottin, in that province, on the 2nd of September 1725. After 1739 he studied, chiefly classics and history at the gymnasium at Stettin, and in 1742 entered the university of Halle as a student of juris- prudence, becoming in due course a doctor of laws in 1745. In addition to this principal study, he was also interested while at the university in historical and philosophical (Christian Wolff) studies. A first thesis for his doctcrate, entitled Jus publicum Brandenburgicum, was not printed, because it contained a criticism of the existing condition of the state. Shortly after- wards Hertzberg entered the government service, in which he was first employed in the department of the state archives (of which he became director in 1750), soon after in the foreign office, and finally in 1763 as chief minister (Cabinelsminisler). In 1752 he married Baroness Marie von Knyphausen, a marriage which was happy, but childless. For more than forty years Hertzberg played an active part in the Prussian foreign office. In this capacity he had a decisive influence on Prussian policy, both under Frederick the Great and Frederick William II. At the beginning of the Seven. Years' War (1756) he took part as a political writer in the Hohenzollern- Habsburg quarrel, both in his Ursachen, die S.K.M. in Preussen bewogen haben, sick wider die Absichlen dcs Wiencrischcn Hofes zu setzen und deren Ausfuhrung zuvorzukommen (" Motives which have induced the king of Prussia to oppose the intentions of the court of Vienna, and to prevent them from being carried into effect"), and in his M emoire raisonne sur la conduite dcs cours de Vienne et de Saxe, based on the secret papers taken by Frederick the Great from the archives of Dresden. After the defeat at Kolin (1757) he hastened to Pomerania in order to organize the national defence there and collect the necessary troops for the protection of the fortresses of Stettin and Colberg. In the same year he conducted the peace negotiations with Sweden, and was of great service in bringing about the peace of Huberts- burg (1763), on the conclusion of which the king received him with the words, " I congratulate you. You have made peace as I made war, one against many." In the later years, too, of Frederick the Great's reign, Hertzberg played a considerable part in foreign policy. In 1772, in a memoir based upon comprehensive historical studies, he defended the Prussian claims to certain provinces of Poland. He also took part successfully as a publicist in the negotiations concerning the question of the Bavarian succession (1778) and those of the peace of Teschen (1779). But in 1780 he failed to uphold Prussian interests at the election of the bishop of Munster. In 1784 appeared Hertzberg's memoir containing a thorough study of the Ftirstenbund. He championed this latest creation of Frederick the Great's mainly with a view to an energetic reform of the empire, though the idea of German unity was naturally still far from his mind. In 1785 followed " An explanation of the motives which have led the king of Prussia to propose to the other high estates of the empire an association for the maintenance of the system of the empire " (Erkldrung der Ursachen, welche S.M. in Preussen bewogen haben, ihren hohen Milstanden des Reichs eine Association zur Erhaltung des Reichssystems anzutragen). By upholding the Fiirstenbund Hertzberg made many enemies, prominent among whom was the king's brother, Prince Henry. Though the Fiirstenbund failed to effect a reform of the empire, it at any rate prevented the fulfilment of Joseph II. 's old desire for the incorporation of Bavaria with Austria. The last act of state in which Hertzberg took part under Frederick the Great 402 HERTZEN was the commercial treaty concluded in 1785 between Prussia and the United States. With Frederick, especially in his later years, Hertzberg stood in very intimate personal relations and was often the king's guest at Sans-Souci. Under Frederick William II. his influential position at the court of Berlin was at first unshaken. The king at once received him with favour, as is clearly proved by Hertz- berg's elevation to the rank of count in i786;and Mirabeau would never have attacked him with such violence in his Secret History of the Court of Berlin, which appeared in 1788, if he had not seen in him the most powerful man after the king. In this attack Mirabeau seems to have been influenced by Hertzberg's personal enemies at the court. Hertzberg's political system remained on the whole the same under Frederick William II. as it had been under his predecessor. It was mainly characterized by a sharp opposition to the house of Habsburg and by a desire to win for Prussia the support of England, a policy supported by him in important memoirs of the years 1786 and 1787. His diplomacy was directed also against Austria's old ally, France. Hence it was chiefly owing to Hertzberg that in 1787, in spite of the king's unwillingness at first, Prussia intervened in Holland in support of the stadtholder William V. against the demo- cratic French party (see HOLLAND: History). The success of this intervention, which was the practical realization of -a plan very characteristic of Hertzberg, marks the culminating point in his career. But the opposition between him and the new king, which had already appeared at the time of the conclusion of the triple alliance between Holland, England and Prussia, became more marked in the following years, when Hertzberg, relying upon this alliance, and in conscious imitation of Frederick II. 's policy at the time of the first partition of Poland, sought to take advantage of the entanglement of Austria with Russia in the war with Turkey to secure for Prussia an extension of territory by diplomatic intervention. According to his plan, Prussia was to offer her mediation at the proper moment, and in the territorial readjust- ments that the peace would bring, was to receive Danzig and Thorn as her portion. Beyond this he aimed at preventing the restoration of the hegemony of Austria in the Empire, and secretly cherished the hope of restoring Frederick the Great's Russian alliance. With a curious obstinacy he continued to pursue these aims even when, owing to military and diplomatic events, they were already partly out of date. His personal position became increasingly difficult, as deep-rooted differences between him and the king were revealed during these diplomatic campaigns. Hertzberg wished to effect everything by peaceful means, while Frederick William II. was for a time determined on war with Austria. As regards Polish policy, too, their ideas came into conflict, Hertzberg having always been openly opposed to the total annihilation of the Polish kingdom. The same is true of the attitude of king and minister towards Great Britain. At the con- ferences at Reichenbach in the summer of 1790, this opposition became more and more acute, and Hertzberg was only with difficulty persuaded to come to an agreement merely on the basis of the status quo, as demanded by Pitt. The king's renuncia- tion of any extension of territory was in Hertzberg's eyes impolitic, and this view of his was later endorsed by Bismarck. A letter which came to the eyes of the king, in which Hertzberg severely criticized the king's foreign policy, and especially his plans for attacking Russia, led to his dismissal on the sth of July 1791. He afterwards made several attempts to exert an influence over foreign affairs, but in vain. The king showed himself more and more personally hostile to the ex- minister, and in later years pursued Hertzberg, now quite embittered, with every kind of petty persecution, even ordering his letters to be opened. Even in his literary interests Hertzberg found an adversary in the ungrateful king, for Frederick William, to give one instance, made it so difficult for him to use the archives that in the end Hertzberg entirely gave up the attempt. He found, however, some recompense for all his disillusionment and discouragement in learning, and, Wilhelm von Humboldt excepted, he was the most learned of all the Prussian ministers. As a member of the Berlin Academy especially, and, from 1 786 onwards, as its curator, Hertzberg carried on a great and valuable activity in the world of learning. His yearly reports dealt with history, statistics and political science. The most interesting is that of 1784: Sur la forme des gouvernements, et quelle est la meilleure. This is directed exclusively against the absolute system (following Montesquieu), upholds a limited monarchy, and is in favour of extending to the peasants the right to be represented in the diet. He spoke for the last time in 1793 on Frederick the Great and the advantages of monarchy. After 1783 these discourses caused a great sensa- tion, since Hertzberg introduced into them a review of the financial situation, which in the days of absolutism seemed an unprecedented innovation. Besides this, Hertzberg exerted himself as an academician to change the strongly French character of the Academy and make it into a truly German institution. He showed a keen interest in the old German language and literature. A special " German deputation " was set aside at the Academy and entrusted with the drawing up of a German grammar and dictionary. He also stood in very close relations with many of the German poets of the time, and especially with Daniel Schubart. Among the German historians in whom he took a great interest, he had the greatest esteem for Pufendorf. He was equally concerned in the improvement of the state of education. In 1780 he boldly took up the defence of German literature, which had been disparaged by Frederick the Great in his famous writing De la literature allemande. Hertzberg's frank and honourable nature little fitted him to be a successful diplomatist; but the course of history has justified many of his aims and ideals, and in Prussia his memory is honoured. He died at Berlin on the 22nd of May 1795. AUTHORITIES. — (i) By Hertzberg himself: The Memoires de I' Academic from 1780 on contain Hertzberg's discourses. The most noteworthy of them were printed in 1787. Here too is to be found: Histoire de la dissertation [du. roi] sur la litterature allemande; see also Recueil des deductions, &c., qui ont ete rediges . . . pour la cour de Prusse par le ministre (3 vols., 1789-1795); and an "Auto- biographical Sketch " published by Hopke in Schmidt's Zeitschrift fur Geschichtswissenschaft, i. (1843). (2) Works dealing specially with Hertzberg: Mirabeau, Histoire secrete de la cour de Berlin (1788); P. F. Weddigen, Hertzbergs Leben (Bremen, 1797); E. L. Posselt, Hertzbergs Leben (Tubingen, 1798); H. Lehmann, in Neustettiner Programm (1862); E. Fischer, in Staatsanzeiger (1873); M. Duncker, in Historische Zeitschrift (1877); Paul Bailleu, in Historische Zeit- schrift (1879); and Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (1880); H. Petnch, Pommersche Lebensbilder i. (1880); G. Dressier, Friedrich II. und Hertzberg in ihrer Stellung zu den hollandischen Wirren, Breslauer Dissertation (1882); K. Krauel, Hertzberg als Minister Friedrich Wilhelms II. (Berlin, 1899); F. K. Wittichen, in Historische Vierteljahrschnft, 9 (1906) ; A. Th. Preuss, Ewald Friedrich, Graf von Hertzberg (Berlin, 1909). (3) General works: F. K. Wittichen, Preussen und England, 1785-1788 (Heidelberg, 1902) ; F. Luckwaldt, Die englisch-preussische Allianz von 1788 in den Forschungen zur brandenburgisch-preussischen Geschichte, Bd. 15, and in the Delbruckfestschrift (Berlin, 1908) ; L. Sevin, System der preussischen Geheimpolitik 1790—1791 (Heidelberger Dissertation, 1903) ; P. Wittichen, Die polnische Politik Preussens 1788-1790 (Berlin, 1899); F. Andreae, Preussische und russische Politik in Polen 1787-1780 (Berliner Dissertation, 1905) ; also W. Wenck, Deulschland vor 100 Jahren (2 vols., 1887, 1890); A. Harnack, Geschichte der preussischen Akademie (4 vols., 1899); Consentius, Preussische Jahrbucher (1904); J. Hashagen, " Hertzbergs Verhalt- nis zur deutschen Literatur," in Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philologie for 1903. . (J. HN.) HERTZEN, ALEXANDER (1812-1870), Russian author, was born at Moscow, a very short time before the occupation of that city by the French. His father, Ivan Yakovlef , after a personal interview with Napoleon, was allowed to leave, when the invaders arrived, as the bearer of a letter from the French to the Russian emperor. His family attended him to the Russian lines. Then the mother of the infant Alexander (a young German Protestant of Jewish extraction from Stuttgart, according to A. von Wurzbach), only seventeen years old, and quite unable to speak Russian, was forced to seek shelter for some time in a peasant's hut. A year later the family returned to Moscow, where Hertzen passed his youth — remaining there, after completing his studies at the university, till 1834, when he was arrested and tried on a HERULI 403 charge of having assisted, with some other youths, at a festival during which verses by Sokolovsky, of a nature uncomplimentary to the emperor, were sung. The special commission appointed to try the youthful culprits found him guilty, and in 1835 he was banished to Viatka. There he remained till the visit to that city of the hereditary grand-duke (afterwards Alexander II.), accompanied by the poet Joukofsky, led to his being allowed to quit Viatka for Vladimir, where he was appointed editor of the official gazette of that city. In 1840 he obtained a post in the ministry of the interior at St Petersburg; but in consequence of having spoken too frankly about a death due to a police officer's violence, he was sent to Novgorod, where he led an official life, with the title of " state councillor," till 1842. In 1846 his father died, leaving him by his will a very large property. Early in 1847 he left Russia, never to return. From Italy, on hearing of the revolution of 1848, he hastened to Paris, whence he after- wards went to Switzerland. In 1852 he quitted Geneva for London, where he settled for some years. In 1864 he returned to Geneva, and after some time went to Paris, where he died on the 2ist of January 1870. His literary career began in 1842 with the publication of an essay, in Russian, on Dilettantism in Science, under the pseudonym of " Iskander," the Turkish form of his Christian name — con- victs, even when pardoned, not being allowed in those days to publish under their own names. His second work, also in Russian, was his Letters on the Study of Nature (1845-1846). In 1847 appeared his novel Klo Vinovat? (Whose Fault?), and about the same time were published in Russian periodicals the stories which were afterwards collected and printed in London in 1854, under the title of Prervannuie Razskazui (Interrupted Tales). In 1850 two works appeared, translated from the Russian manuscript, Vom anderen Ufer (From another Shore) and Lettres de France et d'llalie. In French appeared also his essay Du Developpement des idees revolutionnaires en Russie, and his Memoirs, which, after being printed in Russian, were translated under the title of Le Monde russe el la Revolution (3 vols., 1860- 1862), and were in part translated into English as My Exile to Siberia (2 vols., 1855)- From a literary point of view his most important work is Kto Vinovat? a story describing how the domestic happiness of a young tutor, who marries the unacknow- ledged daughter of a Russian sensualist of the old type, dull, ignorant and genial, is troubled by a Russian sensualist of the new school, intelligent, accomplished and callous, without there being any possibility of saying who is most to be blamed for the tragic termination. But it was as a political writer that Hertzen gained the vast reputation which he at one time enjoyed. Having founded in London his " Free Russian Press," of the fortunes of which, during ten years, he gave an interesting account in a book published (in Russian) in 1863, he issued from it a great number of Russian works, all levelled against the system of government prevailing in Russia. Some of these were essays, such as his Baptized Property, an attack on serfdom; others were periodical publications, the Polyarnaya Zvyezda (or Polar Star), the Kolokol (or Bell), and the Colosa iz Rossii (or Voices from Russia) . The Kolokol soon obtained an immense circulation, and exercised an extraordinary influence. For three years, it is true, the founders of the " Free Press " went on printing, " not only without selling a single copy, but scarcely being able to get a single copy introduced into Russia "; so that when at last a bookseller bought ten shillings' worth of Baptized Property, the half-sovereign was set aside by the surprised editors in a special place of honour. But the death of the emperor Nicholas in 1855 produced an entire change. Hertzen's writings, and the journals he edited, were smuggled wholesale into Russia, and their words resounded throughout that country, as well as all over Europe. Their influence became overwhelming. Evil deeds long hidden, evil-doers who had long prospered, were suddenly dragged into light and disgrace. His bold and vigorous language aptly expressed the thoughts which had long been secretly stirring Russian minds, and were now beginning to find a timid utterance at home. For some years his influence in Russia was a living force, the circulation of his writings was a vocation zealously pursued. Stories tell how on one occasion a merchant, who had bought several cases of sardines at Nijni-Novgorod, found that they contained forbidden print instead of fish, and at another time a supposititious copy of the Kolokol was printed for the emperor's special use, in which a telling attack upon a leading statesman, which had appeared in the genuine number, was omitted. At length the sweeping changes introduced by Alexander II. greatly diminished the need for and appreciation of Hertzen's assistance in the work of reform. The freedom he had demanded for the serfs was granted, the law-courts he had so long denounced were remodelled, trial by jury was established, liberty was to a great extent conceded to the press. It became clear that Hertzen's occupation was gone. When the Polish insurrection of 1863 broke out, and he pleaded the insurgents' cause, his reputation in Russia received its death-blow. From that time it was only with the revolutionary party that he was in full accord. In 1873 a collection of his works in French was commenced in Paris. A volume of posthumous works, in Russian, was published at Geneva in 1870. His Memoirs supply the principal information about his life, a sketch of which appears also in A. von Wurzbach's Zeitgenossen, pt. 7 (Vienna, 1871). See also the Revue des deux mondes for July 15 and Sept. I, 1854. Kto Vinovat? has been trans- lated into German under the title of Wer ist schuld? in Wolffsohn's Russlands Novellendichter, vol. iii. The title of My Exile in Siberia is misleading; he was never in that country. (W. R. S.-R.) HERULI, a Teutonic tribe which figures prominently in the history of the migration period. The name does not occur in writings of the first two centuries A.D. Where the original home of the Heruli was situated is never clearly stated. Jordanes says that they had been expelled from their territories by the Danes, from which it may be inferred that they belonged either to what is now the kingdom of Denmark, or the southern portion of the Jutish peninsula. They are mentioned first in the reign of Gallienus (260-268), when we find them together with the Goths ravaging the coasts of the Black Sea and the Aegean. Shortly afterwards, in A.D. 289, they appear in the region about the mouth of the Rhine. During the 4th century they frequently served together with the Batavi in the Roman armies. In the sth century we again hear of piratical incursions by the Heruli in the western seas. At the same time they had a kingdom in central Europe, apparently in or round the basin of the Elbe. Together with the Thuringi and Warni they were called upon byTheodoric the Ostrogoth about the beginning of the 6th century to form an alliance with him against the Prankish king Clovis, but very shortly afterwards they were completely overthrown in war by the Langobardi. A portion of them migrated to Sweden, where they settled among the Gotar, while others crossed the Danube and entered the Roman service, where they are frequently mentioned later in connexion with the Gothic wars. After the middle of the 6th century, however, their name completely disappears. It is curious that in English, Prankish and Scandin- avian works they are never mentioned, and there can be little doubt that they were known, especially among the western Teutonic peoples, by some other name. Probably they are identical either with the North Suabi or with the luti. The name Heruli itself is identified by many with the A.S. eorlas (nobles), O.S.erlos (men), the singular of which (erilaz) frequently occurs in the earliest Northern inscriptions, apparently as a title of honour. The Heruli remained heathen until the overthrow of their kingdom, and retained many striking primitive customs. When threatened with death by disease or old age, they were required to call in an executioner, who stabbed them on the pyre. Suttee was also customary. They were entirely devoted to war. fare and served not only in the Roman armies, but also in those of all the surrounding nations. They disdained the use of helmets and coats of mail, and protected themselves only with shields. See Georgius Syncellus; Mamertinus Paneg. Maximi; Ammianus Marcellinus; Zosimus i. 39; Idatius, Chronica; Jordanes, De origine Getarum; Procopius, esp. Bellum Goticum, ii. 14 f. ; Bellum Persicum, ii. 25; Paulus Diaconus, Hist. Langobardorum, i. 20; K. Zeuss, Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstumme, pp. 476 ff. (Munich, 1837). (F. G. M. B.) HERVAS Y PANDURO— HERVEY OF ICKWORTH HERVAS Y PANDURO, LORENZO (1735-1809), Spanish philologist, was born at Horcajo (Cuenca) on the loth of May 1735. He joined the Jesuits on the agth of September 1745 and in course of time became successively professor of philosophy and humanities at the seminaries of Madrid and Murcia. When the Jesuit order was banished from Spain in 1767, Hervas settled at Forli, and devoted himself to the first part of his Idea del- l' Universe (22 vols., 1778-1792). Returning to Spain in 1798, he published his famous Caldlogo de las lenguas de las naciones conocidas (6 vols., 1800-1805), in which he collected the philo- logical peculiarities of three hundred languages and drew up grammars of forty languages. In 1802 he was appointed librarian of the Quirinal Palace in Rome, where he died on the 24th of August 1809. Max Miiller credits him with having anticipated Humboldt, and with making " one of the most brilliant dis- coveries in the history of the science of language " by establishing the relation between the Malay and Polynesian family of speech. HERVEY, JAMES (1714-1758), English divine, was born at Hardingstone, near Northampton, on the 26th of February 1714, and was educated at the grammar school of Northampton, and at Lincoln College, Oxford. Here he came under the influence of John Wesley and the Oxford methodists; ultimately, however, while retaining his regard for the men and his sympathy with their religious aims, he adopted a thoroughly Calvinistic creed, and resolved to remain in the Anglican Church. Having taken orders in 1737, he held several curacies, and in 1752 succeeded his father in the family livings of Weston Favell and Collingtree. He was never robust, but was a good parish priest and a zealous writer. His style is often bombastic, but he displays a rare appreciation of natural beauty, and his simple piety made him many friends. His earliest work, Meditations and Contempla- tions, said to have been modelled on Robert Boyle's Occasional Reflexions on various Subjects, within fourteen years passed through as many editions. Theron and Aspasio, or a series of Letters upon the most important and interesting Subjects, which appeared in 1755, and was equally well received, called forth some adverse criticism even from Calvinists, on account of tendencies which were considered to lead to antinomianism, and was strongly objected to by Wesley in his Preservative against unsettled Notions in Religion. Besides carrying into England the theological disputes to which the Marrow of Modern Divinity had given rise in Scotland, it also led to what is known as the Sandemanian controversy as to the nature of saving faith. Hervey died on the 25th of December 1758. A " new and complete " edition of his Works, with a memoir, appeared in 1797. See also Collection of the Letters of James Hervey, to which is prefixed an account of his Life and Death, by Dr Birch (1760). HERVEY DE SAINT DENYS, MARIE JEAN LEON, MARQUIS D' (1823-1892), French Orientalist and man of letters, was born in Paris in 1823. He devoted himself to the study of Chinese, and in 1851 published his Recherches sur I' agriculture et I' horti- culture des Chinois, in which he dealt with the plants and animals that might be acclimatized in the West. At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 he acted as commissioner for the Chinese exhibits; in 1874 he succeeded Stanislas Julien in the chair of Chinese at the College de France; and in 1878 he was elected a member of the Academic des Inscriptions et de Belles-Lettres. His works include Poesies de I'epoque des T'ang (1862), translated from the Chinese; Ethnographic des peuples etrangers a la Chine, translated from Ma-Touan-Lin (1876-1883); Li-Sao (1870), from the Chinese; Memoires sur les doctrines religieuse; de Confucius et de I'ecole des leltres (1887); and translations of some Chinese stories not of classical interest but valuable for the light they throw on oriental custom. Hervey de Saint Denys also trans- lated some works from the Spanish, and wrote a history of the Spanish drama. He died in Paris on the 2nd of November 1892. HERVEY OF ICKWORTH, JOHN HERVEY, BARON (1696- 1743), English statesman and writer, eldest son of John, ist earl of Bristol, by his second marriage, was born on the i3th of October 1696. He was educated at Westminster school and at Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he took his M.A. degree in 1715. In 1716 his father sent him to Paris, and thence to Hanover to pay his court to George I. He was a frequent visitor at the court of the prince and princess of Wales at Richmond, and in 1720 he married Mary Lepell, who was one of the princess's ladies-in-waiting, and a great court beauty. In 1723 he received the courtesy title of Lord Hervey on the death of his half-brother Carr, and in 1725 he was elected M.P. for Bury St Edmunds. He had been at one time on very friendly terms with Frederick, prince of Wales, but from 1731 he quarrelled with him, apparently because they were rivals in the favour of Anne Vane. These differences probably account for the scathing picture he draws of the prince's callous conduct. Hervey had been hesitating between William Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) andWalpole, but in 1730 he definitely took sides with Walpole, of whom he was thenceforward a faithful adherent. He was assumed by Pulteney to be the author of Sedition and Defamation displayed with aDedicatlon tothe patrons of 'TheCraflsman(\i 31)- Pulteney, who, up to this time, had been a firm friend of Hervey, replied with A Proper Reply to a late Scurrilous Libel, and the quarrel resulted in a duel from which Hervey narrowly escaped with his life. Hervey is said to have denied the authorship of both the pamphlet and its dedication, but a note on the MS. at Ickworth, apparently in his own hand, states that he wrote the latter. He was able to render valuable service to Walpole from his influence over the queen. Through him the minister governed Queen Caroline and indirectly George II. Hervey was vice-chamberlain in the royal household and a member of the privy council. In 1733 he was called to the House of Lords by writ in virtue of his father's barony. In spite of repeated requests he received no further preferment until after 1740, when he became lord privy seal. After the fall of Sic Robert Walpole he was dismissed (July 1742) from his office. An excellent political pamphlet, Miscellaneous Thoughts on the present Posture of Foreign and Domestic Affairs, shows that he still retained his mental vigour, but he was liable to epilepsy, and his weak appearance and rigid diet were a constant source of ridicule to his enemies. He died on the sth of August 1743. He predeceased his father, but three of his sons became successively earls of Bristol. Hervey wrote detailed and brutally frank memoirs of the court of George II. from 1727 to 1737. He gave a most unflattering account of the king, and.of Frederick, prince of Wales, and their family squabbles. For the queen and her daughter, Princess Caroline, he had a genuine respect and attachment, and the princess's affection for him was commonly said to be the reason for the close retirement in which she lived after his death. The MS. of Hervey's memoirs was preserved by the family, but his son, Augustus John, 3rd earl of Bristol, left strict injunctions that they should not be published until after the death of George III. In 1848 they were published under the editorship of J. W. Croker, but the MS. had been subjected to a certain amount of mutilation before it came into his hands. Croker also softened in some cases the plainspokenness of the original. Hervey's bitter account of court life and intrigues resembles in many points the memoirs of Horace Walpole, and the two books corroborate one another in many statements that might otherwise have been received with suspicion. Until the publication of the Memoirs Hervey was chiefly known as the object of savage satire on the part of Pope, in whose works he figured as Lord Fanny, Sporus, Adonis and Narcissus. The quarrel is generally put down to Pope's jealousy of Hervey's friendship with Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. In the first of the Imitations of Horace, addressed to William Fortescue, "Lord Fanny " and " Sappho " were generally identified with Hervey and Lady Mary, although Pope denied the personal intention. Hervey had already been attacked in the Dunciad and the Bathos, and he now retaliated. There is no doubt that he had a share in the Verses to the Imitator of Horace (1732) and it is possible that he was the sole author. In the Letter from a noble- man at Hampton Court to a Doctor of Divinity (17 33), he scoffed at Pope's deformity and humble birth. Pope's reply was a Letter to a Noble Lord, dated November 1733, and the portrait of Sporus in the Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot (1735), which forms the prologue to HERVIEU— HERZL 405 the satires. Many of the insinuations and insults contained in it are borrowed from Pulteney's libel. The malicious caricature of Sporus does Hervey great injustice, and he is not much better treated by Horace Walpole, who in reporting his death in a letter (i4th of August 1743) to Horace Mann, said he had outlived his last inch of character. Nevertheless his writings prove him to have been a man of real ability, condemned by Walpole's tactics and distrust of able men to spend his life in court intrigue, the weapons of which, it must be owned, he used with the utmost adroitness. His wife Lady Hervey [Molly Lepell] (1700-1768), of whom an account is to be found in Lady Louisa Stuart's Anecdotes, was a warm partisan of the Stuarts. She retained her wit and charm throughout her life, and has the distinction of being the recipient of English verses by Voltaire. See Hervey 's Memoirs of the Court of George II., edited by J. W. Croker (1848); and an article by G. F. Russell Barker in the Diet. Nat. Biog. (vol. xxvi., 1891). Besides the Memoirs he wrote numerous political pamphlets, and some occasional verses. HERVIEU, PAUL (1857- ), French dramatist and novelist, was born at Neuilly (Seine) on the 2nd of November 1857. He was called to the bar in 1877, and, after serving some time in the office of the president of the council, he qualified for the diplomatic service, but resigned on his nomination in 1881 to a secretaryship in the French legation in Mexico. He contributed novels, tales and essays to the chief Parisian papers and reviews, and published a series of clever novels, including L'Inconnu (1887), Flirl( 1890), L'Exorcisee (1891), Peinls pareux-ntemes(i8g^),a.n ironical study written in the form of letters, and L' Armature (1895), dramatized in 1905 by Eugene Brieux. But his most important work con- sists of a series of plays: Les Paroles restent (Vaudeville, I7th of November 1892); Les Tenailles (Theatre Francais, 28th of September 1895); La Loi de I'homme (Theatre Francais, i$th of February 1897); La Course du flambeau (Vaudeville, I7th of April 1901); Point de lendemain (Odeon, i8th of October 1901), a dramatic version of a story by Vivaut Denon; L'Enig.r.e (Theatre Francais, 5th of November 1901); Theroigne de Mericourt (Theatre Sarah Bernhardt, 23rd of September 1902); Le Dedale (Theatre Frangais, i gth of December 1903) , and Le Reveil (Theatre Francais, i8th of December 1905). These plays are built upon a severely logical method, the mechanism of which is sometimes so evident as to destroy the necessary sense of illusion. The closing words of La Course du flambeau — "Pour mafitte, j'aitulmamere " — are an example of his selection of a plot representing an extreme theory. The riddle in L'Engime (staged at Wyndham's Theatre, London, March ist 1902,33 Caesar' sWife) is, however, worked out with great art, and Le Dedale, dealing with the obstacles to the remarriage of a divorced woman, is reckoned among the master- pieces of the modern French stage. He was elected to the French Academy in 1900. See A. Binet, in L'Annee psychologique, vol. x. Hervieu's Theatre was published by Leraerre (3 vols., 1900—1904). HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, KARL EBERHARD (1796- 1884), Prussian general field-marshal, came of an aristocratic family which had supplied many distinguished officers to the Prussian army. He entered the Guard infantry in 1811, and served through the War of Liberation (1813-15), distinguishing himself at Lutzen and Paris. During the years of peace he rose slowly to high command. In the Berlin revolution of 1848 he was on duty at the royal palace as colonel of the ist Guards. Major-general in 1852, and lieutenant-general in 1856, he received the grade of general of infantry and the command of the VHth (Westphalian) Army Corps in 1860. In the Danish War of 1864 he succeeded to the command of the Prussians when Prince Frederick Charles became commander-in-chief of the Allies, r.nd it was under his leadership that the Prussians forced the passage into Alsen on the 29th of June. In the war of 1866 Herwarth commanded the " Army of the Elbe " which overran Saxony and invaded Bohemia by the valley of the Elbe and Iser. His troops won the actions of Huhnerwasser and Munchengratz, and at Koniggratz formed the right wing of the Prussian army. Herwarth himself directed the battle against the Austrian left flank. In 1870 he was not employed in the field, but was in charge of the scarcely less important business of organizing and forwarding all the reserves and material required for the armies in France. In 1871 his great services were recognized by promotion to the rank of field-marshal. The rest of his life was spent in retirement at Bonn, where he died in 1884. Since 1889 the i3th (ist Westphalian) Infantry has borne his name. See G. F. M. Herwarth von Bittenfeld (Miinster, 1896). HERWEGH, GEORG (i8i7-:875), German political poet, was born at Stuttgart on the 3 ist of May 181 7, the son of a restaurant keeper. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native city, and in 1835 proceeded to the university of Tubingen as a theo- logical student, where, with a view to entering the ministry, he entered the protestant theological seminary. But the strict discipline was distasteful; he broke the rules and was expelled in 1836. He next studied law, but having gained the interest of August Lewald (1793-1871) by his literary ability, he returned to Stuttgart, where Lewald obtained for him a journalisitic post. Called out for military service, he had hardly joined his regiment when he committed an act of flagrant insubordination, and fled to Switzerland to avoid punishment. Here he published his Gedichte eines Lebendigen (1841), a volume of political poems, which gave expression to the fervent aspirations of the German youth of the day. The work immediately rendered him famous, and although confiscated, it soon raft through several editions. The idea of the book was a refutation of the opinions of Prince Piickler-Muskau (q.v.) in his Briefe eines Verstorbenen. He next proceeded to Paris and in 1842 returned to Germany, visiting Jena, Leipzig, Dresden and Berlin — a journey which was described as being a " veritable triumphal progress." His military insubordination appears to have been forgiven and forgotten, for in Berlin King Frederick William IV. had him introduced to him and used the memorable words: " ich Hebe eine gesinnungsvolle Opposition" ("I admire an opposition, when dictated by principle.") Herwegh next returned tc Paris, where he published in 1844 the second volume of his Gedichte eines Lebendigen, which, like the first volume, was confiscated by the German police. At the head of a revolutionary column of German working men, recruited in Paris, Herwegh took an active part in the South German rising in 1848; but his raw troops were defeated on the 27th of April at Schopfheim in Baden and, after a very feeble display of heroism, he just managed to escape to Switzerland, where he lived for many years on the proceeds of his literary productions. He was later (1866) permitted to return to Germany, and died at Lichtenthal near Baden-Baden on the 7th of April 1875. A monument was erected to his memory there in 1904. Besides the above-mentioned works, Herwegh pub- lished Einundzwanzig Bogen aus der Sckweiz (1843), and transla- tions into German of A. de Lamartine's works and of seven of Shakespeare's plays. Posthumously appeared Neue Gedichte (1877). Herwegh's correspondence was published by his son Marcel in 1898. See also Johannes Scherr, Georg Herwegh; literarische und politische Blatter (1843); and the article by Franz Muncker in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic. HERZB£RG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, situated under the south-western declivity of the Harz, on the Sieber, 25 m. N.W. from Nordhausen by the railway to Osterode-Hildesheim. Pop. (1905) 3896. It contains an Evan- gelical and a Roman Catholic church, and a botanical garden, and has manufactures of cloth and cigars, and weaving and dyeing works. The breeding of canaries is extensively carried on here and in the district. On a hill to the south-west of the town lies the castle of Herzberg, which in 1157 came into the possession of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and afterwards was one of the residences of a branch of the house of Brunswick. HERZBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the Schwarze Elster, 25 m. S. from Juterbog by the railway Berlin-Roderau-Dresden. It has a church (Evangelical) dating from the I3th century and a medieval town hall. Its industries include the founding and turning of metal, agricultural machinery and boot-making. Pop. (1905) 4°43- HERZL, THEODOR (1860-1904), founder of modern political Zionism (v 'Ojuwoy /cat 'HoLodov, the contest of song between Homer and Hesiod at the funeral games held in honour of King Amphidamas at Chalcis. This little tract belongs to the time of Hadrian, who is actually mentioned as having been present during its recitation, but is founded on an earlier account by the sophist Alcidamas (q.T.). Quotations (old and new) are made from the works of both poets, and, in spite of the sympathies of the audience, the judge decides in favour of Hesiod. Certain biographical details of Homer and Hesiod are also given. A strong characteristic of Hesiod's style is his sententious and proverbial philosophy (as in Works and Days, 24-25, 40, 218, 345, 371). There is naturally less of this in the Theogony, yet there too not a few sentiments take the form of the saw or adage. He has undying fame as the first of didactic poets (see DIDACTIC POETRY), the accredited systematizer of Greek mythology and the rough but not unpoetical sketcher of the lines on which Virgil wrought out his exquisitely finished Georgia. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Complete works : Editio princeps (Milan, 1493); Gottling-Flach (1878), with full bibliography up to date of publica- tion; C. Sittl (1889), with introduction and critical and explanatory notes in Greek; F. A. Paley (1883); A. Rzach (1902), including the fragments. Separate works: Works and Days: Van Lennep (1847); A. Kirchhoff (1889); A. Steitz, Die Werke und Tage des Hesiodos (1869), dealing chiefly with the composition and arrange- ment of the poem; G. Wlastoff, Promethee, Pandore, et la Ugende des siecles (1883). Theogony: Van Lennep (1843); F. G. Welcker (1865), valuable edition; G. F. Schomann (1868), with text, critical notes and exhaustive commentary; H. Flach, Die Hesiodische Theogonie (1873), with prolegomena dealing chiefly with the digamma in Hesiod, System der Hesiodischen Kosmogonie (1874), and Classen und Scholien zur Theogonie (1876); Meyer, De compositione Theogoniae (1887). Shield of Heracles: Wolf-Ranke (1840); Van Lennep-Hullemann (1854) ; F. Stegemann, De scuti Herculis Hesiodei poeta Homeri carminum imitator e (1904); the fragments were published by W. Marckscheffel in 1840; for the Aydiv 'O^pov (ed. A. Rzach, 1908) see F. Nietzsche in Rheinisches Museum (new series), xxy. p. 528. For papyrus fragments of the " Catalogue," some 50 lines on the wooing of Helen, and a shorter fragment in praise of Peleus, see Wilamowitz-Mollendorff in Sitzungsber. der konigl. preuss. Akad. der Wissenschaften, for 26th of July 1900; for fragments relating to Meleager and the suitors of Helen, Berliner Klassikertexte, v. (1907) ; of the Theogony, Oxyrh. Pap. vi. (1908). On the subject generally, consult G. F. Schomann, Opuscula, ii. (1857); H. Flach, Die Hesiodischen Gedichte (1874); A. Rzach, Der Dialekt des Hesiodos (1876); P. O. Gruppe, Die griechischen Kulte und Mythen, i. (1887); O. Friedel, Die Sage vom Tode Hesiods (1879), from Jahrbucher fur classische Philologie (loth suppl. Band, 1879); J. Adam, Religious Teachers of Greece (1908). There is a full bibliography of the publications relating to Hesiod (1884-1898) by A. Rzach in Bursian's Jahresbericht liber die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, xxvii. (1900). 1 Part of the poem was called Eoiai, because the description of each heroine began with fl OITJ, " or like as." (See Bibliography.) There are translations of the Hesiodic poems in English by Cooke (1728), C. A. Elton (1815), J. Banks (1856), and specially by A. W. Mair, with introduction and appendices (Oxford Library of Transla- tions, 1908) ; in German (metrical version) with valuable intro- ductions and notes by R. Peppmuller (1896) and in other modern languages. (J. DA.; J. H. F.) HESPERIDES, in Greek mythology, maidens who guarded the golden apples which Earth gave Hera on her marriage to Zeus. According to Hesiod (Theogony, 215) they were the daughters of Erebus and Night; in later accounts, of Atlas and Hesperis, or of Phorcys and Ceto (schol. on Apoll. Rhod. iv. 1399; Diod. Sic. iv. 27) They were usually supposed to be three in number — Aegle, Erytheia, Hesperis (or Hesperethusa) ; according to some, four, or even seven. They lived far away in the west at the borders of Ocean, where the sun sets. Hence the sun (according to Mimnermus ap. Athenaeum xi. p. 470) sails in the golden bowl made by Hephaestus from the abode of the Hesperides to the land where he rises again. According to other accounts their home was among the Hyperboreans. The golden apples grew on a tree guarded by Ladon, the ever- watchful dragon. The sun is often in German and Lithuanian legends described as the apple that hangs on the tree of the nightly heaven, while the dragon, the envious power, keeps the light back from men till some beneficent power takes it from him. Heracles is the hero who biings back the golden apples to mankind again. Like Perseus, he first applies to the Nymphs, who help him to learn where the garden is. Arrived there he slays the dragon and carries the apples to Argos; and finally, like Perseus, he gives them to Athena. The Hesperides are, like the Sirens, possessed of the gift of delightful song. The apples appear to have been the symbol of love and fruitfulness, and are introduced at the marriages of Cadmus and Harmonia and Peleus and Thetis. The golden apples, the gift of Aphrodite to Hippomenes before his race with Atalanta, were also plucked from the garden of the Hesperides. HESPERUS (Gr. "Eo-xepos, Lat. Vesper), the evening star, son or brother of Atlas. According to Diodorus Siculus (iii. 60, iv. 27), he ascended Mount Atlas to observe the motions of the stars, and was suddenly swept away by a whirlwind. Ever afterwards he was honoured as a god, and the most brilliant star in the heavens was called by his name. Although as a mytho- logical personality he is regarded as distinct from Phosphoros or Heosphoros (Lat. Lucifer), the morning star or bringer of light, the son of Astraeus (or Cephalus) and Eos, the two stars were early identified by the Greeks. Diog. Lae'rt. viii. I. 14; Cicero, De nat. deorum, ii. 20; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ii. 6 [8]. HESS, the name of a family of German artists. HEINRICH MARIA HESS (1798-1863) — von Hess, after he received a patent of personal nobility — was born at Diisseldorf and brought up to the profession of art by his father, the engraver Karl Ernst Christoph Hess (1755-1828). Karl Hess had already acquired a name when in 1806 the elector of Bavaria, having been raised to a kingship by Napoleon, transferred the Diisseldorf academy and gallery to Munich. Karl Hess accompanied the academy to its new home, and there continued the education of his children. In time Heinrich Hess became sufficiently master of his art to attract the attention of King Maximilian. He was sent with a stipend to Rome, where a copy which he made of Raphael's Parnassus, and the study of great examples of monumental design, probably caused him to become a painter of ecclesiastical subjects on a large scale. In 1828 he was made professor of painting and director of all the art collections at Munich. He decorated the Aukirche, the Glyptothek and the Allerheiligencapelle at Munich with frescoes; and his cartoons were selected for glass windows in the cathedrals of Cologne and Regensburg. Then came the great cycle of frescoes in the basilica of St Boniface at Munich, and the monumental picture of the Virgin and Child enthroned between the four doctors, and receiving the homage of the four patrons of the Munich churches (now in the Pinakothek). His last work, the " Lord's Supper," was found unfinished in his atelier after his death in 1863. Before testing his strength as a composer Heinrich Hess HESS— HESSE 409 tried genre, an example of which is the Pilgrims entering Rome, now in the Munich gallery. He also executed portraits, and twice had sittings from Thorwaldsen (Pinakothek and Schack collections). But his fame rests on the frescoes representing scenes from the Old and New Testaments in the Allerheiligen- capelle, and the episodes from the life of St Boniface and other German apostles in the basilica of Munich. Here he holds rank second to none but Overbeck in monumental painting, being always true to nature though mindful of the traditions of Christian art, earnest and simple in feeling, yet lifelike and powerful in expression. Through him and his pupils the sentiment of religious art was preserved and extended in the Munich school. PETER HESS (1792-1871) — afterwards von Hess — was born at Diisseldorf and accompanied his younger brother Heinrich Maria to Munich in 1806. Being of an age to receive vivid impressions, he felt the stirring impulses of the time and became a painter of skirmishes and battles. In 1813-1815 he was allowed to join the staff of General Wrede, who commanded the Bavarians in the military operations which led to the abdication of Napoleon ; and there he gained novel experiences of war and a taste for extensive travel. In the course of years he successively visited Austria, Switzerland and Italy. On Prince Otho's election to the Greek throne King Louis sent Peter Hess to Athens to gather materials for pictures of the war of liberation. The sketches which he then made were placed, forty in number, in the Pina- kothek, after being copied in wax on a large scale (and little to the edification of German feeling) by Nilsen, in the northern arcades of the Hofgarten at Munich. King Otho's entrance into Nauplia was the subject of a large and crowded canvas now in the Pinakothek. which Hess executed in person. From these, and from battlepieces on a scale of great size in the Royal Palace, as well as from military episodes executed for the czar Nicholas, and the battle of Waterloo now in the Munich Gallery, we gather that Hess was a clever painter of horses. His con- ception of subject was lifelike, and his drawing invariably correct, but his style is not so congenial to modern taste as that of the painters of touch. He finished almost too carefully with thin medium and pointed tools; and on that account he lacked to a certain extent the boldness of Horace Vernet, to whom he was not unaptly compared. He died suddenly, full of honours, at Munich, in April 1871. Several of his genre pictures, horse hunts, and brigand scenes may be found in the gallery of Munich. KARL HESS (1801-1874), the third son of Karl Christoph Hess, born at Diisseldorf, was also taught by his father, who hoped that he would obtain distinction as an engraver. Karl, however, after engraving one plate after Adrian Ostade, turned to painting under the guidance of Wagenbauer of Munich, and then studied under his elder brother Peter. But historical composition proved to be as contrary to his taste as engraving, and he gave, himself exclusively at last to illustrations of peasant life in the hill country of Bavaria. He became clever alike in representing the people, the animals and the landscape of the Alps, and with constant means of reference to nature in the neighbourhood of Reichenhall, where he at last resided, he never produced anything that was not impressed with the true stamp of a kindly realism. Some of his pictures in the museum of Munich will serve as examples of his manner. He died at Reichenhall on the 1 6th of November 1874. UESS, HEINRICH HERMANN JOSEF, FREIHERR VON (1788-1870), Austrian soldier, entered the army in 1805 and was soon employed as a staff officer on survey work. He distinguished himself as a subaltern at Aspern and Wagram, and in 1813, as a captain, again served on the staff. In 1815 he was with Schwarz- enberg. He had in the interval between the two wars been employed as a military commissioner in Piedmont, and at the peace resumed this post, gaining knowledge which later proved invaluable to the Austrian army. In 1831, when Radetzky became commander-in-chief in Austrian Italy, he took Hess as his chief-of-staff, and thus began the connexion between two famous soldiers which, like that of Blucher and Gneisenau, is a classical example of harmonious co-operation of commander and chief-of-staff. Hess put into shape Radetzky's military ideas, in the form of new drill for each arm, and, under their guidance, the Austrian army in North Italy, always on a war footing, became the best in Europe. From 1834 to 1848 Hess was employed in Moravia, at Vienna, &c., but, on the outbreak of revolution and war in the latter year, was at once sent out to Radetzky as chief-of-staff. In the two campaigns against King Charles Albert which followed, culminating in the victory of Novara, Hess's assistance to his chief was made still more valuable by his knowledge of the enemy, and the old field-marshal acknowledged his services in general orders. Lieut.-Fieldmarshal Hess was at once promoted Feldzeugmeister, made a member of the emperor's council, and Freiherr, assuming at the same time the duties of the quartermaster-general. Next year he became chief of the staff to the emperor. He was often employed in missions to variouscapitals, and he appeared in the fieldin 1854 at the head of the Austrian army which intervened so effectually In the Crimean war. In 1859 he was sent to Italy after the early defeats. He became field-marshal in 1860, and a year later, on resigning his position as chief-of-staff, he was made captain of the Trabant guard. He died in Vienna in 1870. See " General Hess " in Lebensgeschicktlichen Hinrissen (Vienna, 1855). HESSE (Lat. Hessia, Ger. Hessen), a grand duchy forming a state of the German empire. It was known until 1866 as Hesse- Darmstadt, the history of which is given under a separate heading below. It consists of two main parts, separated from each other by a narrow strip of Prussian territory. The northern part is the province of Oberhessen; the southern consists of the contiguous provinces of Starkenburg and Rheinhessen. There are also eleven very small exclaves, mostly grouped about Homburg to the south-west of Oberhessen; but the largest is Wimpfen on the north-west frontier of Wiirttemberg. Oberhessen is hilly; though of no great elevation it extends over the water-parting between the basins of the Rhine and the Weser, and in the Vogelsberg it has as its culminating point the Taufstein (2533 ft.). In the north-west it includes spurs of the Taunus. Between these two systems of hills lies the fertile undulating tract known as the Wetteraii, watered by the Wetter, a tributary of the Main. • Starkenburg occupies the angle between the Main and the Rhine, and in its south-eastern part includes some of the ranges of the Odenwald, the highest part beingthe Seidenbucher Hohe (1965 ft.). Rheinhessen is separated from Starkenburg by the Rhine, and has that river as its northern as well as its eastern frontier, though it extends across it at the north-east corner, where the Rhine, on receiving the Main, changes its course abruptly from south to west. The territory consists of a fertile tract of low hills, rising towards the south-west into the northern extremity of the Hardt range, but at no point reaching a height of more than 1050 ft. The area and population of the three provinces of Hesse are as follow: Oberhessen Starkenburg . Rheinhessen . Total Area. Population. sq. m. 1895- 1905- 1267 1169 530 27L524 444,562 322,934 296,755 542,996 369,424 2966 1 ,039,020 1,209,175 The chief towns of the grand duchy are Darmstadt (the capital) and Offenbach in Starkenburg, Mainz and Worms in Rheinhessen and Giessen in Oberhessen. More than two-thirds of the inhabitants are Protestants; the majority of the remainder are Roman Catholics, and there are about 25,000 Jews. The grand duke is head of the Protestant church. Education is compulsory, the elementary schools being communal, assisted by state grants. There are a university at Giessen and a technical high school at Darmstadt. Agriculture is important, more than three-fifths of the total area being under cultivation. The largest grain crops are rye and barley, and nearly 40,000 acres are under vines. Minerals, in which Oberhessen is much richer HESSE-CASSEL than the two other provinces, include iron, manganese, salt and some coal. The constitution dates from 1820, but was modified in 1856, 1862, 1872 and 1000. There are two legislative chambers. The upper consists of princes of the grand-ducal family, heads of mediatized houses, the head of the Roman Catholic and the superintendent of the Protestant church, the chancellor of the university, two elected representatives of the land-owning nobility, and twelve members nominated by the grand duke. The lower chamber consists of ten deputies from large town? and forty from small towns and rural districts. They are indirectly elected, by deputy electors (Wahlmanner) nominated by the electors, who must be Hessians over twenty-five years old, paying direct taxes. The executive ministry of state is divided into the departments of the interior, justice and finance. The three provinces are divided for local administration into 18 circles and 989 communes. The ordinary revenue and expenditure amount each to about £4,000,000 annually, the chief taxes being an income-tax, succession duties and stamp tax. The public debt, practically the whole of which is on railways, amounted to £i9,°97,4°8 in 1907. History. — The name of Hesse, now used principally for the grand duchy formerly known as Hesse-Darmstadt, refers to a country which has had different boundaries and areas at different times. The name is derived from that of a Prankish tribe, the Hessi. The earliest known inhabitants of the country were the Chatti, who lived here during the ist century A.D. (Tacitus, Germania, c. 30), and whose capital, Mattium on the Eder, was burned by the Romans about A.D. 15. " Alike both in race and language," says Walther Schultze, " the Chatti and the Hessi are identical." During the period of the V olkerwanderung many of these people moved westward, but some remained behind to give their name to the country, although it was not until the 8th century that the word Hesse came into use. Early Hesse was the district around the Fulda, the Werra, the Eder and the Lahn, and was part of the Prankish kingdom both during Merovingian and during Carolingian times. Soon Hessegau is mentioned, and this district was the headquarters of Charlemagne during his campaigns against the Saxons. By the treaty of Verdun in 843 it fell to Louis the German, and later it seems to have been partly in the duchy of Saxony and partly in that of Franconia. The Hessians were converted to Christianity mainly through the efforts of St Boniface; their land was included in the arch- bishopric of Mainz; and religion and culture were kept alive among them largely owing to the foundation of the Benedictine abbeys of Fulda and Hersfeld. Like other parts of Germany during the gth century Hesse felt the absence of a strong central power, and, before the time of the emperor Otto the Great, several counts, among whom were Giso and Werner, had made themselves practically independent; but after the accession of Otto in 936 the land quietly accepted the yoke of the medieval emperors. About 1120 another Giso, count of Gudensberg, secured possession of the lands of the Werners; on his death in 1137 his daughter and heiress, Hedwig, married Louis, land- grave of Thuringia; and from this date until 1247, when the Thuringian ruling family became extinct, Hesse formed part of Thuringia. The death of Henry Raspe, the last landgrave of Thuringia, in 1247, caused a long war over the disposal of his lands, and this dispute was not settled until 1264 when Hesse, separated again from Thuringia, was secured by his niece Sophia (d. 1284), widow of Henry II., duke of Brabant. In the following year Sophia handed over Hesse to her son Henry (1244-1308), who, remembering the connexion of Hesse and Thuringia, took the title of landgrave, and is the ancestor of all the subsequent rulers of the country. In 1292 Henry was made a prince of the Empire, and with him the history of Hesse properly begins. For nearly 300 years the history of Hesse is comparatively uneventful. The land, which fell into two main portions, upper Hesse round Marburg, and lower Hesse round Cassel, was twice divided between two members of the ruling family, but no per- manent partition took place before the Reformation. A Landtag was first called together in 1387, and the landgraves were con- stantly at variance with the electors of Mainz, who had large temporal possessions in the country. They found time, however, to increase the area of Hesse. Giessen, part of Schmalkalden, Ziegenhain, Nidda and, after a long struggle, Katzenelnbogen were acquired, while in 1432 the abbey of Hersfeld placed itself under the protection of Hesse. The most noteworthy of the landgraves were perhaps Louis I. (d. 1458), a candidate for the German throne in 1440, and William II. (d. 1509), a comrade of the German king, Maximilian I. In 1509 William's young son, Philip (q.v.), became landgrave, and by his vigorous personality brought his country into prominence during the religious troubles of the i6th century. Following the example of his ancestors Philip cared for education and the general welfare of his land, and the Protestant university of Marburg, founded in 1527, owes to him its origin. When he died in 1567 Hesse was divided between his four sons into Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, Hesse-Marburg and Hesse-Rheinfels. The lines ruling in Hesse- Rheinfels and Hesse-Marburg, or upper Hesse, became extinct in 1583 and 1604 respectively, and these lands passed to the two remaining branches of the family. The small landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg was formed in 1622 from Hesse-Darmstadt. After the annexation of Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Homburg by Prussia in 1866 Hesse-Darmstadt remained the only independent part of Hesse, and it generally receives the common name. Hesse-Philippsthal is an offshoot of Hesse-Cassel, and was founded in 1685 by Philip (d. 1721), son of the Landgrave William VI. In 1909 the representative of this family was the Landgrave Ernest (b. 1846). Hesse-Barchfeld was founded in 1721 by Philip's son, William (d. 1761), and in 1909 its repre- sentative was the Landgrave Clovis (b. 1876). The lands of both these princes are now mediatized. Hesse-Nassau is a province of Prussia formed in 1866 from part of Hesse-Cassel and part of the duchy of Nassau. See H. B. Wenck, Hessische Landesgeschichte (Frankfort, 1783- 1803); C. von Rommel, Geschichte von Hesse (Cassel, 1820-1858); F. Miinscher, Geschichte von Hesse (Marburg, 1894); F. Gundlach, Hesse und die Mainzer Stiftsfehde (Marburg, 1899); Walther, Literarisches Handbuch fur Geschichte und Landeskunde von Hesse (Darmstadt, 1841; Supplement, 1850-1869); K. Ackermann, Bibliotheca Hessiaca (Cassel, 1884-1899); Hoffmeister, Historisch- genealogisches Handbuch uber alle Linien des Regentenhauses Hesse (Marburg, 1874), and the Zeitschrift des Vereins fur hessische Geschichte (1837-1904). HESSE-CASSEL (in German Kurhessen, i.e. Electoral Hesse), now the government district of Cassel in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau. It was till 1866 a landgraviate and electorate of Germany, consisting of several detached masses of territory, to the N.E. of Frankfort-on-the-Main. It contained a superficial area of 3699 sq. m., and its population in 1864 was 745,063. History. — The line of Hesse-Cassel was founded by William IV., surnamed the Wise, eldest son of Philip the Magnanimous. On his father's death in 1567 he received one half of Hesse, with Cassel as his capital; and this formed the landgraviate of Hesse- Cassel. Additions were made to it by inheritance from his brother's possessions. His son, Maurice the Learned (1592-1627), turned Protestant in 1605, became involved later in the Thirty Years' War, and, after being forced to cede some of his territories to the Darmstadt line, abdicated in favour of his son William V. (1627-1637), his younger sons receiving apanages which created several cadet lines of the house, of which that of Hesse-Rheinfels- Rotenburg survived till 1834. On the death of William V., whose territories had been conquered by the Imperialists, his widow Amalie Elizabeth, as regent for her son William VI. (1637-1663), reconquered the country and, with the aid of the French and Swedes, held it, together with part of Westphalia. At the peace of Westphalia (1648), accordingly, Hesse-Cassel was augmented by the larger part of the countship of Schaum- burg and by the abbey of Hersfeld, secularized as a principality of the Empire. The Landgravine Amalie Elizabeth introduced the rule of primogeniture. William VI., who came of age in 1650, was an enlightened patron of learning and the arts. He was succeeded by his son William VII., an infant, who died in 1670, and was succeeded by his brother Charles (1670-1730). Charles's, chief claim to remembrance is that he was the first ruler to adopt HESSE-CASSEL 411 the system of hiring his soldiers out to foreign powers as mer- cenaries, as a means of improving the national finances. Frederick I., the next landgrave (1730-1751), had become by marriage king of Sweden, and on his death was succeeded in the landgraviate by his brother William VIII. (1751-1760), who fought as an ally of England during the Seven Years' War. From his successor Frederick II. (1760-1785), who had become a Roman Catholic, 22,000 Hessian troops were hired by England for about £3, 191,000, to assist in the war against the North American colonies. This action, often bitterly criticized, has of late years found apologists (cf. v. Werthern, Die hessischen Hilfstruppen im nordamerika- nischen Unabhiingigkeitskriege, Cassel, 1895). It is argued that the troops were in any case mercenaries, and that the practice was quite common. Whatever opinion may be held as to this, it is certain that Frederick spent the money well: he did much for the development of the economic and intellectual improvement of the country. The reign of the next landgrave, William IX. (1785-1821), was an important epoch in the history of Hesse-Cassel. Ascending the throne in 1785, he took part in the war against France a few years later, but in 1795 peace was arranged by the treaty of Basel. For the loss in 1801 of his possessions on the left bank of the Rhine he was in 1803 compensated by some of the former French territory round Mainz, and at the same time was raised to the dignity of Elector (Kurfilrst) as William I. In 1806 he made a treaty of neutrality with Napoleon, but after the battle of Jena the latter, suspect- ing William's designs, occupied his country, and expelled him. Hesse-Cassel was then added to Jerome Bonaparte's new kingdom of Westphalia; but after the battle of Leipzig in 1813 the French were driven out and on the 2 ist of November the elector returned in triumph to his capital. A treaty concluded by him with the Allies (Dec. 2) stipulated that he was to receive back all his former territories, or their equivalent, and at the same time to restore the ancient constitution of his country. This treaty, so far as the territories were concerned, was carried out by the powers at the congress of Vienna. They refused, however, the elector's request to be recognized as " King of the Chatti " (Konig der Katten), a request which was again rejected at the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818). He therefore retained the now meaningless title of elector, with the predicate of " royal highness." The elector had signalized his restoration by abolishing with a stroke of the pen all the reforms introduced under the French regime, repudiating the Westphalian debt and declaring null and void the sale of the crown domains. Everything was set back to its condition on the ist of November 1806; even the officials had to descend to their former rank, and the army to revert to the old uniforms and powdered pigtails. The estates, indeed, were summoned in March 1815, but the attempt to devise a constitution broke down; their appeal to the federal diet at Frankfort to call the elector to order in the matter of the debt and the domains came to nothing owing to the inter- vention of Metternich; and in May 1816 they were dissolved, never to meet again. William I. died on the 27th of February 1821, and was succeeded by his son, William II. Under him the constitutional crisis in Hesse-Cassel came to a head. He was arbitrary and avaricious like his father, and moreover shocked public sentiment by his treatment of his wife, a popular Prussian princess, and his relations with his mistress, one Emilie Ortlopp, created countess of Reichenbach,' whom he loaded with wealth. The July revolution in Paris gave the signal for disturbances; the elector was forced to summon the estates; and on the sth of January 1831 a constitution on the ordinary Liberal basis was signed. The elector now retired to Hanau, appointed his son Frederick William regent, and took no further part in public affairs. The regent, without his father's coarseness, had a full share of his arbitary and avaricious temper. Constitutional restric- tions were intolerable to him; and the consequent friction with the diet was aggravated when, in 1832, Hassenpflug (q.v.) was placed at the head of the administration. The whole efforts of the elector and his minister were directed to nullifying the constitutional control vested in the diet; and the Opposition was fought by manipulating the elections, packing the judicial bench, and a vexatious and petty persecution of political " suspects," and this policy continued after the retirement of Hassenpflug in 1837. The situation that resulted issued in the revolutionary year 1848 in a general manifestation of public discontent; and Frederick William, who had become elector on his father's death (November 20, 1847), was forced to dismiss his reactionary ministry and to agree to a comprehensive pro- gramme of democratic reform. This, however, was but short- lived. After the breakdown of the Frankfort National Parlia- ment, Frederick William joined the Prussian Northern Union, and deputies from Hesse-Cassel were sent to the Erfurt parlia- ment. But as Austria recovered strength, the elector's policy changed. On the 23rd of February 1850 Hassenpflug was again placed at the head of the administration and threw himself with renewed zeal into the struggle against the constitution and into opposition to Prussia. On the 2nd of September the diet was dissolved; the taxes were continued by electoral ordinance; and the country was placed under martial law. It was at once clear, however, that the elector could not depend on his officers or troops, who remained faithful to their oath to the constitution. Hassenpflug persuaded the elector to leave Cassel secretly with him, and on the isth of October appealed for aid to the recon- stituted federal diet, which willingly passed a decree of " inter- vention. " On the ist of November an Austrian and Bavarian force marched into the electorate. This was a direct challenge to Prussia, which under conventions with the elector had the right to the use of the military roads through Hesse that were her sole means of communication with her Rhine provinces. War seemed imminent; Prussian troops also entered the country, and shots were actually exchanged between the outposts. But Prussia was in no condition to take up the challenge; and the diplomatic contest that followed issued in the Austrian triumph at Olmiitz (1851). Hesse was surrendered to the federal diet; the taxes were collected by the federal forces, and all officials who refused to recognize the new order were dismissed. In March 1852 the federal diet abolished the constitution of 1831, together with the reforms of 1848, and in April issued a new provisional constitution. The new diet had, under this, very narrow powers; and the elector was free to carry out his policy of amassing money, forbidding the con- struction of railways and manufactories, and imposing strict orthodoxy on churches and schools. In 1855, however, Hassen- .pflug — who had returned with the elector — was dismissed; and five years later, after a period of growing agitation, a new constitution was granted with the consent of the federal diet (May 30, 1860). The new chambers, however, demanded the constitution of 1831 ; and, after several dissolutions which always resulted in the return of the same members, the federal diet decided to restore the constitution of 1831 (May 24, 1862). This had been due to a threat of Prussian occupation; and it needed another such threat to persuade the elector to reassemble the chambers, which he had dismissed at the first sign of opposi- tion; and he revenged himself by refusing to transact any public business. In 1866 the end came. The elector, full of grievances against Prussia, threw in his lot with Austria; the electorate was at once overrun with Prussian troops; Cassel was occupied (June 20) ; and the elector was carried a prisoner to Stettin. By the treaty of Prague Hesse-Cassel was annexed to Prussia. The elector Frederick William (d. 1875) had been, by the terms of the treaty of cession, guaranteed the entailed property of his house. This was, however, sequestered in 1868 owing to his intrigues against Prussia; part of the income was paid, however, to the eldest agnate, the landgrave Frederick (d. 1884), and part, together with certain castles and palaces, was assigned to the cadet lines of Philippsthal and Philippsthal- Barchfeld. See K. W. Wippermann, Kurhessen seit den Freiheitskriegen (Cassel, 1850); Roth, Geschichte von Hessen-Kassel (Cassel, 1856; 2nd ed. continued by Stamford, 1883-1885); H. Grafe, Der Ver- fassungskampf in Kurhessen (Leipzig, 1851) and works under HESSE. 412 HESSE-DARMSTADT— HESSE-HOMBURG HESSE-DARMSTADT, a grand-duchy in Germany, the history of which begins with the partition of Hesse in 1567. George I. (1547-1597), the youngest son of the landgrave Philip, received the upper county of Katzenelnbogen, and, selecting Darmstadt as his residence, became the founder of the Hesse-Darmstadt line. Additions to the landgraviate were made both in the reigns of George and of his son and successor, Louis V. (1577- 1626), but in 1622 Hesse-Homburg was cut off to form an apanage for George's youngest son, Frederick (d. 1638). Although Louis V., who founded the university of Giessen in 1607, was a Lutheran, he and his son, George II. (1605-1661), sided with the im- perialists in the Thirty Years' War, during which Hesse-Darm- stadt suffered very severely from the ravages of the Swedes. In this struggle Hesse-Cassel took the other side, and the rivalry between the two landgraviates was increased by a dispute over Hesse-Marburg, the ruling family of which had become extinct in 1604. This quarrel was interwoven with the general thread of the Thirty Years' War, and was not finally settled until 1648, when the disputed territory was divided between the two claim- ants. Louis VI. (d. 1678), a careful and patriotic prince, followed the policy of the three previous landgraves, but the anxiety of his son, Ernest Louis (d. 1739), to emulate the French court under Louis XIV. led his country into debt. Under Ernest Louis and his son and successor, Louis VIII. (d. 1768), another dispute occurred between Darmstadt and Cassel; this time it was over the succession to the county of Hanau, which was eventually divided, Hesse-Darmstadt receiving Lichtenberg. During the i8th century the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War dealt heavy blows at the prosperity of the landgraviate, which was always loyal to the house of Austria. Louis IX. (1719-1790). who served in the Prussian army under Frederick the Great, is chiefly famous as the husband of Caroline (1721-1774), " the great landgravine," who counted Goethe, Herder and Grimm among her friends and was described by Frederick the Great as femina sexu, ingenio vir. In April 1790, just after the outbreak of the French Revolution, Louis X. (1753-1830), an educated prince who shared the tastes and friendships of his mother, Caroline, became landgrave. In 1792 he joined the allies against France, but in 1799 he was compelled to sign a treaty of neutrality. In 1803, having formally sur- rendered the part of Hesse on the left bank of the Rhine which had been taken from him in the early days of the Revolution, Louis received in return a much larger district which had formerly belonged to the duchy of Westphalia, the electorate of Mainz and the bishopric of Worms. In 1806, being a member of the confederation of the Rhine, he took the title of Louis I., grand- duke of Hesse; he supported Napoleon with troops from 1805 to 1813, but after the battle of Leipzig he joined the allies. In 1815 the congress of Vienna made another change in the area and boundaries of Hesse-Darmstadt. Louis secured again a district on the left bank of the Rhine, including the cities of Mainz and Worms, but he made cessions of territory to Prussia and to Bavaria and he recognized the independence of Hesse- Homburg, which had recently been incorporated with his lands. However, his title of grand-duke was confirmed, and as grand- duke of Hesse and of the Rhine he entered the Germanic con- federation. Soon the growing desire for liberty made itself felt in Hesse, and in 1820 Louis gave a constitution to the land; various forms were carried through; the system of government was reorganized, and in 1828 Hesse-Darmstadt joined the Prussian Zolherein. Louis I., who did a great deal for the welfare of his country, died on the 6th of April 1830, and was followed on the throne by his son, Louis II. (1777-1848). This grand-duke had some trouble with his Landtag, but, dying on the i6th of June 1848, he left his son, Louis III. (1806-1877), to meet the fury of the revolutionary year 1848. Many conces- sions were made to the popular will, but during the subsequent reaction these were withdrawn, and the period between 1850 and 1871, when Karl Friedrich Reinhard, Freiherr von Dalwigk (1802-1880), was chiefly responsible for the government of Hesse- Darmstadt, was one of repression, although some benefits were conferred upon the people. Dalwigk was one of Prussia's enemies, and during the war of 1866 the grand-duke fought on the Austrian side, the result being that he was compelled to pay a heavy indemnity and to cede certain districts, including Hesse-Homburg, which he had only just acquired, to Prussia. In 1867 Louis entered the North German Confederation, but only for his lands north of the Main, and in 1871 Hesse-Darmstadt became one of the states of the new German empire. After the withdrawal of Dalwigk from public life at this time a more liberal policy was adopted in Hesse. Many reforms in ecclesi- astical, educational, financial and administrative matters were introduced, and in general the grand-duchy may be said to have passed largely under the influence of Prussia, which, by an arrangement made in 1896, controls the Hessian railway system. The constitution of 1820, subject to four subsequent modifica- tions, is still the law of the land, the legislative power being vested in two chambers and the executive power being exercised by the three departments of the ministry of state. Since the annexation of Hesse-Cassel by Prussia in 1866 the grand-duchy has been known simply as Hesse. Louis III. died on the i3th of June 1877, and was succeeded by his nephew, Louis IV. (1837-1892), a son-in-law of Queen Victoria; he died on the I3th of March 1892, and was succeeded by his son, Ernest Louis (b. 1868). This grand-duke's marriage with Victoria (b. 1876), daughter of Alfred, duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was dissolved in 1901. The union was childless, and consequently in 1902 a law regulating the succession was passed. By this the landgrave Alexander Frederick (b. 1863), the representative of the family which ruled Hesse-Cassel until 1866, was declared the heir to Hesse in case the grand-duke died without sons. However, in 1905 Ernest Louis married Elenore, princess of Solms-Hohensolms-Lich (b. 1871), by whom he had a son George (b. 1906). See L. Baur, Urkunden zur hessischen Land.es-, Orts- und Familien- geschichte (Darmstadt, 1846-1873); Steiner, Geschichte des Gross- herzogtums Hessen (Darmstadt, 1833-1834); Klein, Das Gruss- herzogtum Hessen (Mainz, 1861); Ewald, Historische Ubersicht der Territoriaherdnderungen der Landgrafschaft Hessen und des Gross- herzogtums Hessen (Darmstadt, 1872); F. Soldan, Geschichte des Grossherzogtums Hessen (Giessen, 1896); H. Heppe, Kirchengeschichte beider Hessen (Marburg, 1876-1878); C. Hessler, Geschichte von Hessen (Cassel, 1891), and Hessische Landes- und Volkskunde (Marburg, 1904-1906) ; F. Kuchler, A. E. Braun and A. K. Weber, Verfassungs-und Verwaltungsrecht des Grossherzogtums Hessen (Darm- stadt, 1894-1897); H. Kunzel, Grossherzogtum Hessen (Giessen, 1893); and W. Zeller, Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung im Grossherzogtum Hessen (Darmstadt, 1885-1893). See also Archil! fur hessische Geschichte und Altertumskunde (Darmstadt, 1894 fol.) and Hessisches Urkundenbuch (Leipzig, 1879 fol.). HESSE-HOMBURG, formerly a small landgraviate in Germany. It consisted of two parts, the district of Homburg on the right side of the Rhine, and the district of Meisenheim, which was added in 1815, on the left side of the same river. Its area was about 100 sq. m., and its population in 1864 was 27,374. Homburg now forms part of the Prussian province of Hesse- Nassau, and Meisenheim of the province of the Rhine. Hesse- Homburg was formed into a separate landgraviate in 1622 by Frederick I. (d. 1638), son of George I., landgrave of Hesse- Darmstadt, although it did not become independent of Hesse- Darmstadt until 1 768. By two of Frederick's sons it was divided into Hesse-Homburg and Hesse-Homburg-Bingenheim; but these parts were again united in 1681 under the rule of Frederick's third son, Frederick II. (d. 1708). In 1806, during the long reign of the landgrave Frederick V., which extended from 1751 to 1820, Hesse-Homburg was mediatized, and incorporated with Hesse-Darmstadt; but in 1815 by the congress of Vienna the latter state was compelled to recognize the independence of Hesse-Homburg, which was increased by the addition of Meisen- heim. Frederick V. joined the German confederation as a sovereign prince in 1817, and after his death his five sons in succession filled the throne. The last of these, Ferdinand, who succeeded in 1848, granted a liberal constitution to his people, but cancelled it during the reaction of 1852. When he died on the 24th of March 1866, Hesse-Homburg was inherited by Louis III., grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, while Meisenheim fell to Prussia. In the following September, however, Louis HESSE-NASSAU— HESSUS 4*3 was forced to cede his new possession to Prussia, as he had supported Austria during the war between these two powers. See R. Schwartz, Landgraf Friedrich V. von Hessen-Homburg und seine Familie (1878); and von Herget, Das landgrafliche Haus Hamburg (Homburg, 1903). HESSE-NASSAU (Ger. Hessen-Nassau), a province of Prussia, bounded, from N. to E., S. and W., successively by Westphalia, Waldeck, Hanover, the province of Saxony, the Thuringian States, Bavaria, Hesse and the Rhine Province. There are small detached portions in Waldeck, Thuringia, &c.; on the other hand the province enclaves the province of Oberhessen belonging to the grand-duchy of Hesse, and the circle of Wetzlar belonging to the Rhine Province. Hesse-Nassau was formed in 1867-1868 out of the territories which accrued to Prussia after the war of 1866, namely, the landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel and the duchy of Nassau, in addition to the greater part of the territory of Frankfort-on-Main, parts of the grand-duchy of Hesse, the territory of Homburg and the countship of Hesse- Homburg, together with certain small districts which belonged to Bavaria. It is now divided into the governments of Cassel and Wiesbaden, the second of which consists mainly of the former territory of Nassau (?.».). The province has an area of 6062 sq. m., and had a population in 1905 of 2,070,052, being the fourth most densely populated province in Prussia, after Berlin, the Rhine Province and Westphalia. The east and north parts lie in the basin of the river Fulda, which near the north-eastern boundary joins with the Werra to form the Weser. The Main forms part of the southern boundary, and the Rhine the south-western; the western part of the province lies mostly in the basin of the Lahn, a tributary of the Rhine. The province is generally hilly, the highest hills occurring in the east and west. The Fulda rises in the Wasserkuppe (3117 ft.), an eminence of the Rhonge- birge, the highest in the province. In the south-west are the Taunus, bordering the Main, and the Westerwald, west of the Lahn, in which the highest points respectively are the Grosser Feldberg (2887 ft.) and the Fuchskauten (2155 ft.). The congeries of small groups of lower hills in the north are known as the Hessische Bergland. The province is not notably well suited to agriculture, but in forests it is the richest in Prussia, and the timber trade is large. The chief trees are beech, oak and conifers. Cattle- breeding is extensively practised. The vine is cultivated chiefly on the slopes of the Taunus, in the south-west, where the names of several towns are well known for their wines — Schierstein, Erbach (Marcobrunner), Johannisberg, Geisenheim, Riidesheim, Assmannshausen. Iron, coal, copper and manganese are mined. The mineral springs are important, including those at Wiesbaden, Homburg, Langenschwalbach, Nenndorf, Schlan- genbad and Soden. The chief manufacturing centres are Cassel, Diez, Eschwege, Frankfort, Fulda, Gross Almerode, Hanau and Hersfeld. The province is divided for administration into 42 circles (Kreise), 24 in the government of Cassel and 18 in that of Wiesbaden. It returns 14 representatives to the Reichstag. Marburg is the seat of a university. HESSE-ROTENBURG, a German landgraviate which was broken up in 1834. In 1627 Ernest (1623-1693), a younger son of Maurice, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel (d. 1632), received Rheins- fels and lower Katzenelnbogen as his inheritance, and some years later, on the deaths of two of his brothers, he added Eschwege, Rotenburg, Wanfried and other districts to hi* possessions. Ernest, who was a convert to the Roman Catholic Church, was a great traveller and a voluminous writer. About 1700 his two sons, William (d. 1725) and Charles (d. 1711), divided their territories, and founded the families of Hesse-Rotenburg and Hesse-Wanfried. The latter family died out in 1755, when William's grandson, Constantine (d. 1778), reunited the lands except Rheinfels, which had been acquired by Hesse-Cassel in 1735, and ruled them as landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg. At the peace of Luneville in 1801 the part of the landgraviate on the left bank of the Rhine was surrendered to France, and in 1815 other parts were ceded to Prussia, the landgrave Victor Amadeus being compensated by the abbey of Corvey and the Silesian duchy of Ratibor. Victor was the last male member of his family, so, with the consent of Prussia, he bequeathed his allodial estates to his nephews the princes Victor and Chlodwig of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfiirst (see HOHENLOHE). When the landgrave died on the i2th of November 1834 the remaining parts of Hesse-Rotenburg were united with Hesse- Cassel according to the arrangement of 1627. It may be noted that Hesse-Rotenburg was never completely independent of Hesse-Cassel. Perhaps the most celebrated member of this family was Charles Constantine (1752-1821), a younger son of the landgrave Constantine, who was called " citoyen Hesse," and who took part in the French Revolution. HESSIAN, the name of a jute fabric made as a plain cloth, in various degrees of fineness, width and quality. The common, or standard, hessian is 40 in. wide, weighs io| oz. per yd., and in the finished state contains about 12 threads and 12^ picks per in. The name is probably of German origin, and the fabric was originally made from flax and tow. Small quantities of cloth are still made from yarns of these fibres, but the jute fibre, owing to its comparative cheapness, has now almost supplanted all others. This useful cloth is employed in countless ways, especially for packing all kinds of dry goods, while large quantities, of different qualities, are made up into bags for sugar, flour, coffee, grain, ore, manure, sand, potatoes, onions, &c. Indeed, bags made from one or other quality of this cloth, or from sacking, bagging or tarpaulin, form the most convenient, and at the same time the cheapest covering for any kind of goods which are not damaged by being crushed. Certain types are specially treated, dyed black, tan or other colour, or left in their natural colour, stiffened and used for paddings and linings for cheap clothing, boots, shoes, bags and other articles. When dyed in art shades the cloth forms an attractive decoration for stages and platforms, and generally for any temporary erection, and in many cases it is stencilled and then used for wall decoration. The great linoleum industry depends upon certain types of this fabric for the foundation of its products, while large quantities are used for the backs of fringe rugs, spring mattresses and the upholstery of furniture. The great centres for the manufacture of this fabric are Dundee and Calcutta, and every variety of the cloth, and all kinds of hand- and machine-sewn, as well as seamless bags, are made in the former city. The American name for hessian is burlap; this particular kind is 40 in. wide, and is now largely made in Calcutta as well as in Dundee and other places. HESSUS, HELIUS EOBANUS (1488-1540), German Latin poet, was born at Halgehausen in Hesse-Cassel, on the 6th of January 1488. His family name is said to have been Koch; Eoban was the name of a local saint ; Hcssus indicates the land of his birth, Helius the fact that he was born on Sunday. In 1504 he entered the university of Erfurt, and soon after his graduation was appointed rector of the school of St Severus. This post he soon lost, and spent the years 1509-1513 at the court of the bishop of Riesenburg. Returning to Erfurt, he was reduced to great straits owing to his drunken and irregular habits. At length (in 1517) he was appointed professor of Latin in the university. He was prominently associated with the distinguished men of the time (Johann Reuchlin, Conrad Peutinger, Ulrich von Hutten, Conrad Mutianus), and took part in the political, religious and literary quarrels of the period, finally declaring in favour of Luther and the Reformation, although his subsequent corduct showed that he was actuated by selfish motives. The university was seriously weakened by the growing popularity of the new university of Wittenberg, and Hessus endeavoured (but without success) to gain a living by the practice of medicine. Through the influence of Camerarius and Melanchthon, he obtained a post at Nuremberg (1526), but, finding a regular life distasteful, he again went back to Erfurt (1533). But it was not the Erfurt he had known; his old friends were dead or had left the place; the university was deserted. A lengthy poem gained him the favour 414 HESTIA— HESYCHIUS of the landgrave of Hesse, by whom he was summoned in 1536 as professor of poetry and history to Marburg, where he died on the 5th of October 1 540. Hessus, who was considered the foremost Latin poet of his age, was a facile verse-maker, but not a true poet. He wrote what he thought was likely to pay or secure him the favour of some important person. He wrote local, historical and military poems, idylls, epigrams and occasional pieces, collected under the title of Sylvae. His most popular works were translations of the Psalms into Latin distichs (which reached forty editions) and of the Iliad into hexameters. His most original poem was the Heroides in imitation of Ovid, consist- ing of letters from holy women, from the Virgin Mary down to Kunigunde, wife of the emperor Henry II. His Epistolae were edited by his friend Camerarius, who also wrote his life (1553). There are later accounts of him by M. Hertz (1860), G. Schwertzell (1874) and C. Krause (1879); see also D. F. Strauss, Ulrich von Hulten (Eng. trans., 1874). His poems on Nuremberg and other towns have been edited with commentaries and 16th- century illustrations by J. Neff and V. von Loga in M. Herrmann and S. Szamatolski's Lateinische Literaturdenkmdler des XV. u. XVI. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1896). HESTIA, in Greek mythology, the " fire-goddess," daughter of Cronus and Rhea, the goddess of hearth and home. She is not mentioned in Homer, although the hearth is recognized as a place of refuge for suppliants; this seems to show that her worship was not universally acknowledged at the time of the Homeric poems. In post-Homeric religion she is one of the twelve Olympian deities, but, as the abiding goddess of the household, she never leaves Olympus. When Apollo and Poseidon became suitors for her hand, she swore to remain a maiden for ever; whereupon Zeus bestowed upon her the honour of presiding over all sacrifices. To her the opening sacrifice was offered; to her at the sacrificial meal the first and last libations were poured. The fire of Hestia was always kept burning, and, if by any accident it became extinct, only sacred fire produced by friction, or by burning glasses drawing fire from the sun, might be used to rekindle it. Hestia is the goddess of the family union, the personification of the idea of home; and as the city union is only the family union on a large scale, she was regarded as the goddess of the state. In this character her special sanctuary was in the prytaneum, where the common hearth-fire round which the magistrates meet is ever burning, and where the sacred rites that sanctify the concord of city life are performed. From this fire, as the representative of the life of the city, intend- ing colonists took the fire which was to be kindled on the hearth of the new colony. Hestia was closely connected with Zeus, the god of the family both in its external relation of hospitality and its internal unity round its own hearth; in the Odyssey a form of oath is by Zeus, the table and the hearth. Again, Hestia is often associated with Hermes, the two representing home and domestic life on the one hand, and business and outdoor life on the other; or, according to others, the association is local — that of the god of boundaries with the goddess of the house. In later philosophy Hestia became the hearth of the universe — the personification of the earth as the centre of the universe, identified with Cybele and Demeter. As Hestia had her home in the prytaneum, special temples dedicated to her are of rare occurrence. She is seldom represented in works of art, and plays no important part in legend. It is not certain that any really Greek statues of Hestia are in existence, although the Giustiniani Vesta in the Torlonia Museum is usually accepted as such. In this she is represented standing upright, simply robed, a hood over her head, the left hand raised and pointing upwards. The Roman deity corresponding to the Greek Hestia is VESTA (q.v.). See A. Preuner, Hestia-Vesta (1864), the standard treatise on the subject, and his article in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; J. G. Frazer, " The Prytaneum," &c., in Journal of Philology, xiv. (1885); G. Hagemann, De Graecorum prytaneis (1881), with bibliography and notes; Homeric Hymns, xxix., ed. T. W. Allen and E. E. Sikes (1904); Farnell, Cults, the Greek States, v. (1909). HESYCHASTS (ijo-uxaoral or Vvxafoires, from fyri-xos, quiet, also called 6/j.a.\6\f/vxoi, Umbilicanimi, and sometimes referred to as Euchites, Massalians or Palamites), a quietistic sect which arose, during the later period of the Byzantine empire, among the monks of the Greek church, especially at Mount Athos, then at the height of its fame and influence under the reign of Andronicus the younger and the abbacy of Symeon. Owing to various adventitious circumstances the sect came into great prominence politically and ecclesiastically for a few years about the middle of the i4th century. Their opinion and practice will be best represented in the words of one of their early teachers (quoted by Gibbon, Decline and Fall, c. 63) : " When thou art alone in thy cell shut thy door, and seat thyself in a corner; raise thy mind above all things vain and transitory; recline thy beard and chin on thy breast; turn thine eyes and thy thought towards the middle of thy belly, the region of the navel (6ji<£a\6s) ; and search the place of the heart, the seat of the soul. At first all will be dark and comfortless; but if thou persevere day and night, thou wilt feel an ineffable joy; and no sooner has the soul discovered the place of the heart than it is involved in a mystic and ethereal light." About the year 1337 this hesychasm, which is obviously related to certain well-known forms of Oriental mysticism, attracted the attention of the learned and versatile Barlaam, a Calabrian monk, who at that time held the office of abbot in the Basilian monastery of St Saviour's in Constantinople, and who had visited the fraternities of Mount Athos on a tour of inspection. Amid much that he disapproved", what he specially took exception to as heretical and blasphemous was the doctrine entertained as to the nature of this divine light, the fruition of which was the supposed reward of hesychastic contemplation. It was maintained to be the pure and perfect essence of God Himself, that eternal light which had been manifested to the disciples on Mount Tabor at the transfiguration. This Barlaam held to be polytheistic, inasmuch as it postulated two eternal substances, a visible and an invisible God. On the hesychastic side the controversy was taken up by Gregory Palamas, after- wards archbishop of Thessalonica, who laboured to establish a distinction between eternal owLa and eternal tvepytia.. In 1341 the dispute came before a synod held at Constantinople and presided over by the emperor Andronicus; the assembly, influenced by the veneration in which the writings of the pseudo- Dionysius were held in the Eastern Church, overawed Barlaam, who recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming bishop of Hierace in the Latin communion. One of his friends, Gregory Acindynus, continued the controversy, and three other synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the Barlaamites gained a brief victory. But in 1351 under the presidency of the emperor John Cantacuzenus, the uncreated light of Mount Tabor was established as an article of faith for the Greeks, who ever since have been ready to recognize it as an additional ground of separation from the Roman Church. The contemporary historians Cantacuzenus and Nicephorus Gregoras deal very copiously with this subject, taking the Hesychast and Barlaamite sides respectively. It may be mentioned that in the time of Justinian the word hesychast was applied to monks in general simply as descriptive of the quiet and contemplative character of their pursuits. See article " Hesychasten " in Herzog-Hauck, RealencykJopddie (3rd ed., 1900), where further references are given. HESYCHIUS, grammarian of Alexandria, probably flourished in the 5th century A.D. He was probably a pagan; and the explanations of words from Gregory of Nazianzus and other Christian writers (glossae sacrae) are interpolations of a later time. He has left a Greek dictionary, containing a copious list of peculiar words, forms and phrases, with an explanation of their meaning, and often with a reference to the author who used them or to the district of Greece where they were current. Hence the book is of great value to the student of the Greek dialects; while in the restoration of the text of the classical authors generally, and particularly of such writers as Aeschylus and Theocritus, who used many unusual words, its value can hardly be exaggerated. The explanations of many epithets and phrases reveal many important facts about the religion and social life of the ancients. In a prefatory letter Hesychius mentions that his lexicon is based on that of Diogenianus (itself extracted from an earlier work by Pamphilus), HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS— HEUGLIN but that he has also used similar works by Aristarchus, Apion, Heliodorus and others. The text is very corrupt, and the order of the words has often been disturbed. There is no doubt that many interpolations, besides the Christian glosses, have been made. The work has come down to us from a single MS., now in the library at Venice, from which the editio princeps was published. The best edition is by M. Schmidt (1858-1868); in a smaller edition (1867) he attempts to distinguish the additions made by Hesychius to the work of Diogenianus. HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS, Greek chronicler and biographer, surnamed Illustrius, son of an advocate, flourished at Con- stantinople in the 5th century A.D. during the reign of Justinian. According to Photius (cod. 69) he was the author of three important works, (i) A Compendium of Universal History in six books, from Belus, the reputed founder of the Assyrian empire, to Anastasius I. (d. 518). A considerable fragment has been preserved from the sixth book, entitled Hdrpta K